1.

SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY

1) What are the basic constituents of matter?
Atoms and molecules.
2) Mention any two life saving drugs/ name the drug used in the cancer therapy.
a) Cisplatin b) Taxol.
3) Name the drug used in the treatment of AIDS.
Azidothymidine (AZT)
4) Name the chemical responsible for depletion of ozone layer.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
5) Mention green house gases.
Methane (CH4) and Carbon dioxide (CO2).
6) Name the SI unit of
a) Mass b) Length c) Time d) Temperature e) Electric current f) Luminous intensity
g) Amount of substance h) Density .

a) Kilogram ((Kg) b) metre (m) c) second(s) d) Kelvin(K) e) Ampere(A) f) Candela(Cd)

g) mole(mol) h) Mass/ volume(Kg/m3)

7) Write the prefix used in SI system for

a) 10-9 b) 10-12
a) nano b) pico
8) What is amu?
It is defined as mass exactly equal to 1/12th the mass of one atom of carbon-12 isotope.
9) What is limiting reagent?
A reactant that is completely consumed in a chemical reaction is called limiting reagent.
10) Define mole fraction.
It is the ratio of number of moles of a particular component to the total number of moles of
the solution. (Total number of moles of all the components present in the solution).
11) Define mole.
It is defined as the amount of substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12 isotope.
12) What is the value of Avogadro’s number?
6.022 x 10 23.
13) State law of definite proportion.
It states that a given compound always contains exactly same proportion of elements by weight.
14) State law of conservation of mass.
It states that matter can neither be created nor be destroyed.
15) State Avogadro law.
It states that equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number
of particles.
16) How many significant figures are there in
a) 6.002x1023 = It has 4 significant figures.
b) 2.0034 = It has 5 significant figures.
c) 4.01 = It has 3 significant figures.
17) Give the postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory.

i) matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.

ii) All the atoms of an element are identical in all respects and different from those of other
elements.
 iii) Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements combine in a fixed ratio.

iv) Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms these are neither created nor
destroyed in a chemical reaction.

18) What is homogeneous mixture? Give an example.

It is a mixture in which the components completely mix with each other and its composition is
uniform throughout the solution.
Ex: Sugar solution, air, salt solution.
19) What is heterogeneous mixture? Give an example.
It is a mixture in which the components do not completely mix with each other and its
composition is not uniform throughout the solution.
Ex: Mixture of salt and sugar, Grains and pulses.
20) Distinguish between pure substance and mixture.
Sl No Pure Substance Mixture
They have fixed composition.
1 They do not have fixed composition.
The constituents of pure substances They can be separated by physical
2
cannot be separated by physical methods. methods.

21) State law of multiple proportion.

It states that „If two elements can combine to form more than one compound the masses of one
element that combines with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole
numbers.
22) What are isotopes? Give an example.
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass number are called
isotopes. Ex: Isotopes of carbon are 12C, 13C,14C
23) Calculate the molecular mass of the following
a) Ethane (C2H6) b) Ethanol (C2H5OH) .
Molar mass of C2H6=2x(12u)+6x(1.008u)=30.0u.
Molar mass of C2H5OH=2(12u)+5x(1.008u)+1x(16u)+1x1.008= 46.048
24) Calculate the number of molecules present in 2.5 moles of water.
1 mole of water contains 6.002 x 10 23 molecules
Therefore 2.5 moles of water contains=2.5 x 6.002 x 10 23 = 15.055 x 10 23.
25) Calculate the percentage composition of elements in a) methanol b) ethanol.
Molecular mass of Methanol (CH3OH) = 1 x 12 + 3 x1+1x16+1x1=32.
%composition of C = mass of carbon/molar mass of methanol x 100
= 12/32 x 100 = 37%
%composition of H= 4x1/32 x 100=12%
%composition of O = 1 x 16/32x100=49.9%.
26) How many moles of methane is required to produce 88 g of CO2 after combustion.
 Combustion reaction
CH4 + 2O2 ---------- CO2 +2H2O
(12+4=16) (12+2x16=44)
16 g of methane = 1mole = 44 g of CO2
44gms of CO2 is produced from 1mole of methane
88gms of CO2 is produced from =88 x 1 / 44 = 2moles.
27) 50.0 kg of N2 (g) and10.0 kg of H2 (g) are mixed to produce NH3 (g). Calculate the NH3 (g)
formed. Identify the limiting reagent in the production of NH3 in this reaction.
A balanced equation for the formation of ammonia is
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) ----- 2NH3 (g)
No. of moles of N2 = 50 x 1000/ 28 =17.86 x 10 2mol
No. of moles of H2 = 10.00 x 1000 / 2.016 = 4.96 x 103mol
According to the above equation,
1 mol of N2 requires 3 mol of H2
Therefore 17.86 x 102 mol of N2 requires = 17.86 x 102 x 3 /1 = 5.34 x 10 2 mol of H2
But we only have 4.96 x 103 mol of H2.Hence H2 is the limiting reagent.
Since 3 mol H2 (g) gives 2 mol NH3 (g)
Therefore 4.96 x 10 3 mol H2(g) = 4.96 x 10 3 x 2 / 3 = 3.30 x 103 mol NH3 (g) is obtained.
1 mol NH3(g) = 17.0g NH3(g)
3.30 x 10 3 mol NH3(g) = 3.30 x 103 x 17 / 1 = 56.1 x 103 g NH3
= 56.1 kg of NH3.
28) An organic compound contain 4.07% Hydrogen,24.27%Carbon and 71.65% Chlorine. Its
molecular mass is 98.96gm, what are its empirical and molecular formula?
Element % Composition No obtained in Simplest
Atomic mass %Composition /
col 4 / least Whole
Atomic mass
No(simple no
ratio)
24.27 12 24.27/ 12=2.02 2.02/ 2.01 =1 1
C
4.07 1 4.07/ 1=4.07 4.07 / 2.01 = 2
H
2.02
71.65 35.5 71.65/35.5=2.01 2.01 / 2.01 = 1 1
Cl

Empirical formula = CH2Cl

Empirical formula mass (CH2Cl) = 1x12+2x1+1x35.5 = 49.5
N = molecular mass / empirical mass = 98.96 / 49.5 = 2
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
 = 2 x (CH2Cl) = C2H4Cl2.
29) An organic substance containing Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen gave the percentage
composition as C=40.687% H=5.085% and O=54.228%.The VD of the compound is 59,
calculate the molecular formula of the compound.
Element % No obtained Simplest
Atomic %Composition
Composition in col 4 / least Whole no
mass / Atomic mass
No(simple
ratio)
40.68 12 40.68/ 12=3.39 3.39/ 3.38=1 1 x 2=2
C
5.085 1 5.085/ 1=5.085 5.085/ 1.5 x 2 =3
H
3.38=1.5044
54.228 16 54.228/ 23.38/ 3.38= 1 1x 2 = 2
O
16=3.389
Empirical formula = C2H3O2
Empirical formula mass = 2 x 12 + 3 x 1 + 2 x 16 = 59.
Molecular mass = 2 x VD = 2 x 59 = 118.
N = Molecular mass / empirical mass = 118 / 59 = 2
Molecular formula = n x Empirical formula
= 2 x (C2H3O2) = C4H6O4
30) Determine the molecular formula of an oxide of iron in which the mass percent of iron and
oxygen are 69.9 and 30.1 respectively. Given that the molar mass of the oxide is 159.8gmol-1
(Atomic mass : Fe = 55.85 , O = 16.00u).
Element % Atomic mass % / No in col 4 / Simple
Composition composition / Least Whole
Atomic mass No(simple number ratio.
ratio)
Fe 69.9 55.85 69.9 / 55.85 = 1.24 / 1.25 = 1 1 x 2 = 2
1.25

O 30.1 16 30.1 / 16 1.88 / 1.25 1.5 1‟‟5 x 2 = 3

=1.88
Empirical formula = Fe2O3

2. STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1) What is the charge and mass of electron?
Charge= -1.6022x10-19C ; Mass= 9.109x10-31kg
2) What is the charge and mass of proton?
Charge:+1.6022x10-19 C ; Mass:1.6726x10-27 kg.
3) Who discovered neutron?
James Chadwick.
4) What are isotopes? Give example.
The atoms of same element with same atomic number but different mass number.
Examples: Isotopes of Hydrogen :-
 1
1H (Protium)
2
1H (Deuterium)
3
1H (Tritium)

5) What are isobars? Give examples.

