Types of Research Design:

A. Time Orientation

1. Retrospective – study the past that has an outcome in the present

 the outcome of interest has already occurred at the time the study is initiated
 allows the investigator to formulate ideas about possible associations and investigate potential
relationships, although causal statements usually should not be made
 utilizes administrative databases, medical records, or interviews with patients who are already
known to have a disease or condition.
 Why Conduct a Retrospective Study?
 Study a rare outcome for which a prospective study is not feasible.
 Quickly estimate the effect of an exposure on an outcome.
 Obtain preliminary measures of association.

Ex: International Retrospective Study of the Pipeline Embolization Device: A Multicenter Aneurysm
Treatment Study

Albuquerque, F. et al (2015) American Journal of Neuroradiology

We retrospectively evaluated all patients with intracranial aneurysms treated with the Pipeline
Embolization Device between July 2008 and February 2013 in 17 centers worldwide. We defined 4
subgroups: internal carotid artery aneurysms of

10 mm, ICA aneurysms of 10 mm, other anterior circulation aneurysms, and posterior circulation
aneurysms. Neurologic complications

included spontaneous rupture, intracranial hemorrhage, ischemic stroke, permanent cranial neuropathy,
and mortality. Comparisons were

made with t tests or ANOVAs for continuous variables and the Pearson 2 or Fisher exact test for categoric
variables.

2. Cross-sectional – the researcher collects data at one point in time

 Information on current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or practices of individuals.

 Comparison of two or more educational groups in terms of attitudes, beliefs, opinions, or
practices.
 Measurement of community needs for educational services as they related to program, courses,
facilities projects, or involvement in community planning.
 Evaluation of a program in order to provide a useful information to decision-makers.
 Large-scale assessment of students or staff (national or state-wide)

Ex: Beer and Obesity: A Cross-Sectional Study

Bobak M (2003)
We used data from the third Czech MONICA survey in 1992. The details have been described elsewhere
(Bobak et al, 1999); briefly, 1141 men and 1212 women aged 25–64 y, randomly selected from the
population registers of six Czech districts, have been invited to participate in the study. Participants
(response rate 76%) completed a questionnaire, gave a blood sample and underwent a short
examination in a clinic. Anthropometric measurements were taken from subjects undressed to their
underwear and without shoes. Weight was measured using a mechanical scale with precision to the
nearest 1/2 kg, and height was measured by a steel stadiometer to the nearest 1/2 cm. BMI was
calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared. Waist circumference was measured by a plastic
tape at the midpoint between the iliac crest and lowest rib margin and hip circumference was measured
at greater trochanter, both to the nearest 1/2 cm.

Participants reported the frequency of drinking any alcohol, and how much wine, spirits and beer they
consumed during a typical week. Among men, 73% of drinkers drank beer, but no wine or spirits, during
a typical week; this proportion was 62% in women. The association between beer intake and BMI and
WHR was analysed by linear regression, separately in men and in women.

3. Longitudinal

 Longitudinal study is an observational research method.

 DATA GATHERED For the same subjects repeatedly. This can also extend for over years or even
decades.
 MOST COMMON In medicine, psychology, and sociology, where they allow researchers to study
changes over time.

Ex: Footprints in Time is the name given to the Longitudinal Study of Indigenous Children (LSIC), an
initiative of the Australian Government. LSIC is one of a suite of longitudinal studies within the National
Centre for Longitudinal Data (NCLD) in DSS.

The content for each wave of data collection is approved by the Footprints in Time Steering Committee;
ethical clearance for the content and fieldwork processes is obtained from the Human Research Ethics
Committee of the Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies (AIATSIS).

B. Objectives

1. Descriptive

2. Correlational

Measures a relationship between two variables without controlling either of them. It aims to find out
whether there is either:

1. Positive correlation - Both variables change in the same direction

2. Negative Correlation - The variables change in opposite directions3.
3. Zero correlation - There is no relationship between the variables
Ex:

Correlates of Loneliness and Nursing Home Admission Among Rural Older Adults (Russell, 1997)

The Relationship of Reassurance-seeking to Stress (Joiner, 1998)

The Relationship of Gendered Racism and Psychological Distress Among American Women

3. Comparative

✘ essentially compares two groups in an attempt to draw a conclusion about them. (Richardson,
2018)

✘ Researchers attempt to identify and analyze similarities and differences between groups, and
these studies are most often cross-national, comparing two separate people groups.

✘ Comparative research enables you to identify and explore the similarities and differences
between chosen phenomena or groups. Your study will focus on different cases, processes and
geographically defined accords, which are comparable. You can use multi-method or mixed
method analysis.

Ex. A Comparative Study of Cognitive and Non-Cognitive Factors Relationship to Academic Success for
Foreign Master’s Students

This study is naturally comparative since the study involves variables which are being compared in order
to arrive at a certain conclusion. This study examined ways to improve the predictability of academic
success in the selection and admission procedures for foreign students, compared to U.S. citizens and
permanent residents. The study examined literature dealing with academic success to determine the
degree to which selected cognitive and non-cognitive variables were related to academic success for
foreign students. An analysis was also conducted to evaluate the differences in verbal percentile scores
between completers and non-completers for U.S. citizens, permanent residents and foreign students.
(Stephenson,2004)

4. Evaluative

• Is used to determine the impact of a social intervention. A social intervention is an action taken
within a social context designed to produce an intended result.

• Analyzes the impact of a particular program on a certain social problem the program is trying to
solve.

• Ex. The computerized algebra program being used in Williams Middle School has been
installed properly, is being used properly, and student achievement is increasing as a result of
its use.