Volcanism

Volcanism is the process where deep magma erupts onto the surface or emplaces
near the surface through a volcanic conduit, thereby forming various types of
volcanic debris.

From: Volcanic Reservoirs in Petroleum Exploration, 2013

Related terms:

Volcanic Rock, Basalt, Magma, Crust, Reservoir, Sediment, Volcano

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Mud Volcanoes
Leonid A. Buryakovsky, ... Fred Aminzadeh, in Petroleum Geology of the South
Caspian Basin, 2001

Mud volcanism and magmatic volcanism are two varieties of tectonic activity. As
distinct from magmatic volcanism, mud volcanism originates and is manifested
in sedimentary cover of the Earth's crust. The tectonic nature of mud volcanism
is associated with prolonged and steady development of subsiding zones, which
are filled mainly with thick series of sandy-clayey rocks enriched with liquid and
gas. Volcanism in general and mud volcanism, in particular, are closely associated
with plicative, disjunctive and injective dislocations. Areas of volcanic activity are
responsible for the transfer of huge masses of not only fluids but also breccia-plastic
rocks. Thus, mud volcanism is an indicator of, and powerful factor for, transfer,
dispersion, and concentration of rocks, liquids and gases, including oil and natural
gas.

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Earth and Life Processes Discovered
from Subseafloor Environments
Anthony A.P. Koppers, William W. Sager, in Developments in Marine Geology, 2014

Abstract
Volcanism within oceanic plate tectonic boundaries is expansive and complex. This
so-called intraplate volcanism is expansive both in scale and across the geological
record. It ranges from seamounts not taller than a few hundred meters to 5-km high
shield volcanoes covering surface areas equivalent to the state of New Mexico in the
United States. In the oceans, intraplate volcanism spans the last 200 million years
of geological history. Intraplate volcanism is complex because of internal magmatic
processes making up the volcanic structures and its interplay with plate tectonics
and deep Earth mantle geodynamics. Scientific drilling is a crucial tool in gaining
an understanding of intraplate volcanism and its complex evolution. In this chapter,
we will review what we have learned from scientific ocean drilling into oceanic
plateaus (Expedition 324, Shatsky Rise) and hotspot seamount trails (Expedition 330,
Louisville Seamounts) on the oceanic portions of Earth's tectonic plates during the
Integrated Ocean Drilling Program.

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Catastrophe
Claire M. Belcher, Luke Mander, in The Future of the World's Climate (Second
Edition), 2012

Massive Volcanism: Case Study of the Triassic–Jurassic (Tr–J) Event 464

16.2.1.
Introduction 464

16.2.2.
A Definition of the Triassic–Jurassic Boundary 464

16.2.3.
Break-Up of Pangaea and Massive Volcanism at the Tr–J Transition 465

16.2.4.
The Earth’s Physical Environment at the Triassic–Jurassic Transition 465-
16.2.4.1.The Earth’s Atmosphere and Global Temperatures at the Trias-
sic–Jurassic Transition 46516.2.4.2.The Triassic–Jurassic Carbon Cycle 467
16.2.5.
Mass Extinction and Biotic Changes at the Triassic–Jurassic Transition 468

16.2.6.
Relationship Between CAMP Volcanism and Biotic Change at the Tr–J 469-
16.2.6.1.Atmospheric CO2: Rising Temperatures and Plant Extinction 469-
16.2.6.2.Atmospheric CO2: A Biocalcification Crisis at the Tr–J? 47016.2.6.3.- 16.2.7.
Volcanism: Atmospheric Pollution and Global Cooling 471
Summary 471

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Felsic Volcanism Associated with Min-

eralization in the Chester Complex–-
Type Gold Deposits
Ulrich Kretschmar(Late), Derek McBride, in The Metallogeny of Lode Gold Deposits,
2016

6.3.6 Volcanic Environment

Volcanism is bi-modal, and flows emanate from the same vent or vents in close
proximity. The basalts are tholeiitic. The felsic lithologies are calc-alkalic dacite–rhy-
olite and also plot in the field of Archean TTG. Blue quartz eyes are common in
both felsic and gabbroic rocks and suggest a cogenetic origin. Initial felsic volcanism
was followed by an upward increasing proportion of mafic volcanism. The virtual
absence of explosive pyroclastics in the sequence is consistent with deep water
and an intermediate to distal volcanic environment. The abundance of interflow
sediments (GCE units) suggests a relatively flat or low-slope sea-floor environment
and relatively quiescent conditions. The environment seems to have been one of
repeated episodic effusion of either exsolving basalts or felsic flows, followed by
quiescence and formation of interflow chlorite tuffaceous sediments with localized
and low-volume hydrothermal activity. On the other hand, elevated REE, and tour-
maline in peperite matrix suggests higher formation temperatures and a proximal
environment. As well, some quartz veins show well-terminated quartz crystals and
miarolitic cavities that are indicative of shallow formation and boiling conditions on
the sea-floor or in a shallow subsurface environment.

