American Journal of Distance Education

ISSN: 0892-3647 (Print) 1538-9286 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hajd20

Sense of Challenge, Threat, Self-Efficacy, and

Motivation of Students Learning in Virtual and
Blended Courses

Gila Cohen Zilka, Ilan Daniels Rahimi & Revital Cohen

To cite this article: Gila Cohen Zilka, Ilan Daniels Rahimi & Revital Cohen (2018): Sense of
Challenge, Threat, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation of Students Learning in Virtual and Blended
Courses, American Journal of Distance Education, DOI: 10.1080/08923647.2019.1554990

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019.1554990

Published online: 20 Dec 2018.

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AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2019.1554990

Sense of Challenge, Threat, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation of

Students Learning in Virtual and Blended Courses
Gila Cohen Zilkaa, Ilan Daniels Rahimib, and Revital Cohenb
a
Bar-Ilan University; bOno Academic College

ABSTRACT
Feelings of threat, challenge, motivation, self-efficacy, and transac-
tional distance reflect students’ struggles with the learning process.
This study examined the relationship between students’ subjective
feelings about the learning process in virtual and blended courses
(VC and BC). This is a mixed-method study. The sample included 484
students from two academic institutions in Israel. The study found
a connection between students’ subjective feelings about the learning
process in VC and BC and feelings of threat/challenge, motivation, and
self-efficacy. We found differences between students in different years
of study and between those studying in various fields of study.

The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between feelings of challenge
and threat, self-efficacy, and motivation in students who study in virtual courses (VCs)
and blended courses (BCs). Feelings of challenge/threat, motivation, self-efficacy, and
a sense of transactional distance reflect the students’ coping with the learning process,
satisfaction, and perseverance in learning (Moore, 1993; Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).
The present study examined two courses: a VC and a BC. A BC refers to a mixture of
face-to-face and virtual learning. The learners meet face-to-face regularly, the course has
an active website, and discussions are held in a forum on the course website and continue
face-to-face. This type of combination is expected to enrich the relationship between the
teacher and the learner within the learners’ community. Face-to-face meetings should
enable immediate, unmediated interaction, based on verbal communication and nonverbal
messages, such as facial expressions and body language, helping the teachers encourage
significant interaction and identify situations that require a response to signs of distress,
embarrassment, and difficulties related to the material taught, to the class fabric, and the
like (Anderson, Rourke, Garrison, & Archer, 2001; Garrison & Kanuke, 2004; Groen & Li,
2005; Zeichner & Zilka, 2016; Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).
The virtual environment makes it possible for learners to enhance the learning process,
and provides, generally, fertile ground for exploration learning, the use of multimedia by
combined texts (visual, audio, verbal), and the integration of tasks that require high-order
thinking. As a result of the dynamic and diverse possibilities it offers, a learning environ-
ment may develop that encourages coping with issues of interpersonal communication.
The environment supports cooperation and space sharing (Cole, 2009; Cole, Shelley, &
Swartz, 2014; Mbati & Minnaar, 2015). The physical separation between teacher and

CONTACT Gila Cohen Zilka gila.zilka@gmail.com Achva Academic College, Bar-Ilan University Ha-Zayit st. 106
Emunim 79265 Israel
© 2018 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

learners, however, can lead to transactional distance. This term, coined by Moore (1993),
points to a psychological-communication gap that can emerge in the learning process
between teacher and learners, which can create a sense of threat, anger, gaps in under-
standing, or misconceptions of the learners about themselves and about the learning
process. In Moore’s opinion, the psychological-communication gap is not constant, but
a variable that can be reduced. Moore identified three dimensions in distance learning:
learner’s autonomy, interactions, and course structure.
Moore (1993) repeatedly emphasized the need for empirical studies to identify the variables
associated with these three dimensions. According to Moore, special attention must be paid to
the transactional distance (Moore, 1993). The psychological-communication gap created by
transactional distance can also be shorted by higher levels of instructor dialog/interaction
when there are higher levels of flexibility in the course structure. A learner’s tolerance for
autonomy influences a learner’s psychological comfort. Moreover, emphasis must be placed
on the learners’ perception: their needs, feelings, and difficulties (Kalogiannakis, 2010;
Richardson et al., 2015; Zeichner & Zilka, 2016; Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).

