OPEN SOURCE INTELLIGENCE: A NEW ERA OF INFORMATION GATHERING

By

Orcun Tagtekin

A Capstone Project Submitted to Faculty of

Utica College

August 2014

In partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Cybersecurity Program

 UMI Number: 1564628

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ii
 Abstract

Social media sites have not only changed the way people communicate and build

relationships, it has also enabled intelligence agencies to collect specific intelligence on a

particular individual, group, social network, or organization. Open source intelligence

(OSINT) is a discipline that intelligence agents use to systematically collect, process, and

analyze publicly available, relevant information. It is estimated that OSINT provides between

80 to 95 percent of the information used by the Intelligence Community (I.C.) (Pallaris,

2008). The purpose of this research was to examine the usability of Internet based OSINT

collection tools and the legal challenges pertaining the collected information. Today, OSINT

tools are actively utilized as part of the intelligence gathering. At the same time these tools

are used by the platforms that threaten national security and personal privacy all over the

world. OSINT tools like Maltego, Shodan, and Spokeo are as easily used for devious means

as they are for good. One must be able to sort through the facts, comments, and data of all the

gathered information and extract the valuable results. Although OSINT has a number of

limitations the benefits of its use far outweigh its perceived weaknesses.

Keywords: Cybersecurity, Paul Pantani, cyber-threat, spear phishing.

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 Acknowledgements

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my Professor Paul Pantani for his

guidance, patience, and continuous support of my research. His guidance helped me in all the

time of research and writing of this thesis. I would never have been able to finish my

dissertation without the guidance of Professor Pantani. Besides my professor, I would like to

thank my second reader Amr Abel-Wahab, for his encouragement, insightful comments, and

hard questions. Finally, I would like to thank the Utica College Cybersecurity faculty for

mentorship and guidance throughout the Utica College Cybersecurity Graduate Program.

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 Table of Contents

Open Source Intelligence: A New Era of Information Gathering ........................................... 1

Classified and Confidential................................................................................................... 3
OSINT Growth...................................................................................................................... 4
Proper Tool Selection ........................................................................................................... 9
Challenges and Limitations to Internet Based OSINT ....................................................... 11
Literature Review.................................................................................................................... 12
Capabilities of Internet based OSINT Tools....................................................................... 14
Benefits and Disadvantages of Internet Based OSINT....................................................... 16
Ethical and Legal Issues regarding Internet based OSINT................................................. 21
Solutions to OSINT Challenges.......................................................................................... 26
Discussion of the Findings...................................................................................................... 26
Research Problem ............................................................................................................... 27
Literature Review................................................................................................................ 27
Research Defined Themes .................................................................................................. 27
Comparison of Findings with Existing Studies .................................................................. 33
Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................... 35
Recommendations................................................................................................................... 35
Future Research .................................................................................................................. 37
Conclusions............................................................................................................................. 38
References............................................................................................................................... 41

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 Open Source Intelligence: A New Era of Information Gathering

Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) plays an essential role in information gathering. The

North Atlantic Treaty Organization Open Source Intelligence (NATO OSINT) handbook

describes the importance of OSINT. OSINT is vital to the all-source intelligence process because

it gathers information “from public and overt sources in order to produce actionable intelligence”

(Benavides, 2011, p.9). Sources that are commonly used include: newspapers, books, broadcasts,

military trade journals, and the Internet. “OSINT provides the historical background information,

the current political, economic, social, demographic, technical, natural, and geographic context

for operations, critical personality information, and access to a wide variety of tactically useful

information about infrastructure, terrain, and indigenous matters” (Moshirnia, 2013, p.390).

Pallaris (2008) found that intelligence gathering has traditionally involved the discovery

of secrets using a closed system of collection and analysis. Sophisticated Strategic Intelligence in

the United States has been implemented as early as the Revolutionary War. George Washington

successfully utilized this form of intelligence in the Battle of Trenton. He designed plans to

launch a surprise attack on Trenton, using intelligence obtain from a spy working with the

Hessians (Benes, 2007). During World War I (WWI), the U.S. intercepted a letter, the

Zimmerman Telegram, which was sent from the Foreign Secretary of Germany, Arthur

Zimmerman, to the German ambassador to Mexico. The letter encouraged Mexico to attack the

United States, if the U.S. appeared to be entering WWI. This form of counter-intelligence,

specifically espionage was one of the reasons the U.S. entered the First World War (Oliver,

2012).

Moreover, 1985, known as the year of the spy, was a pivotal time in the U.S. I.C. Within

that year, former National Security Agency employee William Pelton, was arrested for selling

1
military secrets to the Soviet Union. Moreover, several formal U.S. Navy personnel were also

arrested for providing intelligence to the Soviet Union. Larry Wu Tai Chin, a Chinese double

agent working as a translator for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), was arrested for spying

on the U.S. for the Chinese government since 1952.

The events of September 11, 2001 (9/11), forced the U.S. into a new era of security and

intelligence gathering. 9/11 was the first attack within the U.S. by a foreign enemy since the

Japanese military attack on Pearl Harbor. The attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C.

prompted the passing of the Patriot Act. The vital part of the Patriot Act in U.S. intelligence

comes from the second provision in which it allows the interception of communications if they

are related to terrorist activities and allows law-enforcement agencies to share information

related to terrorist activities with federal authorities (Grabianowski, 2007).

The new methods of information gathering have changed scholarly and professional

practices among different disciplines. Widespread diffusion of digital technologies drew

attention to the importance of publically available information. Today, the intelligence

community uses information available to the general public to collect, process, integrate, share,

and analyze social behavior, and even private data about targeted entities (Benavides, 2011)

According to Pallaris (2008), it is estimated that OSINT provides between 80 to 95 percent of the

information used by the I.C.

The use of tools to gather information from publicly available sources may lessen an

overreliance on confidential information. The quality and use of Internet based OSINT depends

primarily on its quality and analysis. The use of sophisticated tools allows analysts to mine for

data as effectively as possible. According to Martin (2014), “much public domain has

historically been located in databases, but things have expanded to more open formats” (p.40).

2
Typically there is a lot of misinformation that needs to be sorted through before the crucial

pieces of information are uncovered. There are many open source Internet search engines

available for use, but the three most common ones are: Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan (Martin,

2014).

The purpose of this research was to analyze the usability of open source information in

intelligence gathering and identify challenges pertaining to the legality of collected information.

The research intended to answer the following questions: What are the capabilities of Internet

based open source tools; Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan? What are the limitations of Internet

based OSINT? What are the legal issues related to gathering Internet based OSINT?

Classified and Confidential

The importance of OSINT is still, to a certain degree, being ignored by the I.C.

According to Pallaris (2008), confidential information was deemed more valuable and credible

than open source information. Therefore, most agencies have a tendency to continue using

human intelligence (HUMNIT) and signal intelligence (SIGNIT). Former clandestine officer,

Robert Steele, who now heads Open Source Solutions Network Inc., stated, “Everything we

needed to know to prevent 9/11 was either known to elements of the U.S. government but, not

shared across agency boundaries, or openly published in foreign language media we chose to

ignore” (Vlahos, 2005, para. 3). Not only is the Unites States experiencing inaccessibility of

crucial information that could affect the safety and general welfare of its citizens, but also

countries around the world such as, the United Kingdom. British Liberal Democrat, John Pugh

(2007) stated the following:

Large tranches of Whitehall don’t know what open-source is. We need a partnership

approach for public-sector procurement and open-source scores well in this respect. But

3
 open-source has its enemies and its enemies are very close to government, including

those at the top of government who are intending to stay there. (para. 3)

Lack of policy and the U.S. government's failure to capitalize on open source information

has put public safety at risk in the past. Despite increased adaptation to OSINT, U.S. Senate

Select Committee (2012), in the article Review of the Terrorist Attacks on U.S. Facilities in

Benghazi, Libya, September 11-12, 2012, stated, “the intelligence community failed to

emphasize on collecting intelligence and ignored open source information from social media and

blogs posts by Libyan nationals, that could have warned the potential security threats to the U.S.

facilities” (p.2). Incidents such as these however, have become less frequent in recent years.