The atoms of different elements with different mass number but same mass number.
Examples: 6C14and 7N14
6) Calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in 35Br80
Number of electrons = Number of protons = 35
Number of neutrons = 80 – 35 = 45
7) Explain Rutherford’s α-ray scattering experiment.

Observations:
 Most of the α-particles passed through the gold foil undeflected.
 A small fraction of the α-particles was deflected by small angles.
 A very few α-particles (< 1 in 20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by nearly 1800.

Conclusions:

 As majority of the α-particles went through the foil undeflected, this indicates most of the
space in an atom is empty.
 The scattering of a few particles through small angles and very few through larger angles
from centre of the atom indicates protons are present at the centre of the atom.
 The heavy positively charged central part of the atom is called the nucleus.
 Nearly all the mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
8) Give any two drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of atom.
i) Rutherford‟s model cannot explain the stability of an atom.
ii) It cannot explain the distribution of electrons around the nucleus or their energies.
9) What is photoelectric effect?
The emission of electrons from the surface of metals (such as Rb or Cs) when they are exposed to
light of suitable frequency.
10) Give the postulates of Bohr’s theory of atomic model.
i. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in certain circular paths called orbits or energy
levels which are named as K, L, M, N etc.
ii. Only those orbits are possible in which angular momentum is an integral multiple of
h/2πwhere h is Planck‟s constant.
iii. As long as electrons revolve in a particular orbit, it does not emit or absorb energy.
iv. If an electron jumps from higher to lower energy level, energy is emitted and when
electron jumps from lower to higher energy level energy is absorbed.
11) What are the limitations of Bohr’s theory?
i. It does not explain spectra of atoms having more than one electron.
ii. It does not explain Zeeman‟s effect (splitting of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark
effect (splitting of spectral lines in electric field).
iii. It is contrary to Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle.
iv. It could not explain the ability of atom to form molecules by chemical bonds.
12) Write de Broglie’s wave equation.
λ = h/mv or λ = h/p where m = mass of the particle, v = velocity of the particle and
p = momentum of the particle.
13) State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Give its mathematical expression.
It states that, “It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a
moving electron”.
14) Explain the significance of quantum numbers.
i. Principal Quantum Number (n): It defines the shell. It determines the size and energy of the
orbit. The values of n are: n = 1, 2, 3, ……
ii. Azimuthal Quantum Number (l): It defines the shape of the orbital. For the given value of „n‟,
the possible values of „l‟ are l = 0, 1, 2, 3, …. Each orbital is represented by the letters

s, p, d, f.
iii. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): It gives the spatial orientation of the orbital. For any value

of l,ml can have (2l + 1) values ranging from –l to +l

iv. Spin Quantum Number(ms):It refers to the spin of the electron. The value of spin quantum no
are +1/2 and -1/2.
15) State Aufbau principle.
Electrons enter into different atomic orbitals in the increasing order of their energies.
16) State (n+l) rule.
According to this rule, among the orbitals, the one which has higher value of (n+l) has more
energy. If (n+l) values are same, the one having the higher value of l has more energy.
17) State Pauli’s exclusion principle.
 No two electrons in an atom can have same set of all the four quantum numbers.(That is orbital
can accommodate a maximum of two electrons.)
18) State Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity.
Electron pairing in s, p, d and f orbitals cannot occur until all orbitals of a given subshell contains
one electron each or singly occupied.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS AND PERIODICITY IN PROPERTIES

1) 1 Mendeleev periodic law.
Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights.
2) State Modern periodic law.
Physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic number.
3) What are representative elements?
s and p block elements are collectively called as representative elements.
4) Write the general valence shell electronic configuration of d and f block elements.
The d block elements:(n-1)d1-10 ns 1-2
The f block elements: (n-2)f 1-14 (n-1)d 0-1 ns2
5) Name the most electronegative element in the periodic table.
Fluorine.
6) Define i)Atomic radius ii)Covalent radius iii)Metallic radius.
i) Atomic radius: The distance from the centre the nucleus to the outermost shell of an atom.
ii)Covalent radius: One half of the distance between the nuclei of two covalently bonded atoms.
iii)Metallic radius: Half the inter nuclear distance separating the metal cores in the metallic
crystal
7) How does atomic radius vary in a period and in a group? Give reason for the variation.
a)Atomic radius decreases across a period.
Reason: Within the period as the atomic number increases, electrons are added to the same
valence shell and effective nuclear charge increases. Hence atomic size decreases.
b)Atomic radius increases down the group.
Reason: Within the group, number of shells increases. This results in the increase in shielding
effect and effective nuclear charge increases. So size of atom increases.
8) Size of cation is lesser than the parent atom. Why?
A cation is formed by the loss of an electron. As a result effective nuclear charge increases. So
the size decreases.
9) Size of an anion is larger than a neutral atom. Why?
Anion is formed when one or more electrons are added to the valence shell of an atom. The
added electrons will result in increased repulsion among the electrons and a decrease in
effective nuclear charge.
 10) What are isoelectronic species? Give example.
 Different species having same number of electrons and different nuclear charge are called
isoelectronic species. Ex :O2-,F-,Na+ and Mg2+
11) Define ionization enthalpy. How does it vary along the period and down the group in the
periodic table? Explain.
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated gaseous atom in the
ground state is called ionization enthalpy.
 Ionization enthalpy increases along the period.
Reason: This is because along the period atomic size decreases and effective nuclear
charge increases.
 Ionization enthalpy decreases down the group.
Reason: This is because atomic size increases down the group due to the increase in
number of shells. The shielding effect increases and hence effective nuclear charge
decreases.
12) Define electron gain enthalpy. How does it vary along the period and down the group of
the periodic table?
The enthalpy change accompanying the addition of an electron to a neutral gaseous atom is
called electron gain enthalpy.
 Electron gain enthalpy becomes more negative along the period.
Reason: This is because the effective nuclear charge increases from left to right and it will
be easier to add an electron to a smaller atom.
 Electron gain enthalpy becomes less negative down the group.
Reason: This is because size of the atom increases and the added electron will be farther
from the nucleus.
13) Define electronegativity. How does it vary along the period and down the group? Explain.
The ability of an atom to attract the shared pair of electrons towards itself in a covalent bond is
called electronegativity.
 Electronegativity increases from left to right and decreases down the group.
Reason: This is due to the decrease in size along the period and increase in size down the
group.

4. CHEMICAL BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE

1) State octet rule.
Octet rule states that when atoms of different elements combine to form molecule, it does either
by transfer of electrons from one atom to another or by sharing of electrons in order to have an
octet(8 electrons) in their valence shell.
2) Give any two limitations of octet rule
 a) It fails to explain the incomplete octet of the central atom. Examples: The central atom Li, Be
and B in LiCl, BeCl2 and BCl3 have 1,2 and 3 valence electrons only respectively.
b) The octet rule is not satisfied for the atoms in a molecule having an odd no of electrons.
Examples: NO and NO2
c) The octet rule cannot be applied in case of elements in and beyond the third period of the
periodic table since these elements have more than 8 electrons. Examples: PF5, SF6,H2SO4 etc.,
d) This rule fails to explain the shape and relative stability of molecules.
3) What is covalent bond? Explain the formation of covalent bond with an example.
It is a type of bond formed when the atoms of same or different elements combine by mutual
sharing of electrons.
Example: Formation of single covalent bond in chlorine molecule: Single covalent bond is
formed by sharing of one pair of electrons between two atoms.

4) Define ionic bond? Give an example.

Ionic bond is defined as the bond formed by electrostatic force of attraction between positive and
negative ions. Example:

5) Define bond length.