Perceiving the situation: a feeling of threat or challenge, self-efficacy, and

motivation
Threat or challenge
According to Lazarus (2000), in the encounter between humans and nature, humans can
perceive the situation as either positive or stressful. This cognitive evaluation process is
influenced by three sets of factors:

(1) Characteristics of the situation: the extent to which the condition is familiar or
vague.
(2) Factors related to social norms: requirements, values, and customs.
(3) Personality-related factors: pessimistic or optimistic, high or low self-esteem, high
or low intelligence, ambitious or tends to avoid failure.

A situation perceived as positive stimulates action, whereas a state perceived as stressful

may trigger an emotional response of challenge or threat. When a person feels threatened,
a sense of uncertainty and lack of self-efficacy grows stronger, and performing tasks might
be avoided or performed poorly, focusing on defense and preservation. A sense of
togetherness can reduce the threat and decrease nonadaptive responses. Lazarus noted
that research has shown that different people are stressed to varying degrees when facing
the same challenge. Researchers (Brown, Hughes, Keppell, Hard, & Smith, 2015) have
noted that a virtual learning environment constitutes a space loaded with feelings, in
which students report frustration, anger, rage, joy, excitement, satisfaction, boredom,
jealousy, hate, love, and affection with regard to the nature of learning. The virtual
learning environment often contains an overload of demands, leading to an emotional
arousal that may affect the learners’ attitudes, behavior, and reactions.

Self-efficacy
Bandura (1977, 1986, 1988, 1989) and Schunk (1983, 1984, 1989) have defined self-efficacy
as the individuals’ judgment of their ability to organize and successfully perform tasks and
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 3

actions. Self-efficacy affects the choice of activities, the effort, and the perseverance of the
learner. Students with a high sense of self-efficacy invest more effort and perseverance
than those who doubt their ability. Self-efficacy is influenced by prior experience, feed-
back, and physiological arousal. If students feel that they will succeed in performing the
task, their self-efficacy increases, and if they do not feel so, their self-efficacy decreases.
Schunk (1989) emphasized that the learner obtains information about his abilities also by
comparison with others. The encounter in a face-to-face lesson exposes the learner to others.
Watching fellow learners may arouse a sense that tasks can be handled, or alternatively,
cause questioning of the ability to cope with tasks. The teacher’s feedback also affects the
learner’s perception, and may reinforce either the learner’s sense of ability to cope with the
task or that of helplessness. Learning in a virtual or blended environment allows the learner
to deal with tasks in a protected, comfortable environment, and at a convenient time. The
learner can observe the products of others, the teacher’s assessment of the products of
others, etc. But the “transactional distance” that provides a more protected environment to
the learner, at times, may weaken learners who need face-to-face interactions because their
observing the learning process of others reinforces their sense that they are also capable of
coping with the task (Anderson et al., 2001; Garrison & Kanuke, 2004; Groen & Li, 2005;
Zeichner & Zilka, 2016; Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).

Motivation
Motivation has been defined by researchers as a critical factor influencing the students’
learning process, a factor that stimulates, directs, and regulates students. Researchers
examine motivation based on several critical variables: willingness to face challenges,
curiosity about learned content, mastery of learned content, perseverance, persistence,
and the need for achievement (Chen & Jang, 2010; Deshpande & Chukhlomin, 2017;
Duncan & McKeachie, 2005; Jones & Issroff, 2005; Lim, 2004; Miltiadou & Savenye, 2003;
Park & Yun, 2018). Researchers have explored motivation in both VC and BC and found
that motivation in VCs is a critical factor affecting student learning. Researchers also
found that some students were more motivated in VCs than in face-to-face courses,
whereas others showed less motivation in VCs because of the physical separation between
the teacher and the learners, and because of the technological means and the changes in
teaching method that affected the students’ learning process. Researchers (Chen & Jang,
2010; Deshpande & Chukhlomin, 2017; Park & Yun, 2018) have suggested continuing to
explore the topic to gain deeper insights, given the great influence of motivation on
learning in a virtual environment. They have argued that knowledge acquired in research
conducted on face-to-face learning environments cannot be applied automatically to
learning processes in a virtual environment. There is a need for a more profound under-
standing of learners’ feelings, their emotional needs, and their perception of themselves.