OSINT Growth

The increased use of OSINT was induced by the changing needs of intelligence

organizations around the world and the rapid development of computer technology. During the

Cold War U.S. intelligence services were preoccupied with determining a limited number of

largely state centric challenges; determining the intentions and capabilities of the Soviet Union.

Since the Cold War, the threat to the security of the United States has become more diverse and

varied. Threats to national security range from the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction

to intra-state conflicts, illegal immigration, energy security, and even organized crime. Thus, the

Center for Security Services addresses a broadening of the security agenda of the United States

that shifts the focus of intelligence agencies to more widely available information sources

(Center for Security Services, 2008).

Evolution of the Internet. The evolution of the Internet and the emergence of the

collaborative World Wide Web (Web) have alerted security officials to the potential of new tools

and technologies for collecting, analyzing, and distributing knowledge of global affairs. “The

4
proliferation of website, portals, wikis, and blogs have opened a world of information hitherto

unavailable to most intelligence professionals” (Pallaris, 2008, para. 6). The evolution of the

Internet has created more security threats to government agencies because there is now the

possibility for hackers to access sensitive data. In recent years, it is alleged that the Chinese

government attempted to hack computer networks within the United States. The governments of

the U.S. and China have accused the other of similar activities and stealing of sensitive

government information. MacLeod (2014) stated that the Chinese government frequently claims

to be a victim of foreign cyber-attacks, oftentimes being a target of U.S. intelligence agencies

attempting to gather information. Whistle-blower, Edward Snowden’s revelations about the

National Security Agency (NSA) activities have proved very useful in countering the U.S.

government’s critiques of China. U.S. cyber espionage activities abroad are not a secret endeavor

and other countries, including China, engage in similar activities.

Expanding Sources. Intelligence sources have undergone an expansion. Once an online

encyclopedia with little credibility, Wikipedia is now one of the most cited intelligence sources.

Additionally, applications such as Google Earth are providing geospatial intelligence that was

only available to government agencies up until a couple decades ago (Pallaris, 2008). Google

Earth now has a new version, Google Earth Pro, that allows a user see the same high-resolution

imagery, terrain, and 3D buildings that are available in the desktop version of Google Earth

(Google, 2014). This new feature is an example of how existing technology is rapidly evolving.

Intelligence failures. Colgan (2008) presents an example of a wide scale intelligence

failure, the 9/11 attacks on the U.S., that has driven the development of OSINT. A published

report found that not only could the attack on the World Trade Center in New York could have

been prevented, but also, that there was an overreliance on Signals intelligence (SIGNIT),

5
Human Intelligence (HUMNIT), and classified information. According to Vlahos (2005), Osama

Bin Laden had been planning the attack on the U.S. for several years and his threats were

detailed in documentaries, books, and on the Internet in various languages. Open source

information was disregarded by U.S. intelligence agencies, which was primarily on account of

the information being readily accessible, the I.C. not knowing how to effectively harness

information of that nature, and a bias that developed over the years due to the overwhelming

effort placed on acquiring secret information. Vlahos (2005) stated “the U.S Government is

spending less than 1 percent—about $500 million—of the estimated $70 billion total yearly

intelligence capabilities budget on gathering and using information in the public sphere” (p.1).

The article further discusses several experts’ opinions regarding the intelligence capabilities

budgets and other implications of OSNIT.

Foreign press. Moshirnia (2013) addressed the importance of OSINT and examined the

effects that suppressing foreign speech will have on domestic security. The article detailed the

importance of OSINT in the war on terror, repeated Congressional findings, and

recommendations for stronger OSINT collection, analysis, and dissemination. The article

presented several recent examples of government actions that obstruct the crucial functions of

OSINT. As mentioned previously, the information pertaining to the 9/11 terrorist attacks were

widely public and derived mainly from foreign sources. The article exclaimed that it is

imperative for U.S. intelligence agencies to take precaution when dealing with the foreign press

because should another terrorist organization plan another attack they can easily intercept via

counter intelligence. Moshirnia (2013) concluded that “U.S security often derives from foreign

production of terror-related intelligence; therefore, cutting off the flow of this information will

undermine American safety” (p.2-3).

6
 Risky intelligence collection. Another facet of terror-related intelligence was discussed

in the Review of the Terrorist Attacks on U.S Facilities in Benghazi, Libya, September 11-12,

2012. The review of the report written by the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (SSCI)

focuses on the analysis and action of the I.C. surrounding the attacks in Benghazi. The report

also addresses other issues about the attack involving the Department of Defense and the

Department of State. The report outlines the purposes of the Committee, description of the

September 11-12, 2012, attacks in Benghazi, findings by the Committee and various

recommendations, and lastly, its mission to ensure the future safety of U.S. personnel working

abroad. (United States Senate. Committee on Intelligence, 2014). The United States Senate

Committee on Intelligence (2014) concluded “diplomacy and intelligence collection was

considered risky because intelligence personnel work in high-risk locations around the world in

order to prevent future attacks on the United States and its allies” (p.2).

Dr. Libor Benes, addressed the rapid development of technology and the educational

implications it has on information gathering. His scholarly paper analyzes how rapidly advancing

new technologies change society, information, OSINT, and intelligence education. Benes further

indicated how innovative education is a continuous process and can only come about from an

integrated, collaborate approach to learning. New technologies are substantially changing

American society and the way U.S citizens exchange information. Some examples of the

expanding mix of tools that are rapidly affecting our communication in our culture are gadgets

such as, iPads and smart phones, laptops, search engines, software, cyberspace, and social media

(Benes, 2013). According to Benes (2013), “the high and fast know-how and technology level

throughout the world and decreasing amount of resources will require high, fast, and life-long

education” (p. 13). The rapid amount of OSINT data collection taking place will require analysts

7
to continue learning the most efficient ways to gather information suitable for their individual

queries. Education and technology have a symbiotic relationship with one another. The article

further outlines two trends in the impact of new technologies on Society and OSINT: micro and

macro impacts. The conclusions drawn from the article described the reason why teaching about

new technologies and OSINT should take place within broader society and outlined several

mechanisms for doing so (Benes, 2013).

Globalization. Globalization has had a significant role to play in the prevalence of

OSINT. Batterson and Weinbaum (2001) stated, “Globalization is changing the way we live our

lives, everything from making an airline reservation to getting the latest stock quotes or sports

score” (p.3). This briefing book, which outlines both positions related to the debate on

globalization, does not draw conclusions regarding the controversy, but rather allows the reader

to make their own inferences. They present their findings as answers to the following questions:

Does Globalization foster Economic Growth?, Is Globalization Good for the Consumer?, Is

Globalization Good for the Worker?, Is Globalization Good for the Environment?, Is

Globalization Good for Developing Nations?, Does Globalization Promote Human Rights?, Does

Globalization Foster the Growth of Democratic Governments?, and Does Globalization Improve

the Quality of Life?. Lastly, a list of the pros and cons regarding Globalization is indicated

(Batterson & Weinbaum, 2001).

Countries with stronger economies are trading outside their borders and money is

transferred to various parts of the world on a daily basis. The commercial sectors of first world

countries are now trading, lending, and borrowing money with other countries (Batterson &

Weinbaum, 2001). Batterson and Weinbaum (2001) concluded that, “Globalization accelerate

economic growth, increasing standards of living, and but there are winners and losers” (p.24).

8
Globalization is providing numerous benefits for countries, but only those with democratic

governments. The book postulated that globalization put OSINT at the forefront of intelligence

because it is the easiest way for governments to collect information about other countries. There

are different implications Globalization has on developing nations and the world powers that

may have more of a dependence on open source platforms (Batterson & Weinbaum, 2011).