It is defined as the equilibrium distance between the nuclei of two bonded atoms in amolecule.
6) Define covalent radius.
It is defined as half of the distance between two similar atoms linked by a covalent bond in the
same molecule.
7) Define bond angle.
Bond angle is defined as the angle between the two orbitals containing bonding electron pairs
around the central atom in a molecule.
8) Define bond enthalpy?
Bond enthalpy is defined as the amount of energy required to break one mole of bonds of a
particular type between two atoms in a gaseous state.
9) Define dipole moment. What is its unit?
 It is defined as “the product of the magnitude of the charge and the distance between the centres
of positive and negative charge”.
The unit of dipole moment is Debye.
10) Predict the dipole moment and geometry of BeF2 molecule.
Dipole moment of BeF2 is zero, since it is a linear molecule.
11) Write any four postulates of VSEPR theory.
a) The shape of the molecule depends upon the number of electron pairs present in the
valence shell around the central atom in a molecule.
b) Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since their electron clouds are
negatively charged.
c) These pair of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that minimize repulsion
and thus maximize distance between them.
d) If the central atom is surrounded by lone pairs(lp) as well as bond pairs(bp), then the
molecule will have a distorted geometry.
e) The relative order of repulsion between electron pairs is as follows: lp-lp>lp-bp>bp-bp.
12) Explain the geometry of NH3 and H2O molecule based on VSEPR theory.
NH3 molecule: According to VSEPR theory, NH3 should have tetrahedral shape due to
presence of 4 electron pairs. The presence of lone pair on nitrogen causes greater repulsion to the
bond pairs. As a result of which the three N-H bonds move slightly closer. So it decreases the
normal tetrahedral bond angle of 109.50 to 1070. Therefore, ammonia has irregular geometry.
Since one of the tetrahedral position is occupied by lone pair, the shape of ammonia molecule is
pyramidal.
13) Write the main postulates of valence bond theory (VBT).
a) A covalent bond is formed by the partial overlap of two half-filled atomic orbitals of two
atoms.
b) Greater the overlapping of atomic orbitals between the atoms, stronger the covalent bond
formed.
c) When a covalent bond is formed, the energy of the molecule decreases and the molecule
becomes more stable.
d) The extent of overlapping of orbitals follows the following order.
s-s overlapping < s-p overlapping < p-p overlapping.
e) Overlapping along the axis is stronger than the overlapping on sideways.
14) Give the differences between sigma bond (σ) and Pi bond (π).

Sl no sigma bond (σ) Pi bond (π)

The bond is formed by the axial The bond is formed by the
1.
overlap of the atomic orbitals. sideway overlap of the atomic
 orbitals.
Sigma bond is stronger since the Pi bond is weaker since the
2.
extent of overlapping is greater. extent of overlapping is weaker.
Sigma bond involves overlap of s- Pi bond involves the overlap of
3.
s, s-p or p-p orbitals. p-orbitals only.
The bond may be present between The bond is always present
4.
the two atoms either alone or between the two atoms along
along with pi bond. with a sigma bond.
Free rotation of the atoms around Free rotation of the atoms
5.
σ-bond is possible around π-bond is not possible.
15) What is hybridization?
Hybridization is defined as intermixing of pure atomic orbitals of slightly different energies and
different shapes to give equal number of hybrid orbitals of same energies and identical shape.
16) Give salient features of hybridization.
a) The hybrid orbitals are equivalent in energy and shape.
b) The orbitals taking part in hybridization must have only a small difference in energy.
c) The number of hybrid orbitals is the same as the number of atomic orbitals that undergo
hybridization.
d) Both half filled and completely filled orbitals take part in hybridization.
e) Hybrid orbitals form more stable bonds.
f) The type of hybridization gives the shape of molecules.
17) Explain sp hybridization by taking BeCl2 as an example.

The electronic configuration of 'Be' in ground state is 1s2 2s2. Since there are no unpaired
electrons, it undergoes excitation by promoting one of its 2s electron into empty 2p orbital.
Thus in the excited state, the electronic configuration of Be is 1s2 2s1 2p1.
If the beryllium atom forms bonds using these pure orbitals, the molecule might be angular.
However the observed shape of BeCl2 is linear. To account for this, following sp hybridization
was proposed.
In the excited state, the beryllium atom undergoes 'sp' hybridization by mixing a 2s and one 2p
orbitals. Thus two half filled 'sp' hybrid orbitals are formed, which are arranged linearly.

These half filled sp-orbitals form two σ bonds with two 'Cl' atoms.
These half filled sp-orbitals form two σ bonds with two 'Cl' atoms.
Thus BeCl2 is linear in shape with the bond angle of 180o.
These half filled sp-orbitals form two σ bonds with two 'Cl' atoms.
 18) Explain sp hybridization in acetylene (C2H2) molecule.

The ground state electronic configuration of 'C' is 1s2 2s2 2px12py1. There are only two
unpaired electrons in the ground state. However, the valency of carbon is four i.e., it forms 4
bonds. In order to form four bonds, there must be four unpaired electrons. Hence carbon
promotes one of its 2s electron into the empty 2pz orbital in the excited state.
Thus in the excited state, the electronic configuration of carbon is 1s2 2s1 2px12py12pz1.

Each carbon atom undergoes 'sp' hybridization by using a 2s and one 2p orbitals in the excited state
to give two half filled 'sp' orbitals, which are arranged linearly.
The two carbon atoms form a σsp-sp bond with each other by using sp-orbitals.
However there are also two unhybridized p orbitals i.e., 2py and 2pz on each carbon atom which
are perpendicular to the sp hybrid orbitals. These orbitals form two πp-p bonds between the two
carbon atoms.
Thus a triple bond (including one σsp-sp bond & two πp-p bonds ) is formed between carbon atoms.
Each carbon also forms a σsp-s bond with the hydrogen atom.
Thus acetylene molecule is linear with 180o of bond angle.

19) Explain sp2 hybridization by taking BCl3 as an example.

The electronic configuration of 'B' in ground state is 1s2 2s2 2p1 with only one unpaired
electron. Since the formation of three bonds with chlorine atoms require three unpaired
electrons, there is promotion of one of 2s electron into the 2p sublevel by absorbing energy.
Thus Boron atom gets electronic configuration: 1s2 2s2 2px12py1.
However to account for the trigonal planar shape of this BCl3 molecule, sp2 hybridization
before bond formation was put forwarded.
 In the excited state, Boron undergoes sp2 hybridization by using a 2s and two 2p orbitals to
give three half filled sp2 hybrid orbitals which are oriented in trigonal planar
symmetry.

Boron forms three σsp-p bonds with three chlorine atoms by using its half filled sp2 hybrid
orbitals. Each chlorine atom uses it's half filled p-orbital for the σ-bond formation.
Thus the shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar with bond angles equal to 120o.
Boron forms three σsp-p bonds with three chlorine atoms by using its half filled sp2 hybrid
orbitals. Each chlorine atom uses it's half filled p-orbital for the σ-bond formation.
Thus the shape of BCl3 is trigonal planar with bond angles equal to 120o.

20) Explain sp2 hybridization in ethylene(C2H2) molecule.

During the formation of ethylene molecule, each carbon atom undergoes sp2 hybridization in its
excited state by mixing 2s and two 2p orbitals to give three half filled sp2 hybrid orbitals
oriented in trigonal planar symmetry.
There is also one half filled unhybridized 2pz orbital on each carbon perpendicular to the plane
of sp2 hybrid orbitals.

The carbon atoms form a σsp2-sp2 bond with each other by using sp2 hybrid orbitals.
A πp-p bond is also formed between them due to lateral overlapping of unhybridized 2pz orbitals.
Thus there is a double bond (σsp2-sp2 & πp-p) between two carbon atoms.
Each carbon atom also forms two σsp2-s bonds with two hydrogen atoms.
Thus ethylene molecule is planar with ∠HCH & ∠HCC bond angles equal to 120o.
 All the atoms are present in one plane.

21) Explain sp3 hybridization by taking methane (CH4) as an example.

During the formation of methane molecule, the carbon atom undergoes sp 3 hybridization in the
excited state by mixing one „2s‟ and three 2p orbitals to furnish four half filled sp 3 hybrid
orbitals, which are oriented in tetrahedral symmetry in space around the carbon atom.
* Each of these sp3 hybrid orbitals forms a σsp3-s bond with one hydrogen atom. Thus carbon
forms four σsp3-s bonds with four hydrogen atoms.
* Methane molecule is tetrahedral in shape with 109o28' bond angle.

22) Give the salient features of molecular orbital theory (MOT).