The present research

The present study examined students’ subjective feelings about the learning process in VC
and BC, feelings of threat/challenge, motivation, and self-efficacy.
The research question was whether a connection exists between the subjective feelings
(of threat/challenge), motivation, and self-efficacy of students toward the learning process
in a virtual environment and the learning process in a mixed environment.
4 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

Methodology
This is a mixed-method study. Participants answered three questionnaires

(1) a threat/challenge questionnaire that contained open and closed questions,

(2) a motivation questionnaire, and
(3) a self-efficacy questionnaire and open questions.

Sample
The sample included 484 respondents from two academic institutions in Israel.
A request was sent to students who studied VC and BC, to participate in the sample
and complete a digital questionnaire (they received a link to a digital questionnaire which
they could complete anonymously). Students who agreed to participate in the sample
completed the digital questionnaire in their free time. Student response was over 90%. The
questionnaires were anonymous.
Most of the respondents were female (70.2%), 46% aged 20–30 years, 33% aged 30–40,
21% aged 40 and over. Thirty-one percent were in their first school year, 36% in
the second year, and 33% in later years; 38.4% of participants studied in an academic
track related to teaching, education, and social sciences, 31.2% studied in the business
administration track, and 27.7% in organizational counseling studies.

Research tools
(1) The threat/challenge perception questionnaire was based on Lazarus and Folkman’s
(1984) questionnaire and adapted by Zeichner and Zilka (2016) and Zilka and
Zeichner (2017). It contains 13 statements, such as: “This situation makes you
angry;” “This situation makes you nervous;” “This situation seems difficult for you;”
“This situation threatens you;” “This situation will hurt you;” “This situation is
worrisome;” and “This situation is reassuring.” The questionnaire focuses on
factors that are clearly threatening/challenging. The following subscales were iden-
tified: promoting knowledge and understanding, acquiring management tools,
mastering innovative technology, course tasks and processes, and the output of
the course (“what I learned, what I took away from the course.”).
The students’ perceptions of threat and challenge in relation to the various courses
were assessed using three parameters. The parameters were scored on a 7-point
scale, where 1 = perception of low threat/challenge and 7 = perception of high
threat/challenge. The reliability of the indices ranged between Cronbach’s α 0.815
and 0.939, indicating high internal consistency of the items.
(2) The motivation questionnaire was based on the Pintrich, Smith, Garcia, and
McKeachie (1991). It contains 27 questions scored on a 7-point scale: 1 = completely
untrue, 7 = very true. The questionnaire contained statements such as “In this type
of course, I prefer the material to be a challenge for me so that I can learn new
things;” “What brings me most satisfaction in this course is the attempt to under-
stand the material as deeply as possible;” and “I’m sure that I’m able to understand
even the most difficult parts of the reading material for this course.”
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 5

Measurement of these parameters was carried out on a 7-point scale, where 1 = low
perception of threat/challenge, 7 = high perception of threat/challenge.
(3) The self-efficacy questionnaire was designed to measure the perception of the
ability to learn based on Bandura’s model (1986) and Bandura (1988, 1989), and
Schunk (1983, 1984, 1989). The questionnaire consists of eight statements assessed
on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 = completely untrue to 7 = very true.
Respondents are asked to rate the statements according to the degree to which
they describe them. The questionnaire distinguishes between three indices of self-
efficacy in learning: academic, computer use (control of technology), and social.
(4) Open questions. The topics were derived from the closed questionnaires: “Do you
regard computing and IT as an integral part of your studies? Please explain.” “What
do you find challenging in the course?” “What do you find threatening in the
course?” “How did you respond to these feelings?” “What elicits negative feelings
for you in the course?”
(5) Questions about personal status, demographic data, age, gender, year of study and
other demographic questions.

Results
In this section, the findings are presented in the following order: the perception of threat
and challenge in a VC and a BC; motivation in a VC and in a BC; the concept of self-
efficacy; background characteristics of students: age, year of study, field of study, and sense
of threat and challenge; background characteristics and motivation; factors affecting the
perception of threat and challenge, and motivation in a virtual environment

Perception of threat and challenge in VCs and BCs

The correlation coefficient analysis indicates a positive correlation between negative
feelings toward VCs and toward BCs (r = 712, p < .01), between the feeling of threat in
both types of courses (r = .623, p < .01), and between the sense of challenge in VCs and in
BCs (r = .853, p < .01). The significance of these findings is that the perceptions of
challenge and threat in VCs and BCs are interrelated, so that students have similar
perceptions in relation to both types of courses.