Proper Tool Selection

Intelligence agencies would benefit by learning to operate in a world with fewer secrets,

and this requires selecting the right tools that can gather information from unclassified,

publically available sources (Pallaris, 2008). While the United States has utilized intelligence for

as long as it has been operating intelligence agencies, in many ways OSINT is still in its early

stages. One of the problems in intelligence gathering using open source tools is the reliability.

The access for anyone to post information on the Internet and the absence of regulation over

content accuracy carries a threat of potential misinformation (Martin, 2014). Determining the

reliability of the information requires comparison of many different resources and collected data.

It is difficult to objectively evaluate source credibility without determining the reliability of the

source, especially to support a situation assessment or decision-making incident. Classification,

authentication, and usefulness of the intelligence resources are based upon the analysts and their

timely analyses of collected data. Information judged inaccurately or incorrectly can lessen the

validity of the results (Vere Software, 2012).

There are limitations in using OSINT such as, privacy restrictions of the provider, large

numbers of results to process, lack of documentation of open source tools, and a limited number

of trained professionals. According to Benes (2007), “the quality and use of intelligence depends

on information quality, intelligence, and the policy maker” (p. 2). Solutions can only be found to

9
these problems by finding the right tool for the job and person to analyze the outcome.

Intelligence professionals need tools that can reduce the number of permutations, and able to

harvest information to mine data and extract data about the desired target. There are numerous

Internet based open source software platforms available for intelligence collection such as,

intelligence gathering tools: Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan. These tools are designed to gather

information about a target entity using publicly accessible information.

Maltego. Maltego is an open source tool developed by Paterva and Pink Matter in order

to gather information about a target entity using publically accessible information from online

sources (DEFCON, 2014). According to Krishnan (2012), “With Maltego we can find the

relationships, which people are linked to, including their social profile, mutual friends, and

companies that are related to the information gathered, and websites” (p.1). Although Maltego is

popular and free of charge, the collected information is saved on the providers servers, free

versions limit the number of results to search about a target. Meanwhile, the paid version is

expensive, using the software to gather information about an individual might lead to termination

of service from a resource. Furthermore, registration is required for users and runs slow due

operations based on a shared server with other users, and finally the data exchange between the

client and the server is not encrypted.

Spokeo. Spokeo is another open source intelligence tool. Spokeo is used gather

information about a person through a search engine and free white pages to find people by name,

email, address, and phone for free. However, this kind of information gathering can only be

accomplished within the United States. Spokeo uses public records to present limited findings

and charges money to reveal the rest of information about the target individual (Pearson, 2012).

10
 Shodan. is a robust search platform, but unlike other each engines looks for specific

information more valuable to intelligence professionals (Occupytheweb, 2014). One of the

problems with Shodan is that is it available to everyone, including hackers. According to Pearson

(2012), Shodan conducts its search for computers via software, geography, operating system, IP

address, and additional factors. Furthermore, Shodan displays vulnerabilities, and ways to take

over control of a target system, but requires technical knowledge for the successful exploitation

of target platforms. In contrast, Maltego and Spokeo only require a basic knowledge of

conducting Internet based searches and do not present as much of a threat to targets platforms as

Shodan.

Challenges and Limitations to Internet Based OSINT

From individual rights perspective, OSINT requires proper checks and balances. OSINT

poses challenges for privacy protections and intellectual property enforcements. According to

Benes (2007), threats created by new technologies can affect society or security through

implications of abuse as a weapon.

In some cases the use of gathered content without permission is illegal, interference from

open information may unintentionally reveal personal information about an individual, and

publishing information about a group or organization may lead to political and economic

damages. The NSA has the capability to intercept electromagnetic communications. If an

electronic device that can send messages or information, the NSA could potentially capture this

data. There are issues regarding the Patriot Act and civil liberties, but cyber security has evolved

into much more than prior to 9/11. Intelligence professionals today have more duties than their

previous counterparts, which include: define the job of intelligence analysts, protect the nation

from domestic and international threats, and generate information that will lead to successful

11
execution of the intelligence based activities. These external and internal factors incorporate

counter intelligence, which actively pertains to all security control measures designed to ensure

the safety of information against espionage, subversion, or sabotage (Military Intelligence, 2014).

Intelligence specialists were concerned that government agencies, especially the CIA,

were not taking sufficient advantage of Internet based OSINT. Intelligence agencies have relied

upon intelligence tools, such as spy satellites, electronic listening stations, and spy

networks. Today, intelligence agencies and police agencies are increasing their use of social

networking sites, tweets, blogs, and application (apps). Police Enforcement Agencies in the

United Kingdom are already utilizing Twitter to decrease crime levels through major

metropolitan cities. The Manchester Police’s #Shopalooter hashtag campaign successfully joined

civilian participants and police to find looters bragging on about their exploits via Twitter. The

movement was so widespread that it reached other parts of the country and gave way to other

crime fighting movements, such as e-neighborhood watch and reaching out to groups that are

traditionally hard to contact (Bartlett, Miller, Crump, & Middleton, 2013).

State accountability mechanisms have struggled to adapt to the online open source culture.

Intelligence agencies now accept OSINT as not a substitute for traditional intelligence disciplines,

but rather as an additional resource for gathering more information. Some additional resources

used to collect open source information are: “newspapers, Internet, books, phone books,

scientific journals, radio broadcasts, television, and individuals” (Benavides, 2011, p.9).

Literature Review

The purpose of this research was to analyze the usability of Internet based OSINT in

intelligence gathering and to identify challenges pertaining to the legality of collected

information. The questions that were intended to be answered through the literature review are:

12
What are the capabilities of Internet based open source tools; Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan?

What are the limitations of Internet based OSINT? What are the legal issues related to gathering

Internet based OSINT?

According to Pallaris (2008), OSINT information gathered from publicly available

sources for the purposes of meeting specific intelligence requirements have become more

prevalent within the I.C. in recent years. In the past, intelligence agencies preferred the

acquisition of classified information above non-classified information. During the Cold War, U.S.

intelligence agencies were primarily concerned with uncovering Russian secrets rather than

collecting open source information from the television, radio broadcasts, scholarly journals, and

similar sources (Pallaris, 2008). The U.S. government had shifted its focus to newer areas of

regulation such as, terrorism and illegal immigration, meanwhile, the Internet further increased

the necessity of fully utilizing open source information. While traditional intelligence

organizations may not find Internet based OSINT as a complete solution for their intelligence

needs, “most governmental agencies depend on it to create tailored knowledge supportive of a

specific decision” (Benavides, 2011, p.9).

Borene (2011) addresses the growing perception that Internet based OSINT is not a

priority in the U.S. intelligence community. This perception is due to the fact that Internet based

open source information is believed to be less credible, yet that misconception has been

discredited by recent literature outlining various strategies to overcome that obstacle. Many

misconceptions about the application of OSINT continue to endure throughout the I.C.

According to Morrow (2013), six of the most common misconceptions of Internet based OSINT

include: it is less credible, intelligence requests require classified information; every kind of

analyst can gather information; Internet based OSINT equals Google; it is free; and it is easy.

13
Entities around the world are engaging in information warfare, and Internet based OSINT is an

asset to defeat a technological adversary. Moreover, today’s military commanders will likely

benefit from this information when implementing effective battle strategies.

Capabilities of Internet based OSINT Tools

While open source platforms make mining and data collection easier for information

analysts it is not a means to an end. Ultimately, the analyst must be well versed in the software

and have strong critical thinking skills in order to make the best of information available

(Lowenthal, 1998). Lowenthal’s article on the expertise level of OSINT analysts addressed the

need for analysts to be exploiting and processing OSINT like all other raw intelligence

(Lowenthal, 1998).

The use of tools to gather information from publicly available sources may lessen an

overreliance on confidential information. The quality and use of Internet based OSINT depends

primarily on its quality and analysis. The use of sophisticated tools allows OSINT analysts to

mine for data as effectively as possible. According to Martin (2014), “much public domain has

historically been located in databases, but things have expanded to more open formats” (p.40).

