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CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

This chapter discusses the related literature of the study. This section

offers definition of the study and related literatures aligned with the topic to

clearly understand the two variables utilize in this study.

Self-efficacy

Self-efficacy refers to the students' beliefs and attitudes toward their

capabilities to achieve academic success, as well as belief in their ability to

fulfill academic tasks and the successful learning of the materials (Hayat et

al., 2022). Pajares (2019) stated that academic self-efficacious students exert

extra effort, persevere with difficult tasks longer and show resilience by

bouncing back from difficult learning situations. Students with high self-

efficacy regard problems as challenges, set goals and are committed to them,

attribute failure to lack of effort or as yet unlearned skills or content, and

increase their efforts in order to overcome failure. Self-efficacy, like many

other aspects of socio-emotional learning, is both an enabler of success at

school and an outcome of schooling. Studies have shown that interventions to

build students’ self-efficacy beliefs can improve outcomes on particular tasks

as well as influencing later life outcomes.

The term self-efficacy was coined around 40 years ago by Albert Bandura

(1977a). Since then, research in this area has been growing steadily and

focuses mainly on the concept of self-efficacy which is considered as “one of

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the most theoretically, heuristically and practically useful concepts formulated

in modern psychology”.Self-efficacy is not the same as ability or motivation,

but they are strongly related (Kozlowski & Salas,2010). Indeed, self-efficacy is

the personal determination of one's own ability to deal with a certain task

In his conceptualization, Sharma et.al (2014) also defined self-efficacy

as a mechanism to explain and predict one's thought, emotion and action and

to organize and execute courses of action to attain designated goals. It is less

concerned with what skills and abilities individuals possess. It considers more

important what individuals believe they can do with whatever skills and

abilities they may possess. Bandura suggested that self-efficacy made a

difference in how people feel, think and act (Bandura, 1995). In all, self-

efficacy serves a self-regulatory function by providing individuals with the

capability to influence their own cognitive processes and actions and thus

alter their environments

Hayati (2023) cited that based on this phenomenon, it was found that

one of the main factors of student success in overcoming the problem was

self-efficacy. Self-efficacy can be defined as a human's belief in his ability to

exercise several measures to control their self-function and events in the

environment (Feist & Feist, 2014). The level of self-efficacy influences

students to face problems. High self-efficacy will motivate individuals

cognitively to act more persistently and directed, especially if the goals to be

achieved are clear goals.

Fratturar (2018) affirmed that developing efficacy beliefs in the classroom

is a great place to start. We all see our students struggle with motivation. Self-
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efficacy can be adrenaline for motivation. Students who are confident, free

from stress show a greater propensity to be motivated. In class, allow

students more self-observation, self-judgment and self-reaction time.

Carefully, schedule proximal goals. The more distant the goal, the more

students lose the benefit of self-efficacy. Self-efficacy increases as students

note progress, attain goals, and set new challenges. Goals set too high or too

low do not enhance self-regulated learning or achievement beliefs

Self-engagement. Ashton (2012) stated that self-engagement can

empower us to make sense of the oppression and the disparity between

society’s view of ourselves and our own journey towards self-identity. The

obstacles I’ve encountered have encouraged me to tamper with this disparity,

I have made it my mission to not let circumstances or labels define me and

my greater sense of self.

In line with COR theory, this study contends that self-efficacy provides

resources which is crucial in higher education environment. Given that

engagement is a stressful process for most students, they need resources to

cope and develop positive attitude. Students endowed with self-efficacy as a

resource are better able to handle academic challenges and are empowered

to flourish and succeed with their academic goals (Sweetman & Luthans,

2010).

If a student believes he can complete a task, he will have stronger

engagement with this task. Conversely, if students have little confidence

knowing that they can complete a task, they consider the task to be

unnecessary, and consequently do not want to spend time and energy on it.
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As a result of this, they do not engage in such task. After Bandura presented

his definition, the relationship between self-efficacy and academic success

was noted. According to research results, students with high levels of

engagement have more self-efficacy than those with lower levels of

engagement; these students were observed to have spent more time on

learning.

Self-oriented and decision making. Self-oriented refers to an individual

who wishes to have direct personal rewards regardless of the effects on

others working with that individual (Oxford, 2023). Moreover, UMass (2023)

defined decision making as the process of making choices by identifying a

decision, gathering information, and assessing alternative resolutions.

In the current context, decisions are made based on multiple conflicting

criteria and objectives (Reis & Löbler, 2012) which foster the perspicacity in

analyzing the individual’s behavior at each stage of the decision-making

process. As far as Administration students are concerned, they must be

prepared for the organizational decision-making process, since to “manage is

to decide first of all” (Azevedo, 1967, p. 36), to exert influence on those who

make up the organizational body (Simon, 1965).