Perception of motivation in VCs and BCs

The results of the comparison show a significant positive correlation between the will-
ingness to face challenges in VCs and the willingness to face such challenges in BCs
(r = 6.99, p < .01), the curiosity about learning in VCs and BCs (r = .533, p < .01), and
command of the material studied in VCs and BCs (r = .770, p < .01).

The concept of self-efficacy

To determine the relationship between students’ self-efficacy and how they perceive threats
and challenges in both types of courses, we examined the correlation coefficients between the
variables. The results of the analysis indicate that there are significant negative correlations
6 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

between the perception of self-efficacy and negative feelings in VCs (r = – 233, p < .01) and
BCs (r = – 104, p < .05). Moreover, the analysis indicates that the strength of the correlation
between self-efficacy and negative feelings is greater in VCs than in BCs (z = 2.016, p < .05).

Perception of threat and challenge in VCs and BCs

To identify the factors that affect the perception of threat and challenge, and motivation in
a VC, we conducted a linear regression analysis, in which students’ perceptions in VCs
were used as dependent variables, and students’ background characteristics, as well as
perception of their level of efficacy, served as independent variables.
We found an association between the perceptions of threat associated with VCs and
BCs (b = .283, p < .01), as well as one between the perception of threat in VCs and
negative feelings in the BCs (b = .398, p < .01). This finding indicates that the negative
feelings associated with BCs also affect the negative feelings associated with VCs, as well as
the feelings of threat associated with VCs. No correlation was found between the percep-
tion of threat in VCs and the parameters of motivation to learn, but there was a significant
negative correlation between perception of threat in VCs and students’ perception of self-
efficacy (b = −344, p < .01), which indicates that a higher perception of self-efficacy helps
reduce the feelings of threat in VCs.
The analysis also revealed that the feeling of challenge in VCs is positively associated
with the feeling of challenge in BCs (b = .655, p < .01), and that the feeling of challenge is
not related to other parameters of threat perception, or to the various parameters of
motivation to study in BCs. Finally, we found that there is a positive correlation between
the perception of challenge in VCs and the students’ self-efficacy perception (b = .310,
p < .01), which indicates that a perception of higher self-efficacy leads to a greater feeling
of challenge in VCs.

Background characteristics and the sense of threat and challenge

The effect of students’ background characteristics on the perception of threat and chal-
lenge in the course are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that a higher sense of threat in relation to the VCs (t = 2.807, p < .01) was found
in women (M = 3.31) than in men (M = 2.89). No similar difference was found regarding BCs.
We found that the perception of students depends on the year of study. First-
and second-year students’ negative feelings regarding the VCs were stronger (F = 5.195,
p < .01) than those of students in later years of study. Similarly, the sense of threat
regarding VCs was found to be more severe in students in the first two years of study than
in later years (F = 6.052, p < .01). There were no differences in the students’ sense of
challenge based on their year of study, regarding either VC or BC.

Background characteristics and motivation of students

No effect was found on students’ motivation in either VC or BC, with the exception of
stronger curiosity (t = 2320, p < .05) of male students regarding the material studied in
a VC (M = 5.20) than that of female students (M = 4.91). No similar difference was found
regarding BCs.
Table 1. Comparison of perception of threat and challenge of the students in a VC and in a BC in relation to background characteristics.
VC BC
Background characteristics Negative feelings Sense of threat Sense of challenge Negative feelings Sense of threat Sense of challenge
Gender M – 30% 2.64 t = 1.073 2.89 t = 2.807** 4.50 t = 1.058 2.48 t = 0.326 2.61 t = 1.547 4.51 t = 0.150
F – 70% 2.80 3.31 4.36 2.43 2.83 4.49
Year of study First – 31% 2.77 F = 5.195** 3.24 F = 6.052** 4.26 F = 2.214 2.30 F = 6.706** 2.69 F = 5.820** 4.58 F = 0.779
Second – 36% 2.82 3.32 4.56 2.65 2.95 4.61
Three+ years – 33% 2.27 2.66 4.55 2.07 2.36 4.40
Academic track Business administration 2.72 F = 12.665** 3.21 F = 12.69** 4.29 F = 3.291* 2.40 F = 24.719** 2.75 F = 19.230** 4.56 F = 0.451
Organizational consulting 3.25 3.71 4.67 3.09 3.36 4.51
Education and society 2.45 2.84 4.32 2.08 2.41 4.42
Note:*p < .05; **p < .01.
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
7
8 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