1. When two atomic orbitals having same energy and proper symmetry are
approaching each other molecular orbitals are formed by the linear combination of atomic
orbitals.
2. The no. of molecular orbitals formed is equal to no. of atomic orbitals undergoing
combination.
3. During LCAO , two types of molecular orbitals are formed, bonding and
antibonding molecular orbitals.
4. Electrons are added to various molecular orbitals according to Aufbau‟s principle,
Paul‟s exclusion principle and Hund‟s rule.
23) Give the differences between bonding molecular orbital (BMO) and anti bonding
molecular orbital (ABMO).
S.No Bonding molecular orbital (BMO) anti bonding molecular orbital (ABMO)

Less energy More energy

1
 more stable less stable
2
Represented by σ1s, σ2s, π2px= π2py Represented by σ*1s, σ*2s, π*2px= π*2py
3
Formed by the addition of atomic Formed by the subtraction of atomic orbitals
4
orbitals

24) Write the electronic configuration of O2 molecule and calculate its bond order based on
MOT.
KK(σ2s)2 (σ*2s)2 σ2pz2(π2px2= π2py2)( π *2px‟= π*2py‟)
Bond order= ½[Nb-Na]
= ½[10-6]
=2

5. STATES OF MATTER
1) Name the intermolecular forces present among HCl molecules.
Dipole-Dipole attractive forces.
2) Give an example for induced dipole-induced dipole forces
H2, N2, O2, Ne, He etc.,
3) Give an example for dipole-induced dipole attractive forces.
Water and Neon, Water and Helium, HCl and N2
4) State Boyle’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
Boyle‟s law states that “at constant temperature, the pressure of affixed amount of gas is
inversely proportional to its volume”.
Mathematically, Pα 1/V at constant T or P = k/V
5) State Charle’s law. Write its mathematical expression.
Charle‟s law states that “at constant pressure,, the volume of a fixed mass of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature”.
Mathematically, V α T at constant P or V/T = k.
6) What is absolute zero temperature?
The lowest hypothetical or imaginary temperature (-273.150C) at which volume of any gas
becomes zero is called absolute zero temperature.
7) State Gay-Lussac’s law. Write its mathematical expression.
It states that “the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature at constant volume.”
Mathematically, Pα T at constant V for a given mass of gas.
8) State Avogadro’s law. Give its mathematical expression.
 Avogadro‟s law states that “equal volumes of all gases under the same conditions of temperature
and pressure contain equal number of molecules”. Or
Avogadro‟s law can also be stated as “the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its number
of moles as long as the temperature and pressure are kept constant”.
Mathematically, Vα n at constant P & T or V = kn at constant P& T.
9) What is an ideal gas?
A gas which obeys Boyle‟s law, Charle‟s law and Avogadro‟s law at all temperature and pressure
is called an ideal gas.
10) Derive ideal gas equation.
According to
Boyle‟s law Vα 1/p at constant T and n
Charle‟s law VαT at constant p and n
Avogadro‟s law Vαn at constant p and T
By combining all these law‟s
V α nT/P
PV = nRT
The above equation is called ideal gas equation or equation of state.
11) State Dalton’s law of partial pressure. Give its mathematical expression.
It states that “ the total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-reacting gases is equal to the sum of
the partial pressures of all the component gases at constant temperature”.
Mathematically it is expressed as P = p1+p2+p3…….pn

12) Give the postulates of Kinetic molecular theory of gases.

The postulates of kinetic molecular theory of gases are
a) Gases are made up of extremely small particles called molecules.
b) The gaseous molecules moves randomly in the form of straight line.
c) The collisions between the gaseous molecules are perfectly elastic.
d) The pressure of the gas is due to the collision of gaseous molecules on the walls of the
container.
e) There are no intermolecular forces of attraction between the molecules of a gas.
f) The volume of a gas molecule is negligible compared to the volume occupied by the gas.
g) The average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the absolute
temperature.
13) What are the causes for the deviations of real gases from ideal behavior?
The deviation of real gases from ideal behavior is due to wrong assumptions made in the kinetic
theory of gases. These are
a) There is no force of attraction between the gas molecules.
 b) Volume of the gas molecule is negligible when compared to the volume of gas.

If assumption (a) is correct, the gas will never liquefy. But gases liquefy when cooled and
compressed. The assumption (b) can be true only when volume of the gas is large and pressure is
very low, and hence volume of the molecules cannot be neglected.

14) What are the conditions under which gases deviate from ideal behaviour?
Under high pressure and low temperature, real gases show more deviations from ideal behaviour.
15) Give the differences between ideal and non ideal (real) gases.
Ideal gas Real gas
1 Obeys both Boyle‟s and Charle‟s law at all T Does not obey Boyle‟s and Charle‟s law
and P at all P and T.
2 Obeys ideal gas equation PV=nRT. Does not obey ideal gas equation
PV=nRT
3 There are no intermolecular force of There are weak van der Waal‟s force of
attraction between gas molecules. attraction between gas molecules.
4 Volume of gas molecules is negligible when Volume of the gas molecules cannot be
compared to the total volume occupied by the ignored when compared to the total
gas. volume occupied by the gas at high
pressure.
5 Cannot be liquefied Can be liquefied

16) Write vander Waals equation for n mole of gas & 1 mole of gas?
(P+an2/V2) (V-nb) = nRT for n mole of a gas.
(P+a/V2) (V-b) = RT for 1 mole of a gas.
17) Define compressibility factor (Z). What is the value of compressibility factor Z in an ideal
gas and non-ideal (real gas)?
It is defined as the ratio of product pV and RT
Mathematically, Z = PV/nRT
For ideal gas, Z = 1
For real gas, Z > 1 or Z < 1.
18) Define Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas laws over an appreciable range of pressure is
called Boyle temperature or Boyle point.
19) Define i) Critical temperature (Tc.)ii)Critical pressure (Pc) iii)Critical volume (Vc)
Critical temperature: It is defined as the temperature above which a gas cannot be liquefied by
applying pressure.
 Critical Pressure: It is defined as the minimum pressure required to cause liquefaction of a gas at
critical temperature.
Critical Volume: It is the volume occupied by one mole of a gas at critical temperature and
critical pressure.
20) Define boiling point.
The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure is called the
boiling point.
21) Define surface tension. What is its SI unit?
Surface tension is defined as the force acting per unit length perpendicular to the imaginary line
drawn on the surface of liquid. The SI unit of surface tension is Nm-1.
22) Define viscosity of a liquid. Give the SI unit of coefficient of viscosity.
Viscosity of a liquid is a measure of resistance to flow which arises due to the internal friction
between the layers of fluid as they slip one another while liquid flows.
SI unit of coefficient of viscosity is Nsm-2 or kg m-1 s-1

6. THERMODYNAMICS
1) Define (i) Open system (ii) Closed system (iii) Isolated system.
A system which can exchange matter as well as energy with its surroundings is called open
system. The presence of reactants in an open beaker is an example of an open system.
A system which can exchange only energy but not matter with its surrounding is called a closed
system. Pressure cooker is an example of closed system.
A system which can exchange neither energy nor matter with its surrounding is called an isolated
system. The presence of reactants in a thermos flask is an example of an isolated system.
2) Define internal energy.
The internal energy is the total amount of kinetic and potential energy possessed by the system. It
is denoted by the symbol U. The internal energy is made up of different kinds of energies like
translational energy of molecules, rotational energy of the molecules, vibrational energy of the
molecules, electronic energy, nuclear energy and gravitational energy. Internal energy of any
substance depends on temperature and amount of the sample.
3) What is adiabatic process?
A process in which there is no exchange of heat between the system and surrounding is known as
adiabatic process.
4) State first law of thermodynamics. Write its mathematical form.
The law states that “the energy of an isolated system is constant” OR “energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, although it can be transformed from one form to another”.
∆U=q + W
5) What is isothermal process/ reversible process/irreversible process?
 A process is said to be isothermal if the temperature of the system remains constant during each
step of the process.
A process which is carried out infinitesimally slowly so that it can be reversed at any instant of
time by reversing the driving force by infinitesimal amount is called a reversible process.
A rapid process which cannot be reversed at any instant of time by reversing the driving force by
small amount is called irreversible process.
6) Write the relation between enthalpy change and internal energy change.
∆H=∆U + q ∆V
7) What is exothermic /endothermic reaction?
A reaction during which heat is evolved (∆H=-ve) is called exothermic reaction.
A reaction during which heat is absorbed (∆H=+ve)is called endothermic reaction.
8) Define extensive property/intensive property.
A property which depends on the quantity of matter present in the system is called extensive
property. Examples :Mass, Volume, internal energy, heat, free energy, entropy etc.
A property which is independent on the quantity of matter present in the system is called
intensive property. Examples :Density, surface tension, viscosity, specific heat, thermal
conductivity, refractive index, pressure, temperature, boiling point, freezing point etc.
9) Define heat capacity/ molar heat capacity/specific heat capacity.
Heat capacity (C) is the measurable physical quantity that characterizes the amount of heat
required to change the temperature of substance by a given amount.
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one mole of a substance by one degree
Celsius or Kelvin is called molar heat capacity(Cm )
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance by one degree
Celsius or one Kelvin is called specific heat capacity.
10) State Hess’s law of heat summation.
Hess‟s law states that “the enthalpy change is same whether a reaction is carried out in one step
or several steps”.
11) What is a spontaneous process/entropy?
A process which occurs on its own with or without proper initiation under the given set of
conditions is called spontaneous process.
Entropy is a measure of disorder.
12) Define Gibb’s free energy(G).Write Gibb’s equation.
The portion of enthalpy of a system that is available for useful work is called Gibbs free energy.
Gibbs equation:∆G=∆H-T∆S
13) State second /third law of thermodynamics.
Second law states that “increase in entropy in isolated system is the natural direction of a
spontaneous change”.
 Third law states that “the entropy of any pure crystalline substance approaches zero as the
temperature approaches zero Kelvin.