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The Canary Islands: An Introduction

Valentin R. Troll, Juan Carlos Carracedo, in The Geology of the Canary Islands, 2016
Genesis of the Canary Volcanic Provinces
Volcanism in this 800×400 km volcanic belt progressively decreased in age from
the 68-million-year-old Lars Seamount in the Northeast to the 1.2-million-year-old
island of El Hierro in the Southeast (Fig. 1.10A). This sequence is widely interpreted
as originating from a hot spot (Carracedo et al., 1998; Carracedo, 1999; Geldmacher
et al., 2005).

The CVP rests on oceanic crust of Jurassic age (150–170 million years) that formed
during the initial stages of the opening of the Central Atlantic and that represents
some of the oldest crusts in the oceanic basins of the globe with magnetic anomalies
that parallel the continental margin. The Canary alignment, in turn, follows a trend
parallel to that of the Volcanic Province of Madeira (Fig. 1.11). Although the hot
spots are likely unrelated because their different isotopic compositions indicate
independent magmatic sources, the parallel island chains demonstrate the relative
movement of the African Plate during this time interval. The parallel curved path of
both volcanic alignments is notably unrelated to the Atlantic fracture zones, and the
simultaneous volcanism over the past 70 million years, coupled with a similar age
progression for both archipelagos, can only be adequately explained by the hot spot
or fixed mantle plume model (eg, Troll et al., 2015).

Figure 1.11. The Canary and Madeira Volcanic Provinces, including the main islands
and the associated seamounts. The two volcanic chains follow a parallel and curved
trend as the islands formed approximately at the same time and at a similar rate,
consistent with the displacement of the Africa plate above two stationary melting
anomalies.

Modified after Geldmacher et al. (2005).

The Canarian Hot Spot

A wide variety of models have been proposed for the origin of the Canary Islands,
including fractures that give rise to volcanism on cutting through the lithosphere,
generating fusion by decompression, such as a potential fracture propagating from
the Atlas fault (Anguita and Hernán, 1975, 2000Anguita and Hernán, 1975Anguita
and Hernán, 2000). The propagating fracture model opposes the hot spot model and
has been maintained by some scientists for a considerable time. However, the frac-
ture has never been located, even with modern detailed geophysical studies (eg, due
to extensive hydrocarbon prospection). It is therefore compelling that the parallel
trend and the coinciding ages of the volcanic provinces of Madeira and the Canaries
likely bear little connection to the Atlas Mountains. In fact, the most northeastern
edge of the Canarian alignment commences more than 300 km northwest of the
Atlas range and within oceanic, not continental, crust (eg, Geldmacher et al., 2005).

However, fractures cutting through such an old (Mesozoic) section of the lithosphere
could not generate significant volumes of magma by decompression alone (eg,
McKenzie and Bickle, 1988). By contrast, the hot spot or mantle-plume model
(Wilson, 1963) is independent of the lithosphere and volcanism is generated as
a consequence of the existence of a fixed and long-living thermal mantle anom-
aly. As Wilson reasoned, oceanic island alignments originate by relatively focused,
long-lasting, and exceptionally hot mantle regions called hot spots or mantle plumes
that provide localized volcanism. Wilson suggested that once an island has formed,
continuing plate movement eventually carries the island beyond the “hot spot,” thus
cutting it off from the magma source, causing volcanism to cease. As one island
volcano becomes detached from the magma source, another develops over the still
active hot spot, and the cycle is repeated. Therefore, an age progression of the
successive islands along the chain is critical evidence for a fixed-plume origin (Fig.
1.12).
Figure 1.12. A mantle plume can explain the linear younging direction along a
northeast-southwest–oriented path for the Canary Islands (Carracedo et al., 1998),
although the conventional hot spot model cannot readily explain the occurrence
of recent volcanism in Lanzarote, opposite to the inferred location of the present
hot spot. A possible explanation may be the small-scale upper mantle convection
at the edge of the African craton that is interacting with the Canary mantle plume,
which may lead to local eruptive anomalies. Synthesized after Carracedo (1999),
Geldmacher et al. (2005), King (2007), Gurenko et al. (2010).

Although several aspects of this issue have yet to be resolved, the model relating the
genesis of the Canary Islands to a hot spot or fixed mantle plume is also important
to fully explain the erosion levels and spatial distribution of the Canary Islands that
can only be reasonably explained with a hot spot type of model for the archipelago
(eg, Carracedo et al., 1998).