The factors affecting the perception of threat and challenge, and of motivation in a VC
To identify the factors that affect the perception of threat and challenge, as well as motivation
in a VC, a linear regression analysis was performed, in which students’ perceptions of the VC
were used as dependent variables, and students’ background characteristics, perception of
threat and challenge regarding VCs, their motivation regarding BCs, as well as perception of
their level of self-efficacy were used as independent variables.
Analysis of the factors affecting the perception of negative feelings associated with VCs
shows that these feelings are weaker among second year than among the first-year
students (b = −554, p < .01). The same analysis indicates that the negative feelings
regarding VCs are weaker among business administration students than among students
in the teaching, education, and social science tracks (b = −879, p < .01). The findings of the
analysis indicate a positive correlation between negative feelings associated with VCs and
negative feelings associated with BCs (b = 0.724). It is also possible to see that there is no
similar correlation between the perception of negative feelings associated with VCs and
the sense of threat or challenge associated with BCs, nor with the parameters of motiva-
tion to study in a BC. Finally, the analysis uncovered a negative correlation between
students’ perception of self-efficacy and negative feelings associated with VCs
(b = −222, p < .01).

Qualitative analysis of open questions in the questionnaire

Computerization and Internet communication technology as an integral part of
studies
Students were asked to explain how they viewed computers and Internet communication
technology (ICT) as an integral part of their studies. A comparison of students’ attitudes
regarding the part of computerization and ICT in their studies in relation to students’
background characteristics is summarized in Table 2.
We found that there was a certain change in the perception of computers and ICT
within the academic framework over the years of study. Compared to 12% of first-
year students who believed that computers and ICT were not an integral part of their
studies, the proportion of third-year students who held this opinion was 3%
(F (2, 411) = 3.863, p < .05). Similarly, only 6% of the first-year students believed
that computers and ICT made the learning process more efficient and saved
time, compared with 18% (F (2, 411) = 5.042, p < .01) of third-year students who
believed this.

Responses to the sense of threat in a VC and in a BC

The main positions expressed regarding the reaction and steps taken by participants in
response to the sense of threat in VCs and BCs fall into six categories characterizing the
pattern of response as follows:
(1) Help of friend, relative; (2) search for information in books and on the network; (3)
approaching the teacher; (4) independent coping; (5) contact the student authority and/or
other consultants; (6) no need to take any action.
Table 2. Computers and ICT as an integral part of studies by background characteristics.
Gender Age group Academic year Academic track
40 and Three+ Business Organizational Education
Sampling M F 18–20 20–25 25–30 30–35 35–40 over years Second First administration consulting and society
N 484 135 340 31 105 86 85 74 91 92 173 149 151 134 186
Generally relevant 27% 28% 26% 35% 26% 27% 28% 20% 29% 22% 25% 29% 26% 30% 24%
Acquisition of 25% 22% 26% 29% 22% 22% 31% 30% 23% 29% 29% 23% 23% 22% 30%
technological skill
Availability and 4% 3% 5% 0% 2% 5% 7% 5% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5% 4% 4%
accessibility of
knowledge
Time-saving efficiency 10% 14% 8% 3% 6% 14% 11% 7% 15% 18%a 9% 6% a 9% 10% 11%
Papers and homework 5% 6% 4% 0% 6% 6% 4% 5% 4% 8% 3% 4% 4% 4% 5%
Understanding, self- 13% 16% 12% 13% 16% 10% 15% 11% 13% 11% 14% 13% 15% 10% 13%
learning, and feedback
No 8% 6% 8% 10% 10% 5% 7% 3% 7% 3% 6% 12% 8% 4% 11%
AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
9
10 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

