DIGITAL DATA

TRANSMISSION
By: Dr. Idris Z. Bholebawa
ECED, SVNIT, Surat
Digital Communication System
 The aim of digital data transmission deals with the
problems of transmitting data over the channel.
 The starting messages are assumed to be digital.
 Assume binary case, where the data consists of only
two symbols: 1 and 0.
 In digital data stream, the occurrence of 1’s and 0’s are
not exactly equal.
 Thus, the signal contains very low frequency to high
frequency components.
 The low pass channel is used to transmit the digital data
as per input signal.
 A digital communication system consists several
components:

 The input to a digital system can be the output from

such sources as a data set, a computer, a digitized
voice signal (PCM or DM), etc.
Line Coder
 The digital output of a source encoder is converted (or
coded) into electrical pulses (waveforms) for the
purpose of transmission over the channel. This process is
called as Line Coding or Transmission Coding.
 There are several possible ways of assigning waveforms,
for example,
 ON-OFF: Where ‘1’ is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and ‘0’ is
transmitted by no pulse.
 Polar: Where ‘1’ is transmitted by a pulse p(t) and ‘0’ is
transmitted by a pulse –p(t).
 Bipolar or Pseudoternary or AMI: Where ‘0’ is encoded by
no pulse and ‘1’ is encoded by a pulse p(t) or –p(t).
 Polar scheme is the most power efficient code, since for
a given error probability this code needs the least
power.
 The data, text, numbers, graphical images, audio and
video which are stored in computer memory are in the
form of sequences of bits.
 Line coding converts these sequence into digital signals.

 Important characteristics of line coding:

 Signal level and data level,
 Pulse rate and bit rate,
 DC component,
 Self synchronization.
 Signal Level: The number of values allowed in a
particular signal is defined as the number of signal levels.
 Data Level: The number of values to represent data is
called as the number of data levels.
 Pulse Rate: Pulse rate is defined as the number of pulses
per second and pulse is defined as the minimum
amount of time require to transmit one symbol.
 Bit Rate: Bit rate is defined as the number of bits per
second.
Bit rate = Pulse rate x log2L, where L = signal level

Example: (Find Bit Rate and Pulse Rate)

1. The signal has two data levels with a pulse duration of
0.5 ms.
2. The signal has four data levels with a pulse duration of 1
ms.
 Line Coding and its Properties:
 Efficient Transmission Bandwidth
 Power Efficiency
 Error Detection and Correction Capability
 Favorable Power Spectral Density
 Adequate Timing Content
 Transparency
Various PAM Formats or Line Codes
 Line codes are majorly classified as five schemes:
Unipolar RZ and NRZ
In unipolar format, the waveform has a single
polarity (+5 or +12 volts) when high.
 Unipolar NRZ
 Advantages of Unipolar codes:
 Simplicity in implementation.
 Doesn’t require a lot of BW for transmission.

 Disadvantage of Unipolar codes:

 Presence of DC level.
 Contains low frequency components. Causes “Signal Droop”.
 Does not have any error correction capability.
 No self synchronization.
 Non transparent. Long string of zeros causes loss of
synchronization.
Polar RZ and NRZ
 Polar RZ

If ‘1’ is transmitted, then

If ‘0’ is transmitted, then

 Polar NRZ
 Advantages of Polar codes:
 Simplicity in implementation.
 No DC component.

 Disadvantage of Polar codes:

 Continuous part is non-zero at 0 Hz. Causes ‘Signal Droop’.
 Doesn’t have error correction capability.
 No self synchronization.
 Non transparent.
Bipolar or Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

 The successive 1’s are represented by pulses with

alternate polarity and 0’s by no pulses.
 If there are even number of 1’s, the DC component
would be zero.
 If an error is made in the detection of pulses, the
received pulse sequence will violate the bipolar rule and
error is immediately detected.
 Advantages:
 No DC component.
 Occupies less bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ.
 Does not suffer from signal droop.
 Possesses single error detection capability.

 Disadvantages:
 No self synchronization.
 Non transparent.
Split Phase Manchester (or Manchester)
 Advantages:
 No DC component.
 Does not suffer from signal droop.
 Easy of synchronization.
 Transparent

 Disadvantages:
 Because of greater number of transitions it occupies a
large bandwidth.
 Does not have error detection capability.
Polar Quaternary NRZ Format
 This format is derived to reduce the signaling rate.
 The message bits are grouped in the blocks of two.