7. EQUILIBRIUM
1) Define equilibrium state.
It is state of balance in a reversible reaction at which the rate of forward reaction is equal to the
rate of backward reaction.
2) State Henry’s law.
Henry‟s law states that “the mass of gas dissolved in a given mass of a solvent is proportional to
the pressure of the gas above the solvent”.
3) State law of equilibrium.
Law of equilibrium states that “at a given temperature ,the product of concentrations of the
reaction products raised to the respective stoichiometric coefficient in the balanced chemical
equation divided by the product of concentrations of the reactants raised to their individual
stoichiometric coefficients has a constant valve”.
4) Define equilibrium constant.
It is the ratio of the product of molar concentrations of the product to the product of molar
concentrations of the reactants raised to the respective stoichiometric coefficients as mentioned in
the balanced chemical equation.
5) What is homogeneous/heterogeneous equilibrium?
An equilibrium is said to be homogeneous if reactants and products are in the same phase.
Example:N2(g)+3H2(g)↔2NH3(g)
An equilibrium is said to be heterogeneous if reactants and products are in the different phase.
Example :CaCO3(s)↔CaO(s)+CO2(g).
6) State Le chatelier’s principle .
It states that a “change in any of the factors that determine the equilibrium conditions of a system
will cause the system to change in such a manner so as to reduce or to counteract the effect of
change”.
OR
It can also be stated as “if a constraint (change in temperature, pressure, concentration) is applied
to a system at equilibrium, the system itself adjust to nullify the effect of the applied constraint”.
7) What are electrolytes and non electrolytes?
Compounds that conduct electricity either in solution state or in fused state are called
electrolytes.
Ex: NaCl, HCl
Compounds that do not conduct electricity either in solution state or in fused state are called non
electrolytes.
 8) What are strong and weak electrolytes?
Electrolytes in which dissociation proceeds to almost completion are called strong electrolytes.
Ex: NaCl, HCl, NaOH.
Electrolytes in which dissociation is partial are called weak electrolytes.
Ex:H2CO3,NH4OH.
9) Explain Bronsted-Lowry theory of acids and bases.
“ Acid is a substance, which has a tendency to donate a proton to other substance”.
“Base is a substance which has a tendency to accept a proton from other substance”.
OR
“Acid is a proton donor and base is proton acceptor”.
10) Define acid and base according to Lewis theory with examples.
“Acid is an electron pair acceptor and base is an electron pair donor.”
11) Define ionic product of water. What is its value at 298 K?
It is defined as the product of molar concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions.
Kw=[H+][OH-]
At 298 K , Kw=10-14 M2
12) Define pH scale /pH of a solution/pOH of a solution.
pH scale is a negative logarithmic scale used to express hydronium ion concentration in
molarity.
pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base ten molar concentration of hydrogen
ion.
pOH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm to base ten molar concentration of
hydroxyl ion.
13) What is common ion effect?
The suppression of degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte by adding strong electrolyte having
common ion effect.
14) What are buffer solution?
A solution which resist the change in pH on dilution or with the addition of small amounts of an
acid or alkali is called buffer solution.
15) Give an example for acidic /basic buffer.
Acidic buffer example: Mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate.
Basic buffer example: Mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride.
8. REDOX REACTIONS
1) Define a) Oxidation b) Reduction in terms of electron transfer.
Oxidation: Loss of electron(s) by any species is called oxidation.
Reduction : Gain of electron(s) by any species is called reduction.
2) What is an oxidizing agent (oxidant)?
 oxidizing agent as an acceptor of electron(s)
3) What is a reducing agent (reductant)?
Reducing agent is a donor of electron.
4) Name the most powerful oxidizing agent.
Fluorine (F2)
5) Define Oxidation Number.
It is an apparent or the actual charge possessed by an atom of the element in the molecule.
6) What is the ON of an element?
zero(0).
7) What happens to the ON of an element during a) Oxidation b) Reduction?
During Oxidation ON of an element increases. During reduction ON of an element decreases.
8) What is the ON of hydrogen in hydrides?
-1
9) What is the ON of oxygen in peroxides?
-1.
10) What is the ON of oxygen in OF2?
+2.
11) What is a redox reaction? Give an Example.
A chemical reaction in which both oxidation and reduction takes place simultaneously is called redox
reaction. Zn(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2(aq)+ Cu(s)
12) Write the formula for the following compounds representing using Stock notation.
a) Nickel(II) Sulphate = Ni(II)SO4
b) Tin(IV)Oxide = Sn(IV)O2
c) Thallium(I)Sulphate = Tl2(I)SO4
d) Iron(III)Sulphate. = Fe2(III)(SO4)3.
13) Using stock notation, represent the following compounds:
b) Fe2O3 = Fe2(III)O3
c) CuO = Cu(II)
d) MnO = Mn(II)O
e) MnO2 = Mn(IV)O2.
14) Calculate the ON of P in a) HPO32- and b) PO4 3-.
a. HPO3 2- = (+1)+x+3(-2) =-2
= +1+x-6=-2
X=+3
b. PO4 3- = x+4(-2)=-3
= x-8=-3
X = +5
 15) Give an example for decomposition redox reaction.
The redox reaction in which chemical compound undergo decomposition to give products
containing at least one elemental state.
Ex: +1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0
2KClO3(s) → 2KCl(s) + 3O2 (g)
16) Give an example for metal displacement reaction.
A metal in a compound can be displaced by another metal in the uncombined state.
Ex +2 0 0 +2
CuSO42-(aq) + Zn(s) → Cu(s) + ZnSO4 (aq)
17) Give an example for non-metal displacement reaction.
A redox reaction in which metal displaces a non metal is called non metal displacement reaction.
Ex: 0 +1 -2 +1 -2 0
2Na(s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
18) What is disproportionation reaction? Give an example.
It is a redox reaction in which a species undergoes both oxidation and reduction simultaneously.
+1 -1 + 1 -2 0
2H2O2(aq) → 2 H2O(l) + O2(g)

Note: To balance the redox reactions, use the following steps.

1. Write the skeletal equation of all the reactants and product of the reaction.
2. Indicate the ON of each element in the equation and identify the elements which undergo a
change in the ON .
3. Calculate the increase or decrease in ON per atom and identify the oxidizing and reducing
agents.
4. Multiply the formulae of the oxidizing and the reducing agents by suitable integers so as to
equalize the total increase or decrease in ON.
5. Balance the No of atoms other than hydrogen and oxygen..
6. Balance hydrogen and oxygen atoms by adding H2O molecules using hit and trial method.
In acidic medium : H+ and H2O are used
In basic medium : OH- and H2O are used.

9. HYDROGEN
1) Name the radioactive isotope of hydrogen?

Tritium

2) Why water gas is called synthesis gas or syn gas?

Because water gas is used in the synthesis of a number of hydrocarbons and methyl alcohol.
3) What is coal gasification?
The of producing syn gas from coal gas is called coal gasification.

4) Give any two similarities of hydrogen with group-I elements?

a) Hydrogen atom has one valence electron similar to alkali metal atoms of group-I

b) Hydrogen can lose valence electron to form unipositive ion, which is similar to alkali metals
which also loses their valence electron forming alkali metal ion.

5) Give the laboratory method of preparing dihydrogen?

Hydrogen is prepared in laboratory by action of zinc with dil. HCl

Equation: Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2

6) What is water-gas shift reaction?

A reaction in which production of dihydrogen can be increased can be increased by reacting CO of

syn gas mixture with steam in the presence of iron chromate catalyst is called water gas shift
reaction. Equation: CO + H2O→CO2 + H2

7) What is water gas? What is the use of it?