The most significant finding of the analysis of the responses was that approximately
31% of participants turned to friends or acquaintances for help in response to the VC-
related threat. This percentage is significantly higher (t (483) = 9.258, p < .01) than the
percentage of respondents who sought the help of friends or acquaintances in response to
the feeling of threat in BCs (11%).
In response to the feeling of threat in BCs, however, 15% of participants searched for
information on the network or in the literature, compared with only 9% of participants in
VCs (t (483) = 3.578, p < .01).
No differences were found between the students in two courses in the rates of
approaching the teacher in response to a feeling of threat. Nine percent of respondents
indicated that they approached the teacher because of a feeling of threat in BCs, and 6% of
the respondents made such an approach in VCs. Furthermore, 2% of respondents in VCs
indicated that they had approached the dean of students and other advisors in the
educational institution in response to a feeling of threat (no respondent in BCs reported
having done so).
Eighteen percent of the respondents indicated that they chose to face the feeling of threat in
BCs by themselves. This percentage is significantly higher ((t (483) = 6.912, p < .01) than that
of students who chose to deal with such feelings by themselves in VCs (4%).
Finally, 12% of the respondents noted that they did nothing regarding a feeling of
threat in BCs, and 6% of respondents said that they acted similarly in VCs. Negative
feelings in VCs and BCs

Discussion
The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between students’ subjective
feelings about the learning process in VC and BC, sense of threat/challenge, motivation,
and self-efficacy.
We found a connection between students’ subjective feelings about the learning process
in VC and BC, sense of threat/challenge, motivation, and self-efficacy. We did not find any
gender-based differences; differences were revealed between years of schooling and among
students studying in various academic tracks.
The findings (See Table 3) revealed that students have similar feelings about VCs and
BCs, so that students would have similar perceptions regarding both types of courses
concerning the sense of threat/challenge and motivation. There were clear positive corre-
lations between students’ perception of self-efficacy and their readiness to cope with
challenges in VCs and BCs. These findings add to accumulated knowledge produced by
Linnenbrink (2006) and Zeichner and Zilka (2016).

Background characteristics, threat/challenge, and motivation

We found that first- and second-year students’ sense of threat regarding VCs was more
acute than those of students with more years of schooling. We found differences in the
patterns of action of students as a result of feeling threatened: about one-third of students
asked for help of a friend or an acquaintance in response to the sense of threat in a VC;
11% sought help from a friend or acquaintance in response to the sense of threat in a BC.
In the first year of study, the percentage of students who asked for help of a friend or
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 11

Table 3. Linear regression of the dimensions of perception of threat and challenge and of motivation in
a VC on background characteristics, perception of threat and challenge and of motivation of a BC, and
self-efficacy perception.
Perception of threat and
challenge in a virtual course Motivation in a virtual course
Readiness to Curiosity Command of
Negative Sense of Sense of face about studied
Explanatory variables feelings threat challenge challenges content content
Segment 2.543 2.630 0.770 0.547 1.165 0.397
Background Males −0.037 −0.263 0.255 0.059 0.274* 0.136*
characteristics Second −0.554** −0.286 0.042 0.016 −0.034 −0.008
academic year
Three+ years −0.207 −0.125 0.094 0.075 −0.156 −0.013
Business −0.447 0.136 0.210 0.345 0.159
administration
Organizational −0.219 −0.183 0.685* 0.096 0.406 0.186
consulting
Perception of threat and Negative 0.724** 0.398** −0.108 0.046 0.103 −0.123**
challenge in a blended feelings
course Sense of threat −0.045 0.283** 0.120 −0.101* −0.125 0.126**
Sense of 0.070 0.092 0.565** 0.060* 0.062 0.043
challenge
Motivation in a blended Readiness to −0.053 0.114 −0.006 0.482** 0.161 −0.035
course face challenges
Curiosity about 0.071 0.003 −0.103 −0.049 0.357** −0.077
studied
content
Command of −0.142 −0.139 0.116 0.163* 0.016 0.785**
studied
content
Self-efficacy −0.222** −0.344** 0.310** 0.283** 0.230** 0.202**
F 29.174** 20.152** 15.050** 44.765** 17.431** 57.171**
R2 56.7% 47.5% 40.3% 66.8% 43.8% 72.0%
Note: *p < .05; **p < .01.