Message
x(t)=an
Combination
00 -3A/2
01 -A/2
10 A/2
11 3A/2
 Here, Ts = 2Tb
Thus, signaling rate, r = rb/2 = 1/2Tb
 Performance comparison of various line codes:
Polar
Sr. Parameter of
Polar RZ Polar NRZ AMI Manchester Quaternary
No. Comparison
NRZ
Transmission
1. of DC Yes Yes No No Possible
component
Signaling
2. 1/Tb 1/Tb 1/Tb 1/Tb 1/2Tb
Rate
Noise
3. Low Low High High High
Immunity
Synchronizing Very
4. Poor Poor Very Good Poor
Capability Good
Bandwidth
5. 1/Tb 1/2Tb 1/2Tb 1/Tb 1/2Tb
Requirement
6. Crosstalk High High Low Low Low
 Examples:
1. Encode the following binary data stream into return to
zero (RZ), Non-return to zero (NRZ), AMI and Manchester
codes. Data stream: 11000010

2. Draw the following data formats for the bit stream

1100110:
i. Polar NRZ
ii. Unipolar RZ
iii. AMI
iv. Manchester
PULSE SHAPING

 In digital transmission system, the channel carrying pulses

never have enough BW to preserve the pulse shape.
 Such channels are called band limited channel.
 These band limited channel tends to spread the narrow
pulses and produces secondary lobes.
 The secondary lobes are called as ringing tails.
 In general, the 90% of energy is contained in the main
lobe.
 Band limited channel
 The energy distribution in the output of a band limited
channel.

 BW of the channel is B=1/T and maximum bit rate

supported by channel is R=2B.
Intersymbol Interference (ISI)
 The process of residual signals at the receiver output due
to other symbols interfering with the required symbol is
known as Intersymbol Interference (ISI).
 Spreading of a pulse beyond its allotted time period Tb
(pulse width) will tend to interfere with adjacent pulses.
 ISI is an undesirable phenomenon that results into
degradations in the performance of digital
communication systems.
 ISI arises when the channel is dispersive.
 Pulse shaping techniques enables perfect reception in
the absence of noise.
 Pulse transmission
 Baseband binary data transmission system:
 The input signal consists of a binary data sequence
applied to a pulse generator producing discrete PAM
signal which further passed through transmitting filter.
 Assume that channel is noiseless but dispersive.
 The channel output is passed through receiving filter,
that produces sampled output synchronous with the
transmitter.
 The sequence of samples obtained is used to
reconstruct the original data by means of decision logic.
 In the absence of ISI and channel noise, the transmitted
symbol can be decoded correctly at the receiver.
 In the presence of ISI, an error will be introduced in the
decision making device at the receiver output.
 In the design of the transmitting and receiving filters, the
objective is to minimize the effects of ISI.
 It has been proved that the function which produces a
zero ISI is a sinc function.
 Hence, instead of rectangular pulse if we transmit a sinc
pulse then the ISI can be reduced to zero.
 Further, the Fourier transform of a sinc pulse is a
rectangular function.
 Thus, the frequency response of the filter is exactly flat in
the pass band and zero in the stop band.
 This is known as Nyquist Pulse Shaping.
 The sinc pulse to have zero ISI:
 Pulse shaping
 This scheme shows that we can attain the theoretical
limit of performance by using a sinc pulse.
 However, this pulse is impractical because it starts at -∞.
 In practice, the frequency response of the filter is
modified with different roll off factors to obtain the
achievable filter response curve.
Nyquist Criterion for Zero ISI
 The following expression is called as the Nyquist criterion
for distortionless baseband transmission in the absence
of noise:
∞
1
𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏 = = 𝑇𝑏
𝑅𝑏
𝑛=−∞
 Advantages (Ideal Solution):
 Bandwidth requirement is reduced.
 ISI is reduced to zero.

 Disadvantages (Ideal Solution):

 It requires that the amplitude characteristics of P(f) flat
from –B0 to +B0. This is physically unrealizable because of
the abrupt transitions at ±B0.
 Due to discontinuity of P(f) at ±B0, there is practically no
margin of error in sampling times at the receiver end.
Raised Cosine (Vestigial) Spectrum
 To overcome the practical difficulties posed by the ideal
solution is by extending the bandwidth from B0=Rb/2 to
an adjustable value between B0 and 2B0.
 As per equation:
1 𝑅𝑏
∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑃 𝑓 − 𝑛𝑅𝑏 = = 𝑇𝑏 Here, 𝐵0 = → 𝑅𝑏 = 2𝐵0
𝑅𝑏 2

 Expanding the summation sign and retain only three terms

corresponds to n=-1, 0, 1 and frequency band of interest to
(-B0, B0).
1
𝑃 𝑓 + 2𝐵0 + 𝑃 𝑓 + 𝑃 𝑓 − 2𝐵0 = , −𝐵0 ≤ 𝑓 ≤ 𝐵0
2𝐵0
 A particular form of P(f) that embodies many desirable
features is constructed by a Raised Cosine Spectrum.
 This spectrum consists of a flat portion and roll off portion.
 Mathematically expressed as: (W=B0=Available BW)

The frequency f1 and bandwidth B0 are related by:

𝑓1
α=1− , α = roll off factor.
𝐵0
 The transmission BW is defined as:
𝐵𝑇 = 2𝐵0 − 𝑓1 = 𝐵0 (1 +∝)

 The normalized frequency response of raised cosine

function is obtained by multiplying P(f) by 2B0.
 Various observations obtained from Raised Cosine Pulse:
 For α = 0.5 and 1, the characteristics of P(f) changes
gradually with respect to frequency (Practically possible).
 The time response has a sinc shape and all the sinc
functions pass through zero at, t = ±Tb, ±2Tb, …
 The amplitude of side lobes increases with reduction in the
value of α.
 With α = 0, the bandwidth requirement is maximum equal
to 2B0.