Arguments against a simple Hawaiian-type hot spot model, such as the long volcanic
history of the islands and the fact that volcanism persists even in the older islands
of the archipelago (eg, Lanzarote), have recently been explained by edge-driven
mantle convection (King, 2007; Gurenko et al., 2010), which creates a contact of
hot asthenosphere with colder passive sub-continental mantle domains, in this
case from the African craton. The convection cells generated would move hot and
rising plume material toward the east and northeast also, thus reaching Lanzarote
and hence producing the sporadic eruptions that have taken place in the Eastern
Canaries in recent times. Moreover, Hoernle and Schmincke (1993) proposed a
“blob model” for the Canarian hot spot. According to these authors, the multicycle
evolution of island volcanism and the temporal variations in chemistry and melt
production within each cycle represent dynamic decompression melting of discrete
mantle “blobs” of plume material beneath each island.

New finite-frequency tomographic images from seismic wave velocities now confirm
the existence of deep mantle plumes below a large number of known island clusters
and chains, including the Canaries (Fig. 1.13). The three Macaronesian plumes
(Canaries, Azores, and Cape Verde) are robust deep mantle features appearing as
isolated anomalies down to >1000 km depth, and thus they are likely sourced from
the very deep mantle off the coast of Africa (Montelli et al., 2004, 2006Montelli et
al., 2004Montelli et al., 2006).

Figure 1.13. Three-dimensional view of the melting anomalies (plumes) beneath the
AZ (Azores), CN (Canary), and CV (Cape Verde) archipelagos in both (left) P-wave
and (right) S-wave tomographic models (from Montelli et al., 2004). Note the three
anomalies are traceable down to the core–mantle boundary.

Notably, additional evidence in favor of a mantle plume comes from calcareous nan-
nofossils recently recovered from xeno-pumice erupted during the 2011 submarine
events off El Hierro (see chapter: The Geology of El Hierro). These nannofossils
define the sub-island sedimentary rocks under El Hierro as Cretaceous to Pliocene
in age. These pre-El Hierro sedimentary rocks reach to substantially younger ages
than the Miocene sedimentary strata under the older eastern islands (Fig. 1.14), and
therefore support an age progression among the islands and hence a mantle-plume
as the most probable driver for Canary volcanism (Carracedo et al., 2015a; Troll et
al., 2015; Zazcek et al., 2015).
Figure 1.14. Schematic cross-section through the Canary archipelago and the African
continental margin (thicknesses of sedimentary layers not to scale). Nannofossils in
El Hierro eruptives now demonstrate, in agreement with available radiometric ages
of the oldest subaerial lavas, that progressively younger pre-volcanic sediments are
present in the west of the archipelago, which supports the previously established
onshore age progression and thus provides further evidence in favor of the mantle
plume hypothesis (from Zaczek et al., 2015).

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Planetary Volcanism
Lionel Wilson, in Encyclopedia of the Solar System (Second Edition), 2007

Volcanism is one of the major processes whereby a planet transfers heat produced
in its interior outward to the surface. Volcanic activity has been directly responsible
for forming at least three quarters of the surface rocks of Earth and Venus, all of
the surface materials of Jupiter's satellite Io, and extensive parts of the surfaces of
Mars, Earth's Moon, and probably Mercury. Investigations of the styles of volcanic
activity (e.g., explosive or effusive) on a planet's surface, when viewed in the light of
environmental factors such as atmospheric pressure and acceleration due to gravity,
provide clues to the composition of the erupted magma and hence, indirectly, to the
chemical composition of the interior of the planet and its thermal state and history.
Investigations of volcanic features on other planets have been an important spur to
the development of an understanding of volcanic processes on Earth.

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Planetary Volcanism
Lionel Wilson, in Encyclopedia of the Solar System (Third Edition), 2014
Abstract
Volcanism is a major process whereby a planet transfers heat produced in its interior
outward to the surface. Volcanic activity involving molten rock has been directly
responsible for forming at least three quarters of the surface rocks of Earth and
Venus, all of the surface materials of Jupiter's satellite Io, and extensive parts of the
surfaces of Mars, Earth's Moon, and Mercury. On some icy satellites, liquid water
takes the place of liquid rock in cryo-volcanic activity. Investigations of the styles
of volcanic activity (e.g. explosive or effusive) on a planet's surface, when viewed in
terms of environmental factors such as atmospheric pressure and acceleration due to
gravity, provide clues to the composition of the erupted liquid and hence, indirectly,
to the chemical composition of the interior of the planet and its thermal state and
history. Investigations of volcanic features on other planets have been an important
spur to developing an understanding of volcanic processes on Earth.