Other-oriented problem solving. Other oriented means the

conscious effort to put the thoughts, needs, and feelings of others first, without

abandoning our own needs (Mason, 2020). While Simpli (2023) defined

problem solving as the act of defining a problem; determining the cause of the

problem; identifying, prioritizing, and selecting alternatives for a solution; and

implementing a solution.
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In general, individuals may see themselves as having varying degrees of

ability to carry out successful interactions with others in social situations. That

is, people’s perceptions of their self-efficacy are an indication of the extent to

which they feel confident of their social interaction capacity (Bandura, 1977).

The effectiveness of human functioning and well-being are regulated by

perceptions of self-efficacy. In the case of challenging situations, people

having high self-confidence are more likely to believe they can control their

thoughts. Hence, they will go on putting forth effort and will more effectively

deal with negative thoughts and feelings about themselves and their feelings

of inadequacy (Özer & Bandura, 1990). When people think that they cannot

achieve their goals by means of their actions, they very likely have a greater

tendency to give up when confronted with challenges. Hence, in the case of

challenging situations, the success of dealing with them will depend on their

sense of self-efficacy to a great extent. This is especially true for adolescent

development because it represents a transitional period. Transitional periods

are full of risks and challenges, and coping with these risks and challenges

depends to some extent on the strength of perceived self-efficacy (Bandura,

Barbaranelli, Caprara, & Pastorelli, 2001).

Interpersonal Climate. Interpersonal climate refer s to an overall

feeling or emotional mood between people (Spa, 2023). Positive interpersonal

relationship serves as the foundation for many studies. Research has shown

that interpersonal relationship has a beneficial effect on the academic

and nonacademic competencies of youngsters. Positive interpersonal

relationships between students and their parents, teachers, and peers

facilitate healthy social, emotional, and intellectual functioning as well as

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positive feelings of self-worth and self-esteem. Through interpersonal

interactions, students can develop knowledge about their selves and

acquire knowledge they need for adaptation to specific groups in

schools or classrooms. Research state that youngsters immersed in

positive peer interactions display higher learning motivations.

Commodari et al (2022) stated that interpersonal adaptation can be

defined as the skills and behaviors the individual needs to possess in order to

enter into adaptive and positive relationships with other people and social

groups. The presence of difficulties in these areas can lead to uncomfortable

situations that, if prolonged in time, can lead to real maladjustment conditions.

These “soft skills” consist of different psychological dimensions (passivity,

impulsivity, narcissism, worry for self-image, and social stress) that explain

the grade of individual difficulties in adapting themselves to interpersonal

relationships. The low levels of assertiveness characterize the dimension of

passivity, understood as the ability to affirm one’s own needs and to defend

one’s ideas without causing suffering to others and avoiding conflicting

relationships; impulsivity refers to the tendency to implement dysfunctional

reactions in ambiguous situations; worry for self-image is considered in terms

of tension deriving from stress caused by others judgment and by lower levels

of self-esteem; social stress is identified in the incapacity to manage the social

situations, such as speaking in public effectively.

According to Tadese et.al Academic performance/ achievement

is the extent to which a student, teacher, or institution has attained

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their short or long-term educational goals and is measured either by

continuous assessment or cumulative grade point average (CGPA).

Masud et.al (2019) Academic performance is among the several

components of academic success. Many factors, including

socioeconomic status, student temperament and motivation, peer,

and parental support influence academic performance.

Brew et.al (2021) Academic performance is affected by many

factors including parents’ education levels and income, teachers’

knowledge of the subject, truancy, textbooks availability and

accessibility, libraries, practical laboratory, meals provision and many

other factors. The home environment has been recognized as having

a lot of influence on academic performance. Children who experience

poverty may live in physical environments that offer less stimulation

and fewer resources for learning.

Academic performance is considered an important achievement

for students during the educational process in the university. The

achievement of the performance affects the students’ current and

future life (Kell et al., Citation2013), as well as portraying students’

inherent productivity and ability (Hanushek, Citation2020; Sothan,

Citation2019). Students are taught accounting concepts and

principles to be capable of improving a strong analytic skill, language

skill, business, information and communication technology,

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competence, and higher education’s value (Lemos et al.,

Citation2011; Papageorgiou, Citation2017; Papageorgiou &

Callaghan, Citation2020).

Lamas (2015) academic performance involves meeting goals,

achievements and objectives set in the program or course that a

student attends. These are expressed through grades which are the

result of an assessment that involves passing or not certain tests,

subjects or courses.