Typically there is a lot of misinformation that needs to be sorted through before the crucial

pieces of information are uncovered. There are many open sources Internet search engines

available for use, but the three most common ones are: Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan.

Shodan. In a blog published in WonderHowTo, an anonymous hacker described Shodan,

an aggressive search engine designed to find specific targets akin to Google. Occupytheweb

(2014) stated, “Shodan is a search engine specifically for hackers and is described as “the

world’s most dangerous search engine” (p.1). The author, a hacker, detailed the many uses of the

search engine and outlined a tutorial on how to actually use it. The anonymous hacker concluded

14
that Shodan looks for information that is highly valuable to intelligence professionals

(Occupytheweb, 2014).

Maltego. Krishnan (2012) presented that Maltego has an advantage for mining data

within social media platforms. With Maltego, intelligence analysts could “find the relationships

people are linked to, including their social profile, mutual friends, and companies that are related

to the information gathered” (p.1). Furthermore, Maltego allows users to run transforms,

functions that map one entity onto another (Krishnan, 2012). Martin (2014), also Maltego’s

ability to mine data from social media sites, and stated that an “entity is something the user might

want to investigate and includes: domains, websites, email addresses, individuals name servers,

location, and even telephone numbers” (p.41). New entity types are then created drawing data

from any source including closed information systems. “In Terminigh’s example, the email given

by the person registering the offending domain may show up in a WHOIS listing and finding

evidence that can lead to further leads” (Martin, 2014, p.42). Leads can be any of the following:

IP addresses, phone numbers, and other entities that can identify a target (Martin, 2014).

Spokeo. Spokeo, a public search engine only accessible within the United States uses

public records making its data retrieval more limited compared to other search engines. Pearson

(2012) stated, “Spokeo gathers information from free white pages to find people by name, email,

address, and phone free of charge” (p.2). Pearson’s blogs lists over 38 open source tools plus

addresses the value of using older sources of OSINT, specifically MySpace (Pearson, 2012).

Mark M. Lowenthal addressed the limits of open source collection tools as no substitute for

competent OSINT analysts. According to Lowenthal (1998), “technology cannot replace skilled

analysts who make difficult choices about what to collect and what to analyze” (p.3).

15
Benefits and Disadvantages of Internet Based OSINT

OSINT benefits. OSINT offers advantages for its users, namely, being cost-effective,

shareable, and provides context where clarity of sources are limited. Vere Software (2011)

published an article that stated, “the ability of an analyst to exploit the Internet for OSINT can be

had at relatively little cost compared to other sources and access is free to target subjects” (p.2).

Specialized software can help analysts reduce the time spent on data collection by promoting

searches and evaluations rather than documentation. Ultimately, Vere Software concluded that

“OSINT is inherently challenging because the very qualities that make it valuable to operations

can also, reduce it credibility” (p.3). Colgan (2012) primarily focused on OSINT’s free or low

cost gathering, and attributed this cost-effective feature to data collection and gathering. Other

benefits of OSINT that were mentioned by Colgan include: up-to-date information, freeing up of

scarce intelligence assets for concentration on mission-critical information and gaps, and

involves no political or organizational risks.

Another benefit of Internet based OSINT is that it can be widely disseminated because it

is usually intended to reach a broader audience. For example, the Internet has sharing

possibilities that can reach many people in different parts of the world in a relatively short

amount of time. An article published in the Military Professional Bulletin states “the fact that

OSINT can be shared makes it a high value commodity. Other media sources such as the radio,

television, and newspaper are widely accessible and easily shareable” (Draeger, 2009, p.42).

Holland (2013) elaborated on OSINT being easily disseminated because public information is

easier to share between agencies making it an advantage and further, as an alternative source of

information is does not compromise a sensitive source that might reveal and technological or

strategic advantages.

16
 Classified information has the potential to become OSINT. For example, the Wiki leaks

incident, where former government official Edward Snowden exposed government secrets of

classified information to the public. A recent article in Business Insider described Snowden as

“an importance intelligence asset that ended up in the hands of Russia’s security services”

(Kelley, 2014, para. 9). Kelley (2014) reported that U.S. whistleblowers can have a major impact

on government intelligence and there is still an inherent distrust in the Russian Government

although the Cold War is over.

Disadvantages of OSINT. OSINT poses several disadvantages to the I.C., it does not

offer a complete solution to their information needs, may be inaccurate, and may not be useful to

actionable intelligence on the tactical or strategic level. An article published in the Australian

Institute of Professional Intelligence Officers considered how OSINT can provide additional

information that most government and defense agencies can use for its purposes, but there are

certain situations where it is not the final solution (AIPIO, 2008). Other forms of intelligence,

utilized to effectively troubleshoot an indicated problem are not as illusive. Furthermore, there is

a lack of processing of OSINT that can provide the combination, collection, and analysis of

information on all stages (Colgan, 2008). Colgan (2008) stated that “the intelligence cycle is

made up of five cycles (only four in the U.K.): 1) Planning, 2) Acquisition/Collection, 3) Data

Processing, 4) Analysis and 5) Dissemination” (p.7).

According to Steele (2007), apart from the failure to invest in processing (tasking,

processing, exploitation, and dissemination) the U.S. has created three consistent errors since the

evolution of OSINT: no standards, no geospatial attributes, and no integration. The lack of

standards in regards to data collection has left analysts with no boundaries or line upon which to

17
conduct their data searches. Further mentioned is how there are machines that can’t keep up with

incoming data and place where that data is collected.

Error making. Noble (2014) addressed how open source intelligence is often “used as

foundation for the planning and targeting of other high value collection activities”, but is difficult

to take full advantage of its information for several reasons (p.1). OSINT may have limited

credibility due to the fact that anyone can post information over the Internet and that information

often goes unregulated so there is often an abundance of information. Regarding OSINT, “it is

not always easy to find some key information because only a small fraction of the Internet is

indexed; it is not easy to extract and combine key information because most of the reports are

free text; and it is not easy to assess report credibility” (Noble, 2014). The article concluded that

in order to effectively use OSINT is it imperative that an accurate assessment of its data be

conducted.

Reliability. In terms of reliability, the primary issue is that anyone can post content that is

unregulated and creates a great deal of erroneous data, but does snippets of valuable information.

Utilizing an assessment methodology that considers the following three considerations when

assessing the reliability of information:

1. The actual historical reliability of that source on similar events or

subjects, taking into account the report’s self-assessment of reliability.

2. The report’s consistency with confirmed facts and precedents.

3. It’s consistency with information available from other sources. (Noble,

2014)

The article also, mentioned that the information must be frequently synthesized from various

sources in order to make an effective comparison (Noble, 2014).

18
 Tactical and strategic intelligence. An article published by Creative Commons in 2001

indicated that one disadvantage of OSINT is that it is not as useful for actionable intelligence on

the tactical and strategic levels. Benavides (2011) referred to how tactical Intelligence is

necessary when planning and implementing tactical operations. Strategic Intelligence is required

for forming policy and military plans at national and internal levels (Benavides, 2011).

According to Benavides (2011), “strategic and tactical Intelligence differ primarily in level of

application but may also vary in terms and scope of detail” (p.10). The same analytical processes

take place in both forms of intelligence and thus, make OSINT less valuable. According to the

article, mining for data using open information sources is less beneficial than an insurgent

attaining classified or secret data. Further mentioned is that even if sources provide information

into enemy strategies there is often not enough time for a commander to action. The article drew

the conclusion that in cases such as these, the traditional forms of Intelligence, HUMNIT and

SIGNIT are highly preferred. (Benavides, 2011).