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Comparative Planetary Evolution

Kent C. Condie, in Earth as an Evolving Planetary System (Third Edition), 2016

Volcanism
Volcanism is still active on Venus with notable hotspots that deliver heat, magma,
and atmospheric H2O and SO2 (Smrekar et al., 2010). Estimates of eruption age of
many surface flows range from a few thousand years to at most 2.5 Ma. Together with
gravity and topography measurements, the existence of recently active volcanism
supports evidence for active plumes in the mantle. The estimated number of large
mantle plumes of about nine (Figure 10.17) is similar to the number believed to
come from the D layer in Earth in the last 100 Myr. Furthermore, the scale of flows
on the Venusian surface is most consistent with on-going rather than catastrophic
resurfacing models.

Much has been learned about the surface of Venus from scientific missions by the
United States and Russia. The Russian Venera landings on the Venusian surface
have provided data on the structure and composition of the volcanic crust. Results
suggest that the majority of the surface is composed of blocky bedrock surfaces
and less than one-fourth contains porous, soil-like material (McGill et al., 1983).
The Venera landers have also revealed the presence of abundant volcanic features,
complex deformation, and unusual ovoidal features of probable volcanic-tectonic
origin. Reflectance studies of the Venusian surface suggest that iron oxides may
be important components. Partial chemical analyses made by the Venera landers
indicate that basalt is the most important rock type. The high K2O recorded by
Venera 8 and 13 are suggestive of alkali basalt, while the results from the other
Venera landers clearly indicate tholeiitic basalt, perhaps with geochemical affinities
to terrestrial ocean ridge basalts (Figure 10.13). A Venusian crust composed chiefly
of tholeiitic basalt is consistent with the presence of thousands of small shield
volcanoes that occur on the volcanic plains, typically 1-10 km in diameter and with
slopes of about 5°. The size and distribution of these volcanoes resembles terrestrial
ocean island and seamount volcanoes.

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Comparative Planetary Evolution

Kent C. Condie, in Earth as an Evolving Planetary System (Second Edition), 2011

Volcanism
Volcanism is still active on Venus with notable hotspots that deliver heat, magma,
and atmospheric H2O and SO2 (Smrekar et al., 2010). Estimates of the eruption
age of many surface flows range from a few thousand years to at most 2.5 Ma.
Together with gravity and topography measurements, the existence of recently active
volcanism supports evidence for active plumes in the mantle. The estimated number
of large mantle plumes of about nine (Figure 10.15) is similar to the number believed
to come from the D layer in Earth in the last 100 Ma. Furthermore the scale of flows
on the Venusian surface is most consistent with ongoing rather than catastrophic
resurfacing models.

Much has been learned about the surface of Venus from scientific missions by the
United States and Russia. The Russian Venera landings on the Venusian surface
have provided a large amount of data on the structure and composition of the
volcanic crust. Results suggest that the majority of the Venusian surface is com-
posed of blocky bedrock surfaces and less than one-fourth contains porous, soil-like
material (McGill et al., 1983). The Venera landers have also revealed the presence
of abundant volcanic features, complex tectonic deformation, and unusual ovoidal
features of probable volcanic-tectonic origin. Reflectance studies of the Venusian
surface suggest that iron oxides may be important components. Partial chemical
analyses made by the Venera landers indicate that basalt is the most important rock
type. The high K2O recorded by Venera 8 and 13 are suggestive of alkali basalt,
while the results from the other Venera landings clearly indicate tholeiitic basalt,
perhaps with geochemical affinities to terrestrial ocean ridge tholeiites (Figure 10.9).
A Venusian crust composed chiefly of tholeiitic basalt is consistent with the presence
of thousands of small shield volcanoes that occur on the volcanic plains, typically
1–10 km in diameter and with slopes of about 5°. The size and distribution of these
volcanoes resemble terrestrial ocean-island and seamount volcanoes.

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Medical Geology and the Soil

Health-Human Health Nexus
M.L. Brusseau, I.L. Pepper, in Environmental and Pollution Science (Third Edition),
2019

27.1.4 Volcanism
Volcanism and related processes are the primary means by which metals are brought
to the Earth’s surface. Volcanic activity can be a major source of geologic elements.
For example, it is estimated that about 50% of SO2 introduced into the environment
is from natural sources, primarily volcanic activity. The eruption of Pinatubo in 1991
ejected approximately 10 billion tons of magma. Along with the magma, many
elements were introduced into the atmosphere, including approximately (Selinus,
2004):

• 20 million tons of SO2

• 2 million tons of Zn

• 1 million tons of Cu

• 550,000 tons of Cr

• 100,000 tons of Pb

• 30,000 tons of Ni

• 5,500 tons of Cd

• 800 tons of Hg

In addition to introducing elements into the environment, volcanic activity is also

a major source of particulate matter (volcanic ash). Plumes of ash in some cases
can affect areas hundreds of kilometers away from the volcano. Inhalation of ash
particles can lead to adverse respiratory effects. In addition, the presence of ash can
disrupt human activities such as air travel.
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