BP (2023) Academic performance is the measurement of student

achievement across various academic subjects. Teachers and

education officials typically measure achievement using classroom

performance, graduation rates, and results from standardized tests.

Walker (2023) Academic performance is an explicit display of

learning that has happened and how this knowledge can be

conveyed to others. When you learn something, you should absorb

the learning and it should become part of your being. Then you can

convey your understanding to others in a simple way.

Limniou (2021) mobile devices might be associated with

multitasking in classroom/lecture learning environment and student

academic performance. It seems that there is a debate regarding the

use of mobile phone during lecture time and its association with
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student academic performance. Kuznekoff, Munz and its worth

(2015) have pointed out that the exchange process of (un)related

messages through smartphones during lecture time affects student

performance and the note-taking process. The major three distractive

ways that mobile phones affect learning performance are related to

sources (i.e., notifications, texting process), targets (i.e., messaging

has no impact on reading comprehension) and subjects (i.e.,

information motives, personalities). On the contrary, Marzouki, Idrissi

and Bennani (2017) have mentioned the positive effects of mobile

learning on knowledge acquisition, student academic performance,

attitudes, and motivation in social constructivist learning

environments.

Positive. According to LawInsider (2023), it refers as the

cumulative effects of an alternative are expected to improve the

status of the resource relative to its current status under past,

present, and reasonably foreseeable future actions.

Regier (2011) nowadays you need a post-secondary education

in order to get a job. Academically successful adolescents have

higher self-esteem, have lower levels of depression and anxiety, are

socially inclined, and are less likely to abuse alcohol and engage in

substance abuse.
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IO (2023) a supportive and involved family is one of the most

important factors that affects student achievement and academic

performance. Research has shown that students with involved

parents achieve higher grades, have better attendance, and have

bigger long-term aspirations.

Negative. Apa (2023) defined it as the internal feeling state

(affect) that occurs when one has failed to achieve a goal or to avoid

a threat or when one is not satisfied with the current state of affairs.

Husaini et.al (2023) low entry grades, family support,

accommodation, student gender, previous assessment grade,

student internal assessment grade, GPA, and students' e-learning

activity are the most significant factors influencing students' academic

performance.

Chasen (2023) many students who may have been successful in

prior academic settings, might be struggling with new hybrid and

online teaching environments. Video fatigue is real. The lack of social

interaction with classmates is real. Technology challenges are real.

The challenges presented to today’s teachers to teach in these

remote environments or in-person with half the class are also very

real. However, these are challenges being experienced by nearly

every single school across not just the US, but the world.
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Khan (2022) We occasionally used to observe a student's failure

or poor performance without taking into account the causes. Even

teachers and parents do not try to investigate the reason behind poor

performance and take it easy. Such students feel at ease to be at a

distance from positions due to the attitude of their parents and

teachers. It leads to poor results and a meaningless life, which is

detrimental to the future of students who are nation builders.

Correlation Between Measures

According Lou et.al (2022) the self-efficacy model proposed by Bandura,

a student’s motivation to study, study habits, and academic performance are

all influenced by their subjective view of their ability to perform and achieve. In

particular, academic self-efficacy is a significant near-end factor that impacts

the degree of input into study and is able to positively predict investment in

learning, specifically, higher self-efficacy is linked to a higher level of learning

investment. A student with a high level of self-efficacy tends to put more work

into their studying, has higher levels of confidence and optimism when

setbacks are encountered, and is more capable for addressing challenges,

leading to an overall enhancement of their participation in learning.

In the academic setting, many studies have shown that there is a

positive relation between self-efficacy and academic performance. Studies

found that regardless of age, gender, domains, disciplines and countries, a

student with higher sense of self-efficacy will achieve better academic

performance. Louise and Mistele (2011) reported that although there were
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differences in level of self-efficacy by gender in young adolescents taking

mathematics and science, self-efficacy is still found to be a good predictor of

the achievement scores. Amil (2000) studied the self-efficacy and self-

regulated abilities of students taking economics at 'A' level and found that

there was a significant, positive correlation between self-efficacy with self-

regulated learning. Liem et al (2008) examined self-efficacy, task value and

achievement goals in English language ability with a group of secondary

school students. It is found that self-efficacy is a predictor to English test

scores. Purzer (2011) did a sequential mixed methods study to examine the

relationship between team discourse, self-efficacy and achievement. Results

showed that self-efficacy is positively and significantly correlated with

academic achievement. In most of the studies the level of self-efficacy is

found to be different between genders.

The effica
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