A proponent for OSINT in the development of strategic intelligence Robert David Steele,

the former clandestine officer who now heads Open Source Network, Inc., regarded OSINT as

not only important for government use, but also, military, law enforcement, business, academia,

non-profit organizations, the media, and civil societies. Steele provides his opinions regarding its

usefulness. He stated that OSINT could become the “foundation for a total reformation of both

the governmental function of intelligence and the larger concept of national and global

intelligence, what some call collective intelligence or the world brain” (Steele, 2007, p. 97).

Steele further alluded that secret information and open intelligence sources are incompatible.

Steele’s opinions are based towards the future of information collection and doing away with

prior notions of what is valuable or invaluable intelligence in a digital world (Steele, 2007).

19
 Draeger (2009), addresses that OSINT’s value applies to all soldiers in any situation,

from strategic to tactical, and essentially is for everyone. Draeger (2009), also stated “OSINT

could thoroughly provide general information, such as country studies, mapping, biographical,

satellite imagery, and technical information about the operational environment making it of great

tactical value of OSINT in the army” (p.42). The article further addressed OSINT’s implications

on the typical solider and makes comparisons of technology available to soldiers past and present.

In the past, soldiers used maps made almost exclusively from the National Geospatial-

Intelligence Agency and other sources. Today, due to the rapid change in intelligence needs and

the role that OSINT now plays in the I.C., each soldier is now more informed, dynamic and

knowledge based (Draeger, 2009). According to Draeger (2009) a soldier today “will utilize

information tools such as, Google Earth or search engines in order to gain situational awareness”

(p.42).

OSINT Analysts. Another obstacle in the use of open source information indicated in a

report published by the Congressional Research Service addresses the incompetent or poorly

trained OSINT analysts. Best and Cumming (2007) concluded that many analysts lack sufficient

subject matter expertise and therefore, are unable to analyze OSINT effectively. The main

problem with the lack of subject matter expertise lies primarily with linguistic and cultural

knowledge of the target. For example, an analyst tracking a foreign diplomat will likely falter in

their research should they not be knowledgeable of the diplomat’s language or customs. The

report acknowledges the necessity of the advanced training in the subject matter in order to yield

effective analysis. Other factors that point to the competency of intelligence analysts are

common sense and critical thinking skills. The report further detailed the government’s

comparisons of its current data collection personnel to its past analysts in that they are more

20
isolated and unaware of certain things that may make them more valuable in the intelligence

community. For the purposes of OSINT, adequate training given to acquire subject matter

expertise seems sufficient.

Although OSINT is an intelligence discipline, is has only become prominent within the

I.C. in recent years. It is for this reason that Draeger (2007) addressed the difficulty of becoming

proficient or an expert in Internet based OSINT. As exemplified by Best and Cumming (2007),

there are ways to gain expertise in the field. There are recommended steps to take in order to

become a certified expert in Internet based open source information collection. First, develop a

plan of operation that combines Information Technology (IT) education, web-based instruction,

and a combination of on the job and formal training. Lastly, emphasis is placed on attaining a

mentor in the field who is an experienced OSINT user and producer or librarian (Draeger, 2007).

Ethical and Legal Issues regarding Internet based OSINT

Ethical considerations. An article published in the Research Institute for European and

American Studies addressed the widespread use of OSINT and ethical concerns surrounding the

collection of information. There are ethical considerations regarding the collection of OSINT

that can be considered a benefit in data gathering. OSINT collected using ethical means and

methods can be used in legal proceeding and further, without the risk of exposing sensitive

information (Pallaris, 2008). According to Pallaris (2008), “OSINT can constitute almost no risk

compared to other intelligence operations that required to the use of spies and other clandestine

assets” (para.10).

Social Media Intelligence (SOCMINT). A Centre for the Analysis of Social Media

(CASM) policy paper detailed the emergence of social media as another platform considered to

be Internet based open source information. Extensive research pertaining to policing through

21
social media in the United Kingdom, has found that “it allows the police to engage the public and

media in potentially transformative ways” (Bartlett, Miller, Crump, & Middleton, 2013, p.21).

Police forces across the U.K have a strong presence on Twitter and have Facebook pages. The

involvement of police departments in social media had led to cost effective investigations,

production of evidence, and co-produced safety through various Twitter campaigns and

neighborhood e-watch initiatives. The policy paper concluded that the most significant use of the

social media by UK police was the identification of suspects and arrests made during the 2011

London riots. The police uploaded photos to a Flickr stream and a dedicated website in order to

identify these victims. When the UK needed to develop a security strategy for the 2012 Summer

Olympics they named it Intelligence-based as result of the success of the Flickr photo stream

(Bartlett, Miller, Crump, & Middleton, 2013).

Internet based OSINT, once limited to social media based sources, is now providing

more information and quicker retrieval as expressed by Talkwalker author, Paul Brelsford.

According to Brelsford (2014), “using social media monitoring tools provide fast, relevant, and

intuitive platforms to load and align highly defined collection efforts based on the objectives and

requirements of decisions maker” (p.4). As a result, social media postings can provide faster

reporting on an important event than traditional reporting techniques. In the wake of an

impending storm, natural disaster, or terrorist attacks it was mentioned that social media is a new

mechanism that provides quicker results and faster dissemination of information (Brelsford,

2014). Brelsford (2014) concluded that “Government and Defense intelligence are continually

exploring and developing strategies to utilize social media platform to mine OSINT” (p.10).

An article published in the U.S. Marine Corps Gazette discussed the disaster relief efforts

of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti and the 2011 protests and riots in the Arab Spring. Martin (2014)

22
found that “the use of Open Source Intelligence (OSINT) and social media played a critical role

in the understanding the operational environment” (p.1). The main reason is due primarily to the

fluidity and accessibility of media. Martin (2014) hypothesized that given the popularity of social

media platforms like, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube, along with the extent that they are

woven into the both the life of the average citizen and the national consciousness of the

American public, told in specific real time updates puts it at the forefront of identifying hard hit

areas caused by natural disasters. Martin stated that intelligence oversight considerations will

make Internet based OSINT one of the most important sources of information in a domestic

disaster relief scenario.

Data quantity. Draeger (2013), detailed an important advantage of using OSINT in the

massive quantity of available information. His article indicated how intelligence agencies in the

past focused on secret, classified information that was likely scarce, but now OSINT can provide

an abundance of data to choose from. OSINT gives analysts another perspective to view an event,

person, or series of events that that are not classified. The article further addressed how the vast

production of open source information does not slow down target subjects or OSINT analysts in

the process of collecting data.

Other scholars present differing opinions regarding data quantity. Benjamin Robert

Holland’s dissertation provided a broader understanding of OSINT and key concepts in social

media analysis. The most significant criticism was the large amount of notice that is generated by

so much information in the public domain (Holland, 2013). A significant concern in the I.C. is

“the increasing amount of difficulty and time required to sort through the information to find the

valuable nuggets of intelligence from a continually growing source of public information”

(Holland, 2013, p.11). The dissertation drew the conclusion that the amount of information

23
available through OSINT is growing larger every day and explained several remedies to harness

its expansion.

OSINT and other forms of intelligence. OSINT has an effect on other forms of

intelligence. OSINT can be applied to a few of the intelligence disciplines. Of all intelligence

disciplines, Imagery Intelligence (IMINT) products are found in abundance and are very useful.

Good imagery and videos are important sources of information for intelligence analysts. Satellite

imagery such as Good Earth and videos provide excellent visualization and most are free. Images

produced by Google Earth have a high resolution and clarity, which can help in identifying

people, terrain, buildings, and objects. Videos provide understanding and insight as well. OSINT

provides an abundance of information that can be used for interrogation (Draeger 2007).

According to Draeger (2007), OSINT searches facilitated through social networking sites

like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube can build detailed biographical portfolios on individuals,

non-state and state representatives, and governmental officials. Draeger analyzed how OSINT

provided SIGINT information for intelligence analysts. Radio types, signal frequencies, global

positions satellite, commercial signal jamming equipment, software, encryption methods, keys,

and instructions are all readily accessible for anyone searching. The American University's

Management of Global Information Technology Program published student produced analytical

reports each semester on all aspects of one country's information technology. It has been

discovered that radio stations around the world now have audio feeds to permit users to listen to

them over the Internet, and television is also making more and more of its content accessible on

other platforms, such as the Internet. Draeger further indicated that there are a number of

excellent sites that will help any researcher locate these stations and find out which ones have

Internet feeds (Draeger, 2007).