The mixture of CO and H2 is called water gas .The mixture is used for the synthesis of methanol and
number of hydrocarbons.

8) Give reason: Why water has maximum density at 4oC?

Water has a maximum density at 4oC because from 0oC to 4oC, density increases since volume
decreases due breaking of hydrogen bonds. Above 4oC thermal expansion becomes greater than
contraction.

9) What are hydrides? Give the classification of hydrides.

Binary compounds of hydrogen are Called hydrides. Hydrides are classified into three types namely

Ionic hydrides or saline hydrides, Covalent hydrides or molecular hydrides and metallic hydrides
or interstitial hydrides.

10) What are ionic hydrides? Give examples

These are stoichiometric compounds of dihydrogen formed with most of the s-block elements
which are highly electropositive in character. Elements of group 1 and 2 except lighter metals like
Li, Be and Mg will form hydrides .EX: NaH , KH, RbH etc

11) What are covalent hydrides? Give examples.

These are hydrides in which hydrogen is covalently bonded to other elements. P-block elements
generally form covalent hydrides .The molecules are held by weak vanderWaals force of
attraction.EX:NH3, H2O, PH3

12) What are electron deficient hydrides? Give examples.

An electron deficient hydride has few electrons for writing its conventional Lewis structure.
 EX: B2H6

13) What are electron precise hydrides? Give examples.

They have the required number of electrons to write their conventional Lewis structure.

EX: CH4

14) What are electron rich hydrides? Give examples.

They have excess electrons which are present as lone pairs .EX: NH3, H2O, HF

15) Give the difference between temporary hardness and permanent hardness

SL TEMPORARY HARDNESS PERMANENT HARDNESS

NO

1 It is due to the presence of It is due to the presence of salts of

magnesium and calcium magnesium and calcium in the form
bicarbonates of their chlorides and sulphates

2 It can be removed by boiling It can be removed by treating with

or by adding slaked lime to Na2CO3 or by ion exchange method
hard water

16) Explain the process of softening of temporary hardness by Clark’s method.

Temporary hard water is converted into soft water by adding required amount of calcium hydroxide.
In this method Mg2+ ions are precipitated as Mg(OH)2 and Ca2+ ions are precipitated as CaCO3.

Mg (HCO3)2 →Mg (OH)2 +2CO2

Ca (HCO3)2→ 2CaCO3→2H20 + 2CO2. The insoluble precipitates can be removed by filtration.

17) Explain softening of hard water by ion exchange method.

Ion exchange method consists of sodium aluminium silicate called zeolite or permutit .When this
is added in hard water ion exchange reaction takes place

2NaZ+M2+----------->MZ2+2Na+
18) Write a note on volume strength of hydrogen peroxide.

A 30 % hydrogen peroxide is marketed as 100 volume H2O2 .It means that one mL of 30 %
H2O2 solution will give 100V of oxygen at STP. Commercially, it is marketed as 10 volume, which
means it contains 3% H2O2 .

19) Write a note on storage of hydrogen peroxide.

H2O2 decomposes slowly on exposure to light , H2O2→ 2H2O + O2. In the presence of metal
surfaces or traces of alkali, the above reaction is catalyzed . Hence it is stored in wax- lined glass
or plastic vessels in dark.
10. S-BLOCK ELEMENTS
1) Write the general electronic configuration s-block elements.

(Noble gas) ns1-2

2) How does ionization enthalpy of alkali metals changes down the group? Give reason.

Ionization enthalpy of alkali metals decreases down the group because the size of metal atom
increases due to the addition of new shells along with the increase in magnitude of nuclear
charge.

3) What is dead burnt plaster?

When gypsum is heated above 393K , anhydrous calcium sulphate is formed .This is called dead
burnt plaster.
4) What is diagonal relationship?
It is the similarity of first element of a group to the second element in the next higher group.
5) Why Lithium is diagonally related to Magnesium?
Due to their smaller sizes and high polarizing power.
6) Alkali metals are normally kept in kerosene oil. Why?
Due to high reactivity of alkali metals with air and water.
7) Lithium is powerful reducing agent than other alkali metals. Why?
Due to small size of lithium ion, its hydration enthalpy is very high .
8) Caesium and potassium metals are used as electrodes in photoelectric cells. Explain
When caesium and potassium metals are irradiated with light, light energy absorbed is
sufficient to make an atom lose electron .Hence used as electrodes
9) Why alkaline earth metals are weaker reducing agents than alkali metals?
Alkaline earth metals are higher due to the completely filled orbitals than alkali metals.
10) What is slaking of lime?
When water is added to lime, it becomes hot and cracks to form a white powder. This process is
called slaking of lime.
11) How is calcium hydroxide prepared ?
It is prepared by adding water to quick lime (CaO).
CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2
12) When carbon dioxide is passed through lime water, it turns milky Why? Give the chemical
reaction.
Due to the formation of calcium carbonate.
Ca (OH)2+ CO2 → CaCO3+H2O
13) How does milk of lime reacts with chlorine? Write the chemical reaction.
 Milk of lime reacts with chlorine to form bleaching powder.
2 Ca(OH)2+Cl2 → CaCl2+ Ca(OCl)2 +2H2O
14) Give two methods of preparation of calcium carbonate.
Calcium carbonate is prepared by passing carbon dioxide through slaked lime.
Ca(OH)2+ CO2→ CaCO3+ H2O
15) What is plaster of paris? How is it obtained?
Plaster of paris is a hemihydrate of calcium sulphate (CaSO4 . 1/2 H2O). Plaster of paris is
obtained by heating gypsum to 393K
2 (CaSO4.2H2O)→ 2 (CaSO4). H2O + 3 H2O.
16) Why Beryllium shows anomalous behaviour as compared other elements of same
group.
It is mainly because of,
(i) its small size and high polarizing power,
(ii) relatively high electro negativity and ionization energy as compared to other members,
(iii) absence of vacant d-orbitals in its valence shell.
17) Give the anomalous properties of beryllium.
1. Beryllium forms covalent compounds whereas other members form ionic compounds.
2. Beryllium does not exhibit coordination more than four orbitals in the valence shell.
3. The oxide and hydroxide of beryllium are amphoteric in nature.
18) Give similarities of Be and Al due to their diagonal relationship.
(i) Like Aluminium , Be is not attacked by acids because of the presence of an oxide film on
the surface of metal,
(ii) Both beryllium and aluminium hydroxides dissolved in sodium hydroxide to form
beryllate and aluminate ion respectively.
19) Explain the process of softening of temporary hardness by Clark’s method.
Temporary hard water is converted into soft water by adding a required amount of calcium
hydroxide. In this method Mg2+ions are precipitated as Mg(OH)2 and Ca2+ ions are precipitated
as CaCO3. Ca(HCO3)2+Ca(OH)2→ 2CaCO3+ 2H2O
20) Describe the manufacture of sodium carbonate by Solvay process.
Step1: preparation of ammonical brine
Ammonia is passed through a Saturated solution of sodium chloride in water , ammoniacal
brine is formed .It is cooled to 30oC
Step 2: carbonation
Carbon dioxide gas is passed through ammoniacal brine ,where ammonium carbonate and
sodiumbicarbonate.

2NH3 + H2O + CO2 → (NH4)2CO3

(NH4)2CO3 + H2O + CO2 → 2NH4HCO3

 NH4HCO3 + NaCl → NH4Cl + NaHCO3.

Sodium bi carbonate crystal separates and these are heated to give sodium carbonate.

2NaHCO3→ Na2CO3 + CO2+H2O

Step 3: Recovery of ammonia

Ammonia is recovered when the solution containing ammonium chloride is treated with
Ca(OH)2.