acquaintance stood at 39%, and was higher than the percentage of those seeking help in
the third year (22%). This pattern of coping, therefore, is receding as students become
more experienced in academic studies. The percentage of students seeking information on
the Internet, in databases, and other sources, was significantly lower in the first year of
study (8%) than in the second year (23%). Thus, over the years, students learn to cope in
different ways with feelings of threat. Twelve percent of students noted that they did
nothing regarding a sense of threat in a BC, and 6% noted that they acted similarly in
a VC. Teachers who teach VCs and BCs to students in their first and second
academic year should pay attention to students who experience difficulties, and reduce
the transactional distance, that is, reduce the psychological-communication space created
by learning in VCs and BCs, in relation to the students themselves and to the learning
process. Dialog combined with intellectual and emotional support of students who feel
exposed and vulnerable may help advance the students toward the acquisition of higher
learning skills and reducing the transactional distance. Failure to address the difficulties of
these students is liable to result in feelings of alienation, lack of belonging, inability to cope
with the tasks and dropping out of the course, and at times even dropping out of the
institution. The teacher should identify such students as early as possible in the beginning
of the course, help them map their difficulty, and help them acquire the necessary skills.
12 G. C. ZILKA ET AL.

A good interaction between the teacher and the student is one that brings about
a transformation of a sense of threat into one of self-efficacy, and creates an ability to
conduct interactions with the environment. Differential feedback to students in need of
intensive feedback may be conducive to students developing individual abilities to exam-
ine their achievements and to strengthen their scholastic confidence (Anderson et al.,
2001; Birch, 2013; Bruff, Fisher, McEwen, & Smith, 2013; Olivier, 2016; Poon, 2013; Tan,
2016; Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).
Similar findings emerged from the analysis of the perception of threat and challenge in
relation to the academic track. It was found that feelings of threat are more acute among
students in the business counseling track than among other students, both for VCs and
BCs. There were no differences in the sense of challenge of students in the various
academic tracks. At the same time, the level of motivation of the students in the
organizational counseling track was significantly higher than that of students in the
other academic tracks, both with regard to readiness to cope with challenges, curiosity
about course content, and control over the material being studied. Findings of this study
add to accumulated knowledge from previous research, such as Edwards, Perry, and
Janzen (2011), regarding the differences between students who studied in different aca-
demic tracks. Linnenbrink (2006) and Pintrich (2000) have found that the learners’
perceptions and beliefs influence the learning process and the learners’ feelings. They
recommend reinforcing positive feelings and avoid creating negative feelings that discou-
rage the learner.
We found no differences in the negative feelings of students in the two types of courses
with respect to skills and technological accessibility. Most of the students emphasized the
great importance of computerization and ICT in their studies. Only 8% of the students
noted that computerization and ICT are not an integral part of their studies. There were,
however, differences between students depending on the year of study. We found that 12%
of first-year students stated that computerization and ICT were not an integral part of
studies. The proportion of third-year students who believe this was only 3%. Similarly,
only 6% of first-year students believed that computers and ICT make the learning process
more efficient and save time, as opposed to 18% of third-year students who thought so.
The students were asked to address the reason for the feelings of anger and frustration
experienced in VCs. Twelve percent of the students noted that the reason for the feelings
of anger and frustration was the lack of understanding of the study material, and 13% of
the students thought that the reason was the combined amount of demands on them,
which created pressure that led to feelings of frustration. In addition, 6% of students felt
that their feelings of anger and frustration in the VC were the result of the (personal)
desire to succeed in the course, mainly in the sense of the expectation of achieving
a sufficiently high grade. Only 6% of the students felt that the feelings of anger and
frustration were caused by technical failures or technological difficulties. An additional
14% of the students stated explicitly that they did not experience any feelings of anger or
frustration. Researchers have claimed that the negative feelings of students in VCs and
BCs derive from a reduced quantity of nonverbal cues, that is, from the narrowing of the
nonverbal communication channel, and a decrease in the sense of teacher presence (Birch,
2013; Bruff et al., 2013; Francis & Shannon, 2016; Olivier, 2016; Poon, 2013; Tan, 2016;
Zilka & Zeichner, 2017).
 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DISTANCE EDUCATION 13

In conclusion, the novelty of this study lies in the connections found between students’
subjective feelings about the learning process in VC and BC, sense of threat/challenge,
motivation, and self-efficacy. We found no difference between genders, but found differ-
ences between students in various years of study and academic tracks. Sense of threat/
challenge, motivation, self-efficacy, and a sense of transactional distance reflect students’
coping with the learning process, their satisfaction, and their persistence in learning.

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