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 Privacy and social media. According to Martin (2014), Open Source Information

naturally extends into social media. Options have become more limited as social media platforms

have taken measures to protect user privacy. Another danger for social media networks is that

malicious actors can use the same techniques used to get around privacy protection and honest

OSINT analysts. The article urged the awareness that high net worth individuals and companies

should have in order to protect themselves against hackers and other who have nefarious motives.

Even if individuals or their families don’t attract the attention of kidnappers, they may invite a

spearfishing attack, equally troublesome for them as the malicious party gathers open

information about them to initiate a full fledging attack.

Personalizing OSINT. Chris Pallaris further indicated most governments would need to

coordinate their approaches to the growing demands of intelligence. Various government

agencies may be expending more energy than necessary by duplicating the same searches to

answer energy agency-specific solutions. The point of OSINT, in Pallaris’ opinion, is to

collecting information that will answer a specific question, however, if everyone is answering the

same question only one search is necessary. The solution to this sort of predicament can be found

by addressing some fundamental questions:

1. How should one build an organization capable of exploiting the collective intelligence

of thousands of disparate sources?

2. How does one break down information silos and encourage greater knowledge-sharing

and collaboration?

3. Where does one find staff capable of thinking and working across disciplines?

4. How does one manage the rapid evolution of technology?

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 5. What policies and processes can be put in place to boost operational effectiveness?

(Pallaris, 2008).

Solutions to OSINT Challenges

One possible solution to the issue identified by Pallaris (2008) would be to establish a

national OSINT center that provides information to all branches of the government. Pallaris’

findings indicated that not only the legislative and execute branches could benefit from this, but

the judicial branch could equally benefit. The judicial branch also relies on OSINT to render

their decision on important court hearings.

Switzerland: pioneering OSINT. An article published in the Research Institute for

European and American Studies discussed Switzerland’s prominent role in the development of a

global society. The relevant editorial piece indicated that the high index European country is now

at the forefront of OSINT in that it has developed a number of recent initiatives to facilitate the

collection of open source information (Pallaris, 2008). Where Switzerland was once only

regarded for its culinary contributions in recent years it has evolved into an OSINT pioneer.

Pallaris (2008) stated that it has, “an interdepartmental OSINT working group that has been

established to explore possible synergies between various governmental agencies. The Strategic

intelligence Service (SND) and the Military Intelligence Service (MND) have institutionalized

OSINT, as has the domestic intelligence service” (p.3).

Discussion of the Findings

This section presents the major findings of this project, compares these findings, and

addresses any limitations that were found. Two questions that allowed the findings to be

analyzed were: 1) Did the findings fit the problem, and 2) How important were the findings.

Ultimately, these questions facilitated the analyses of themes in the literature review.

26
Research Problem

The purpose of this research project was to present a hypothesis that will analyze the

usability of Internet based OSINT in information gathering, and identify the benefits and

challenges pertaining to the legality of collection and data mining. The research questions were:

What are the capabilities of Internet based open source tools; Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan?

What are the limitations of Internet based OSINT? What are the legal issues related to gathering

Internet based OSINT?

Literature Review

The literature Review reviewed scholarly articles, books, and other sources in order to

provide a summary and critical evaluation of each work as it pertained to OSINT. All sources

utilized were relevant in some manner in attempting to answer the research questions. The

findings and conclusions of all the sources were interpreted throughout the literature review.

Most of the sources used were current (not more than 10 years old) and provided context to the

research problem in which the research was conducted. Moreover, the topic of the project was

Internet based open source information so it was crucial to review newspaper articles, surveys,

dissertations, and various online sources in order to achieve a fully comprehensive review. The

literature on OSINT was found to affect all sectors of society both nationally and globally.

Research Defined Themes

The research conducted for this project provided information related to the questions

being researched. These findings provided the basis for the outcome of this project. The themes,

based on the findings of the research are presented in this section

OSINT Growth. The research presented the rapid development of Internet based OSINT

and its growing importance within the U.S. I.C. Examining OSINT historically illustrates how

27
society has evolved and why intelligence agencies are looking beyond HUMINT or SIGINT to

satisfy their changing information needs. It was useful to attain sources that affirmed this theme

in the project as it confirms the purpose of this research. Chris Pallaris, author of the article Open

Source Intelligence: A Strategic Enabler of National Security addressed the use of OSINT

among government agencies worldwide (Pallaris, 2008). Pallaris (2008) found that “Today,

OSINT’s importance is widely acknowledged and estimated that OSINT provides between 80

and 95 percent of the information used by the intelligence community.” (p.1).

Benavides (2011) confirmed the importance of OSINT by addressing the state of current

affairs. Benavides (2011) stated that, “most governmental agencies depend on OSINT to create

tailored knowledge supportive of a specific decision” (p. 9). The other sources in the Literature

Review provided differing perspectives on OSINT, but also reiterated the importance of it.

Internet based OSINT growth was primarily attributed to the rapid development of

technology. It is important to distinguish the intelligence needs of the Cold War from the current

digital age. Today, the threats to national security are varied and more complex. The Center for

Security Services (2008) stated that, “these threats to national security range from the

proliferation of weapons of mass destruction to intra-state conflicts, illegal immigration, energy

security, and organized crime.” (p.38). This source presents how the security agenda of the

United States has broadened its focus and is increased reliance on OSINT.

Globalization has also been a factor in the emergence of OSINT utilization. Other factors

that are relevant are intelligence failures in preventing terrorist attacks against the U.S., and risky

intelligence collection practices of U.S. personnel working in other countries. The Senate Select

Committee offered a contradictory viewpoint to this theme when they concluded, “diplomacy

and intelligence collection was considered risky” (Senate Select Committee, 2014, p.2).

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 Proper Tool Selection. The sources examined addressed the various methods OSINT

analysts use in order to gather pertinent information for their data mining. The methods OSINT

analysts use in order to mine for data as efficiently were examined. OSINT produces such a

significant amount of information that it is challenging to collect pertinent data without first

encountering a significant amount of superfluous data. The three most common open source

search engines used by the intelligence community are: Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan. Krishnan

(2012) discussed how Maltego has a distinct advantage for mining data within Social Media

Platforms. Social media sites like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are all susceptible to

searches by Maltego. Krishnan (2012) stated, that with Maltego intelligence analysts can, “find

the relationships people are linked to, including their social profile, mutual friends, and

companies that are related to the information gathered” (p.1).

According to the sources examined, Shodan was determined to be a powerful search

engine, which can find specific targets much like Google. Occupytheweb (2014) stated, “Shodan

is a search engine used by hackers and is described as the world’s most dangerous search engine”

(p.1). A disadvantage of this search engine is its accessibility to hackers and the potential for

others to infringe on privacy laws. The sources presented in the Literature Review address less of

a reliance on confidential information as mining for Internet based OSINT becomes more

mainstream (Pallaris, 2008). Spokeo, another search engine “gathers information from free white

pages to find people by name, email, address, and phone free of charge” (Pearson, 2012, p. 2).

OSINT Benefits. The sources examined presented findings that there are more benefits

to using OSINT over potential drawbacks. In terms of the usability of OSINT it fares well for

frequent use. Accepting the benefits of OSINT provides a general understanding of how that

affects the preferred OSINT tools. According to Vere Software (2011), “the ability of an analyst

29
to exploit the Internet for OSINT can be had at relatively little cost compared to other sources

and access is free to target subjects” (p.2). The cost-effectiveness was a benefit that was

addressed by other sources. Colgan (2012) bolstered this assertion by focusing on OSINT’s low

cost attributed to data collection and gathering. Additional benefits such as, up-to date

information, freeing up scarce intelligence assets for concentration on mission-critical

information and gaps, and involves no political or organizational risks.