2 NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2+ 2NH3+ H2O

21) Describe the manufacture of sodium hydroxide by Castner –Kellner’s electrolytic process.
A brine solution is electrolyzed using a mercury cathode and a carbon anode .Sodium metal
discharged at the cathode combines with mercury to form sodium amalgam.
2Na+ + 2e- →2Na (reduction)
Na + Hg →Na-Hg (amalgam)
Chlorine gas is evolved at the anode
2Cl- →Cl2 +2e- (oxidation)
The mercury containing dissolved in sodium is sent to another chamber called decomposer,
where sodium reacts with water forming sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. Decomposer is
packed with graphite blocks as hydrogen is easily liberated over graphite surface.
2Na-Hg +2H2O → 2NaOH +H2+2Hg
The solution which flows out from decomposer is NaOH solution which is evaporated to dryness.
22) Give two uses of sodium hydroxide
i) refining of petroleum
ii) making paper and soaps
23) Give two uses of sodium bicarbonate(baking soda)
i) Used as baking powder
ii) Used as fire extinguisher and antiseptic for skin infections
24) Give the biological importance of sodium
i) transmission of nerve signals
ii) regulating the flow of water across cell membranes
25) Give the biological importance of potassium
i) Activates many enzymes
ii) Participate in the oxidation of glucose

11. P-BLOCK ELEMENTS

1) Write the general electronic configuration of p-block elements.
[noble gas] ns2np1-6
2) What is the type of hybridization of boron in diborane?
 sp3
3) Write the chemical formula of Borax.
Na2B4O7.10H2O
4) Which compound is called inorganic benzene and write its molecular formula.
Borazine- B3N3H6
5) Give reasons for the anomalous behaviour of Boron.
It is due to the absence of d orbitals.
6) How does Aluminium react with dil.HCl? Give the equation.
Aluminium dissolves in dil.HCl and liberates dihydrogen.
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 6Cl-(aq) + 3H2(g)
7) Give reason: In group 13 elements, the stability of +3 oxidation state decreases down the group.
Due to poor shielding effect of intervening d and f orbitals, the increased effective nuclear charge
holds ns electrons tightly and thereby restricting their participation in bonding. As a result of this
only p-orbital electrons involve in bonding.
8) Name the starting material used in the manufacture of organo silicon polymer.
Alkyl or aryl substituted silicon chlorides, RnSiCl(4-n)
9) Solid carbon dioxide is also known as--------
Dry ice
10) Give one use each for (i) boron (ii) Aluminum
(i) Boron- making bullet proof vest and light composite material for aircraft
(ii) Aluminium- forms alloys which can be used for packing, utensils aero plane, constructions etc.
11) What happens when diborane is exposed to air?
Diborane burns in oxygen releasing an enormous amount of energy.
B2H6 + 3O2 → B2O3 + 3H2O
12) Boron cannot have covalency more than 4. Give reason.
It is due to the absence of d orbitals that the maximum covalence of B is 4.
13) What is catenation?
Carbon atoms have the tendency to link with one another through covalent bonds to form chains and
rings.
14) What is inert pair effect?
The occurrence of oxidation states two units less than the group oxidation states is known as inert
pair effect. (Or) Due to poor shielding effect of inner d and f-orbitals, the increased effective nuclear
charge holds ns electrons tightly and thereby restricting their participation in bonding.
15) What are allotropes? Name the allotropes of carbon?
Atoms of same element having same chemical properties but different physical properties are known
as allotropes. Allotropes of carbon- Graphite, Diamond, Fullerene
16) What is the hybridization in graphite, diamond and fullerene?
 (i) Graphite-sp2
(ii) Diamond-sp3
(iii) Fullerene-sp2
17) What is producer gas?
Mixture of CO and N2
18) What are silicones? What is the repeating unit in silicone?
They are a group of organosilicon polymers, which have (R2SiO-) as repeating unit.
19) What is the structural unit in silicates? Give an example for silicate.
The basic structural unit of silicates is SiO44-. Examples: Zeolites(hydrated sodium aluminium
silicate), cement, glass
20) Give an example for zeolites.
ZSM-5which is used to convert alcohols directly into gasoline
21) Diamond is bad conductor whereas graphite is good conductor of electricity. Justify.
No free electrons in diamond due to sp3 hybridization. But there are free electrons in graphite due to
sp2 hybridization.

12. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY-SOME BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

1) How many σ and π bonds are present in each of the following molecules?
(a) HC≡C-CH=CH-CH3 (b) CH2=C=CH-CH3
(a) 10 σ-bonds and 3 π bonds (b) 9 σ-bonds and 2 π-bonds
2) Draw bond-line formula for HOCH2CH2CH2CH(CH3)CH(CH3)CH3

HO

3) Give one example for each of the following compound

(a) Heterocyclic (b) alicyclic (c) benzenoid (d) non-benzenoid
Ans. (a) furan (b) cyclopropane (c) benzene (d) tropolone
4) What is functional group? Give two examples.
An atom or group of atoms joined in a specific manner which is responsible for the characteristic
chemical properties of the organic compounds. Ex. Hydroxyl group(-OH), aldehyde group
(-CHO).
5) What is homologous series? Give examples.
A series of series of same class of organic compounds which can be represented by the general
formula and in which any two successive members differ by –CH2– group is called a
homologous series. They have the same chemical properties and regular gradation in physical
properties with increase in molecular mass. Ex. Alkanes, alkenes, alkynes.
6) What is chain isomerism? Explain with an example.
Two or more compounds with same molecular formula but different carbon skeleton are known
as chain isomers and the phenomenon is termed as chain isomerism. Ex. C5H12
CH3 H3C
H3C CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3
H3C C CH3 H3C CH CH2 CH3
Pentane H3C
Neopentane
Isopentane

7) What is position isomerism? Give an example.

Two or more compounds with same molecular formula, differ in position of substituent atom or
functional group on carbon skeleton are known as position isomers and the phenomenon is
termed as position isomerism.
Ex. C3H8O propan-1-ol and propan-2-ol
H3C CH CH3
H3C CH2 CH2 OH
HO
Propan-1-ol
Propan-2-ol

8) What is functional isomerism? Give an example.

Two or more compounds with same molecular formula but different functional groups are called
functional isomers and the phenomenon is termed as functional isomerism.
Ex. C3H6O
H3C CH2 C O H3C C CH3
H O
Propanal
Propanone

9) What is metamerism? Give an example.

It arises due to different alkyl chains on either side of the functional group in the molecule. Ex.
C4H10O represents methoxypropane(CH3OCH3H7) and ethoxyethane(C2H5OC2H5).
10) What is carbocation? Give an example.
A species having a carbon atom possessing sextet of electrons and a positive charge is called
carbocation(carbonium ion). Ex. CH3CH2+, CH3+.
11) What is carbanion? Give an example.
A carbon species carrying a negative charge is called carbanion. Ex. CH3-
12) What are free radicals? Give an example.
Neutral species which contain an unpaired electron are called free radicals. Ex: R., CH3.
13) What are electrophiles? Give example.
Electron deficient species are called electrophiles. Ex. (positive Electrophiles) H+, Cl+,
R+,(neutral Electrophiles) AlX3, BH3
14) What are nucleophiles? Give example.
Electron rich species are called nucleophiles. Ex. (negative nucleophiles) H-, OH-, R-,(neutral
nucleophiles) NH3, H2O, ROH
15) Give the differences between inductive and resonance(mesomeric) effect .
S.No Inductive effect Resonance effect
1 Due to displacement of bonds Due to interaction of two pi bonds or between pi
pair of sigma electrons towards bond and lone pair of electrons in a conjugated
more electronegative atom or system.
group.
2 Weak effect Strong effect
3 Occurs in saturated system Occurs in aconjugated system
4 Develops a partial charge in the Develops complete charge separation in the
molecule molecule.
16) What is electromeric effect?
The transfer of shared pair of pi electrons to one of the atoms joined by a multiple bond on the
demand of an attacking reagent is called electromeric effect.
17) What is hyper conjugation effect(No bond resonance or Baker-Nathan effect)?
It involves the delocalization of σ electrons of the C-H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to
an atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with the unshared p-orbital.
18) What is the principle behind crystallization?
It is based on the difference in solubilities of the compound and the impurities in a suitable
solvent.
19) What is chromatography?
It is a technique used to separate mixtures into their components, to purify compounds and also
to test the purity of compounds.
20) How do you detect carbon and hydrogen in an organic compound?
The given organic compound is mixed with dry cupric oxide. The mixture is taken in a hard glass
test tube and heated. The C and H are oxidized to CO2 and H2O respectively. The CO2 turns lime
water milky and H2O vapours turns white anhydrous CUSO4 into blue coloured hydrated CUSO4.
C + 2CuO → CO2 + 2Cu
2H + CuO→ H2O + Cu
CO2+ Ca(OH)2→ CaCO3 + H2O
CuSO4 + 5H2O → CuSO4 .5H2O
21) How do you detect nitrogen, sulphur and halogen using sodium fusion extract, (SFE)
(Lassaigne’s test)?