Another benefit of Internet based OSINT is that the information is shareable. The Internet

is one example of how information can be quickly spread. Not only can that information be

spread quickly, it can also, reach people all over the world. Draeger (2009), concluded that “the

fact that OSINT can be shared makes it a high value commodity” (p.42).

Ethical Considerations. Another theme from the Literature Review was the ethical

implications on the collection of sensitive OSINT data. Traditionally, classified or secret data

was a breach of privacy, but was viewed as necessary for Intelligence purposes. Uncovering

Russian secrets was not a concern of the U.S. public. Today, technology has given intelligence

agencies the power to collect information that may be personal and infringe on the rights of not

only foreign governments, but also, the rights of U.S. citizens. For example, the U.S. government

has been accused of monitoring cell phone conversations to collect data. Nevertheless, there can

be benefits of collection of data through OSINT (Pallaris, 2008). Pallaris (2008), an advocate of

OSINT stated, “OSINT can constitute almost no risk compared to other operations that required

the use of spies and other clandestine assets” (para.10). Compared to other forms of intelligence,

OSINT is the ethically sound because it would not require hacking personal accounts or private

records to uncover data.

30
 SOCMINT. Another theme that was revealed during the Literature Review was the role

that social media has in Internet based OSINT. Primarily there are numerous sources to gather

Internet based OISNT. With the rapid development of computer and Internet technology

SOCMINT has become one of the most prevalent sources of information. Social media platforms

like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram are being utilized by millions of people throughout the

world. Brelsford (2014) addressed “using social media monitoring tools provides fast, relevant,

and intuitive platforms to load and align highly defined collection efforts based on the objectives

and requirements of decision maker” (p.4). Social media posts are now reporting events faster

than traditional news outlets. Social media has changed the way information is reported and

shared.

Limitations and Weaknesses. The Literature Review exposed several challenges to

OSINT. OSINT analysts should understand that as beneficial as OSINT is, there are limitations

to its use. Some of these limitations were found within the OSINT Intelligence Cycle. Colgan

(2008) stated that the intelligence cycle in the U.S. is made up of five stages: 1) Planning, 2)

Acquisition/Collection, 3) Data Processing, 4) Analysis, and 5) Dissemination. Steele (2007),

though an advocate for OSINT, addressed that the failures to OSINT were related to internal

governmental functions. The U.S. failed to invest in processing and further created three

consistent errors since the evolution of OSINT: a lack of standards, geospatial attributes, and

integration. The sources reviewed also addressed limitations that have been implemented by the

U.S. Intelligence Community.

Next, another disadvantage to OSINT is the significant amount of inaccurate information

it generates. While a benefit of OSINT is that the data quantity is vast, there is also an abundance

of misinformation. Evidence Based Research (2014), identified inaccurate information as a

31
disadvantage and the primary reason why it lessens the credibility of OSINT. According to

Evidence Based Research (2014), “it is not always easy to find some key information because

only a small fraction of the Internet is indexed; it is not easy to extract and combine key

information because most of the reports are free text; it is not easy to assess report credibility”

(p.1). A solution was presented to assess the data being collected that considered the following

three considerations when assessing the reliability of information:

1. The actual historical reliability of that source on similar events or subjects,

taking into account the report’s self-assessment of reliability.

2. The report’s consistency with confirmed facts and precedents.

3. It’s consistency with information available from other sources. (Evidence

Based Research, 2014, p.2)

The literature reviewed indicated that the amounts of incoming OSINT data is

overwhelming, and if the information were significantly decreased OSINT analysts may still

encounter problems with gathering information. The usability of gathered data may depend more

on the skill or expertise of those that are using it rather than the information itself or some

external factor. Advanced training for all OSINT analysts is recommended to yield an effective

analysis of collected data. Other factors that address the competency of intelligence analysts are

common sense and critical thinking skills. Today, many analysts lack subject matter expertise

because they are isolated and less aware than their prior counterparts. (Best & Cumming, 2007).

Draeger (2009) address this same disadvantage and recommended several steps in order

to become a certified expert in open source information collection. Steps include IT education,

web-based instruction, and a combination of on the job or formal training. Emphasis was placed

on attaining a mentor who is experienced with gathering and analyzing the data. The author

32
attributed the difficulty of becoming proficient or an OSINT expert to its recent prominence

within the I.C. Although they do not share the same explanation for this disparity, Best and

Cumming (2007), and Draeger (2009) each offer solutions to mitigate the situation.

Another disadvantage related to the legality of OSINT usage is a lack of privacy

protection within social media platforms. Social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and

Instagram all afford many benefits to OSINT, however, there may be ways for hackers to get

around the privacy protection already in place. Users with malicious intent can use the same

techniques used to get around privacy protection and honest OSINT analysts (Martin, 2014).

This potential breach of privacy is significant to the research problem because it makes

SOCMINT somewhat of a dichotomy. While it OSINT provides many benefits, the lack of

security makes it more susceptible to hackers (Martin, 2014).

Comparison of Findings with Existing Studies

OSINT data is important to the I.C. Today, most intelligence agencies rely upon OSINT

to some degree. Benavides (2011) stated, “most governmental agencies depend on it to create

tailored knowledge supportive of a specific decision” (p.9). This research problem reframes the

question of not whether OSINT should or should not be used, but to how much of the data

should be used. Depending on its purposes some agencies will use it to supplement their findings

or while other agencies rely on it entirely.

Today, OSINT is one of the more significant data sources for intelligence agencies. Not

only has it been brought on by rapid advancements in technology, but facilitated by the changing

agenda of intelligence agencies worldwide. The evolution of the Internet was one of the main

catalysts in influencing globalization. Due to the change in the agenda of intelligence agencies,

OSINT is not only beneficial and imperative for national security. One of the most

33
groundbreaking discoveries of this research was the role OSINT plays in national security.

Intelligence agencies need to heed the threats of terrorists, especially if they make their threats

via open source platforms.

This project surveyed sources that mentioned a particular form of Internet based OSINT,

SOCMINT. Social media based sources was the final development that propelled Internet based

OSINT into necessity status within the U.S. I.C. People around the world are using social media

to report on recent events and are doing so quicker than more traditional reporting mechanisms.

These findings add another dimension to intelligence gathering because remaining current with

world news is crucial.

Moreover, Brelsford (2014) addressed the rapid development of social media.

Brelsford’s (2014) stated, “Government and defense intelligence are continually exploring and

developing strategies to utilize social media platforms to mine OSINT” (p.10). Social media

developed so quickly within recent years that it is understandable that government agencies

would want to maximize the methods to extract data from it.

Furthermore, the information provided by social media can aid in saving lives. Martin

(2014) stated,

given the popularity of social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube,

along with the extent that they are woven both into the life of the average citizen and the

national consciousness of the American public, told in specific real time updates puts it at

the forefront of identifying hard hit areas caused by natural disasters. There were some

holes in the existing research that should be addressed. (p. 40)

There were several inconsistencies in the sources when it came to the use of OSINT for

tactical or strategic intelligence. A disadvantage of OSINT was it being less useful for actionable

34
intelligence on a strategic level. Due to the fact that the same analytical processes take place in

both forms of intelligence it makes OSINT less valuable (Benavides, 2011).

However, Draeger (2009) stated that OSINT is valuable to all soldiers in any strategic or

tactical situation. The article compares the evolution of the information soldiers now have access

to on the battlefield. Soldiers no longer have to wait for maps, but utilize Internet based

information tools gain situational awareness. It can be inferred that on a surface level that OSINT

may not be as valuable for tactical or strategic intelligence, but upon further analysis can be

useful than previously thought.

Limitations of the Study

A limitation of this study was the limited amount of literature addressing the legality of

gathering open source information and data collection. One of the questions that the research

intended to answer was to identify the benefits and challenges of the legality of collection data

and mining. While there were a few sources that presented a minimal amount of material

regarding this topic, the research could not generate a fully comprehensive response. Compared

to other forms of intelligence OSINT is assumed to be the most ethically sound. While ethics of

OSINT analysts and other users are not addressed, Internet based OSINT could promote more

ethical practices related to mining for data among social media platforms. OSINT collected using

ethical means and methods can be used in legal proceedings and without the risk of exposing

sensitive information (Pallaris, 2008).

Recommendations

The methodologies necessary for adequate assessment of data being gathered or collected

have received considerable attention in the literature examined (Evidence Based Research, 2014).

Evidence based research came up with one solution to solve the issue of limited reliability that

35
inevitably leads to a lack of credibility in OSINT. Evidence Based Research (2014) proposed

that the following three questions be considered when assessing the reliability of information:

1. The actual historical reliability of that source on similar events or subjects, taking into

account the report’s self-assessment of reliability.

2. The report’s consistency with confirmed facts and precedents.

3. It’s consistency with information available from other sources. (Evidence Based

Research, 2014, p.2)

Cybersecurity professionals who choose to pursue careers as OSINT analysts or who will

frequently be extracting or mining for data in other fields are impeded by their skill or expertise

just as much as the data itself. In fact, most research indicates that OSINT already comes with

disadvantages to OSINT analysis because there are large amounts of useless data that make

extracting it is difficult and quite unreliable. Furthermore, due to the fact that just anyone post on

the Internet seemingly useful data when it is in fact it leads to more unreliable information.

Nevertheless, a few authors have suggested that even if the vast amounts of information

was decreased significantly that OSINT analysts may still encounter problems with information

gathering. (Best & Cumming, 2007; Draeger, 2009). Despite the rapid growth of the Internet and

data being accumulated on a daily basis, OSINT analysts should undergo advanced training to

yield an effective analysis of the data they are collecting. Draeger (2009) suggested a plan of

action that would allow one to become a certified expert in open source information collection. It

is a culmination of IT education, web-instruction, and a combination of on the job training or

formal training. A would-be OSINT expert should attain a mentor that is an expert user, and

producer of intelligence data.

36
Future Research

Another recommendation for future research is to determine the effects of suppressing

foreign speech. Two authors considered the consequences that the U.S. government had on

limiting foreign speech on national security (Morshirnia, 2013; Vlahos, 2005). It would be

beneficial to the research literature to include the full impact of this kind of action in order to

gain various viewpoints on the matter.

Other recommendations for further research include: continue to explore the

technological advancements in U.S. society and correlate them more closely with globalization;

identify which strategies are particularly effective to gain expertise in OSINT analysis; determine

how social media platforms can become more secure in order to prevent security breaches; and

explore the impact that social media platforms have on news reporting and the overall

dissemination of information throughout the world.

A limitation of this study was the lack of sources available in order to explore the issue

surrounding the legality of gathering information and data collection. While there were a few

sources that touched upon legal and ethical implication of using OSINT the literature in its

totality was not as comprehensive. While the current literate indicates that OSINT is the most

ethical compared to other forms of intelligence other scholars have differing opinions. The

security provisions of social media platforms have become a concern in recent years. Additional

research from various perspectives is necessary to address current and future outcomes regarding

ethical concerns. There is a possibility that some scholars will take the stance that OSINT

analysts do not extract data with the most ethical intentions. Further research could also pinpoint

what areas are more susceptible to security breach or infringement of privacy laws. Additional

research into the hacking activities of governmental officials and regular hackers will help

37
identify what leads to a security breach and under what circumstances will OSINT analysts

possibility risk mining confidential information.

Conclusions

The purpose of this research project was to answer the following questions: What are the

capabilities of Internet based open source tools; Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan? What are the

limitations of Internet based OSINT? What are the legal issues related to gathering Internet based

OSINT?

Pallaris (2008) states: “Today, OSINT’s importance is widely acknowledged. It is

estimated that OSINT provides between 80 to 95 percent of the information used by the

intelligence community” (para. 2). Currently, the majority of authors agree that Internet based

OSINT is the most widely used form of intelligence by the U.S. I.C. Others believe that OSINT

is the only form of intelligence available to certain governments. Irrespective the overarching

consensus is that OSINT has made secret intelligence, HUMINT or SIGNIT virtually obsolete.

The agenda of U.S. intelligence agencies has changed dramatically and includes points of

concern that once never existed. Terrorist attacks, cyber warfare, and illegal immigration were

not issues of concern during the Cold War. It was important to detail the evolution of OSINT in

order to see why it came into prominence and the crucial role in plays in modern society.

An important aspect is the inference that Internet based OSINT has far more benefits than

drawbacks. Although there is a significant amount of information generated and that can lead to

a lack of credibility there are ways to get around those disadvantages. Meanwhile, some scholars

did contradict each other’s viewpoints, especially regarding whether OSINT is useful for

strategic or tactical situations. It was determined by Draeger (2009) that OSINT is valuable to all

soldiers no matter what strategic or tactical situation they may find themselves in. Draeger

38
(2009), stated “knowledge soldiers will not wait for maps, but will utilize information tools, such

as, Google Earth or search engines to gain situational awareness” (p.42).

The preferred methods that OSINT analysts use to effectively collection information is

using open source search engines. The most common open source search engines used by the

intelligence community are: Maltego, Spokeo, and Shodan. From the literature is was determined

that not all search engines are equal. It was found that social media platforms are more

susceptible to searches by Maltego. The most notorious of the search engines was considered to

be Shodan. Noted for its robust search capabilities and ability to target a subject very much like

Google, Shodan is regarded with apprehension within the I.C. The most basic search engine, but

the most commonly used by the I.C. is Spokeo because it gathers information that can be found

in the white pages.

It was determined that OSINT is one of the best forms of intelligence available to

intelligence agencies. The rapid advancement of technology and the Internet facilitated a

transformation in the intelligence agenda of the U.S. Therefore, OSINT beneficial for national

security. Another revelation found is that intelligence agencies may have created their own

weaknesses and limitations due to faulty infrastructure and intelligence cycle. Further, the vast

amounts of data generated may not be such as limitation if the OSINT analyst is poorly trained

or incompetent. This finding indicates that OSINT usability may depend more of the skill or

expertise of those that intend to use it rather than the data itself or some external factor.

A limitation of the study was a lack of sources that addressed the legality of gathering

information and data collection. The research question that pertains to the benefits and

challenges of the legality of data collection was addressed in limited sources. Pallaris (2008)

found that it was the most ethically sound form of intelligence. Other scholars may contend this

39
position due to the sensitive data that can be uncovered through data mining within social media

platforms. Current search engines can generate anywhere from a basic search to finding out what

groups you belong to, your friends, and even your address. Sensitive information that falls into

the wrong hands, such as those of hackers can have major legal implications for social media

users who want to protect their private information. Although there is some literature that

addresses the legality of open source gathering it does not result in a complete analysis and

therefore, the issue of whether it is ethical or not is still open to interpretation.

All in all, OSINT has made its mark on the U.S. I.C. and is here to stay. There are far

more benefits to its use and it is likely that more and more people will be accessing, mining, and

collecting data in order to satisfy the queries of their hearts. OSINT is an important area to

explore for Cybersecurity professionals because it will provide a foundation for its use and can

be an opportunity to develop strategies to defend against hacking, stealing of sensitive data, or

any other security concerns of the Internet. These strategies can extend to corporate servers,

clouds, and exclusive software used only by a select few in any given organization. It is worth

mentioning that OSINT includes various things, such as radio, television, books, magazines,

however, in our highly digitized world the Internet will be the biggest playing field –the world

cup of security, is now in cyberspace and the best players will be those well-versed in OSINT,

hence, those who have received the most extensive training.

40
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