Elements Experiment Observation

Nitrogen SFE + freshly prepared FeSO4 solution, Prussian blue ppt/colour
heat, FeCl3solution + dil.HCl
 Sulphur SFE + dil.acetic acid + lead acetate Black ppt
Halogen SFE + dil. HNO3 , boil, cool, +AgNO3 White ppt-chlorine
solution Pale yellow ppt-bromine
Yellow ppt- iodine
22) Describe the estimation of carbon and hydrogen by Liebig’s method.
A known mass of the organic compound is completely oxidized with cupric oxide in Leibig‟s
apparatus. The C and H are oxidized to CO2 and H2O respectively. The mass of CO2 and
H2Oformed are determined by passing through anhyd. CaCl2 tube and KOH solution tube. From
these masses of CO2 and H2O, the % of C and H are calculated.
% of C =12 x mass of CO2 x 100
44 x mass of org. compound
% of H= 2 x mass ofH2O x 100
18 x mass of org. compound
23) Describe estimation of nitrogen by Dumas method.
A known mass of org. compound is heated with copper oxide in an atmosphere of CO2. N2 gas,
CO2 and water are formed. The mixture of gases produced is collected over an aqueous KOH
which absorbs CO2. Nitrogen is collected in the upper part of the graduated tube.
% of nitrogen= 28 x V x 100 where w= mass of org. compd.
22400 x w
24) Describe estimation of halogens by Carius method.
A known mass of org. compound is heated with fuming nitric acid in the presence of silver
nitrate contained in a hard glass tube(Carius tube). C and H are oxidized to CO 2 and H2O. The
halogen forms the corresponding silver halide(AgX). It is filtered, washed, dried and weighed.
% of halogen= Atomic mass of halogenxm x 100 where m= mass of AgX formed
Mol. mass of AgX x mass of org. compd.
(For diagrams ref. text books)

13. HYDROCARBONS
1) Which metal is used in wurtz reaction?
Sodium
2) What is Lindlar’s catalyst?
Pd supported over barium sulphate or calcium carbonate poisoned with quinoline or sulphur
3) Give the tests to show that the given compound is an unsaturated compound
a) Bayer‟s test
b) Bromination
4) Why alkynes does not show geometrical isomerism?
As they are linear in structure.
 5) Which catalyst is used in Friedel’s craft reaction?
Anhydrous aluminium chloride.
6) Which hydrocarbon is main constituent of CNG?
Methane.
7) What is cracking/ pyrolysis?
The decomposition of higher alkane into a mixture of lower alkanes,alkenes etc by the
application of heat is called pyrolysis/cracking.
8) How will you prepare benzene from sodium benzoate?

COONa

+ NaOH
Benzene
9) State Markovnikov’s rule.
It states that, negative part of the addendum(adding molecules) gets attached to that carbon atom
which possesses lesser number of hydrogen atoms.
10) Explain Wurtz reaction with an example. Where is it used?
Alkyl halides on treatment with sodium metal in dry ether solution gives higher alkanes. This
reaction is known as wurtz reaction.
CH3Br + 2Na+ BrCH3 CH3-CH3 + 2NaBr
Ethane
11) What do you understand by torsional angle? Which of the conformations of ethane has the
maximum & the minimum torsional strain?
The repulsive interaction between the electron clouds, which effects stability of a conformation,
is called torsional strain. Magnitude of torsional strain depends upon the angle of rotation about
C-C bond. This angle is called dihedral angle or torsional angle. Of all the conformations of
ethane, the staggered form has the least torsional strain & eclipsed form has the maximum
torsional strain.
12) What are hydrocarbons?
Organic compound containing carbon & hydrogen are called hydrocarbon.
13) What is hydrogenation?
The process of addition of dihydrogen gas to alkenes or alkynes in the presence of finely divided
catalyst like Pt, Pd or Ni to form alkanes is called hydrogenation.
14) What is decarboxylation? How do you prepare methane from sodium acetate by
decarboxylation? Write the equation.
The removal of CO2 from molecules having –COOH group by using sodalime is called
decarboxylation. sodalime is a mixture of sodium hydroxide & calcium oxide.
 Ex: Methane is formed when sodium acetate is heated strongly in the presence of sodalime.
CH3COONa + NaOH CH4 + Na2CO3
15) Describe the preparation of alkanes by Kolbe’s electrolytic method.
Alkanes are prepared by the electrolysis of concentrated aqueous solution of sodium or
potassium salt of saturated mono carboxylic acids.
2RCOONa + 2H2O R-R + 2CO2 + NaOH + H2
16) Give the mechanism of chlorination of methane.
It is a free radical chain reaction.
1. Chain initiation: Chlorine molecule undergoes hemolytic fission in the presence of diffused
sunlight to form chlorine free radicals.
Cl2 2Cl.
2. Chain propagation: The chlorine free radical abstracts a hydrogen atom from a methane molecule
to form methyl free radical.
CH4 + Cl. CH3. + HCl
Methyl radical combine with another Cl2 molecule forming chloromethane
CH3. +Cl2 CH3Cl + Cl.
3. Chain termination: It stops when two radicals combine to form a stable covalent molecule.
CH3. + Cl . CH3Cl
CH3. + CH3 . CH3-CH3
Cl. + Cl. Cl2
17) How do you prepare acetylene from calcium carbide?
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca(OH)2
18) Give two limitations of Kekule structure.
1. Fails to explain unusual stability of benzene
2. Fails to explain preference to substitution reactions than addition reactions.
19) What type of hybridization take place in each carbon atom of benzene?
sp2
20) How many σ C-C, σ C-H, & π bonds are present in benzene?
3C-Cσ , 6C-Hσ & 3π bonds.
21) Name the electrophile produced during the nitration of benzene.
Nitronium ion (or) NO2+
22) What are meta directing groups. Give examples.
The substituents or groups which direct the incoming group to meta position called meta
directing groups.
-NO2 , -CN,-CHO,-COOH , SO3H

14. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY

1) What are non degradable pollutants? Give examples.
The pollutants are slowly degradable by natural processes & remain in the environment in an
unchanged form.
Ex: DDT, Some polymers, heavy metals etc.
2) Give examples for gaseous air pollutants.
Oxides of sulphur, nitrogen & carbon,H2S, Hydrocarbons etc.
3) Give the sources & effects of carbon monoxide in the environment.
It is produced due to the incomplete combustion of carbon, coal, firewood, petrol etc.
1. CO binds haemoglobin of blood to form carboxyhaemoglobin which is about 300times more
stable than oxygen –haemoglobin complex. When carboxyhaemoglobin concentration
increases in blood the oxygen carrying capacity is reduced. This results in headache,
nervousness & cardiovascular disorder.
2. In pregnant women who have the habit of smoking may induce premature birth, abortions,
deformed babies.
4) What is global warming? What are the causes of global warming?
The warming of earth due to the trapping of sun‟s energy by gases such as CO2, CHs, Ozone,
CFC‟S in the atmosphere.
1. A rise in sea level
2. Increase in heat related diseases
3. Increase in precipitation & decrease in soil moisture content etc.
5) What is green house effect? Give examples for green house gases.
It is the phenomenon where earth‟s atmosphere traps the heat from the sun & prevents it from
escaping into the outer space.
Ex: CO2, CH4, O3 etc
6) What is acid rain? Write the respective chemical reactions using the formation of rain.
It is the rain water containing H2SO4, HNO3 & a small amount of HCl which are formed from the
oxides of sulphur & nitrogen present in the air as pollutants.
2SO2 + O2+ 2H2O →2H2SO4
4NO2 + O2+ 2H2O → 4HNO3
7) What is smog? Give the types of smog.
Smog is a mixture of smoke & fog.
Two types of smog.
1. Classical smog: It is mixture of smoke, fog & SO2. It occurs in cold humid places. It is also
called reducing smog because it contains reducing mixture.
2. Photochemical smog: This type of smog results from the action of sunlight on the nitrogen
oxides & hydrocarbons produced by automobiles & factories. It is called oxidizing smog
because it contains oxidizing mixture.
8) What is Biological oxygen demand(BOD)?
The amount of oxygen required by bacteria to break down the organic matter present in a certain
volume of a sample of water called BOD.
9) What is the maximum limit of nitrate in drinking water?
50ppm.
10) What is green chemistry?
It is the production process that would bring about minimum pollution or deterioration to the
environment.
11) What are pesticides? Give examples.
Pesticides are basically synthetic toxic chemicals with ecological repercussions.
Ex: DDT, Aldrin etc.