Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I. GENERAL
2. What is RBI and its main formula and what is the Risk matrix?
• RBI: a risk assessment and management process focused on inspection planning for loss of
containment of pressurized equipment due to material deterioration. These risks are managed
primarily through inspection in order to influence the probability of failure (API definition, but I do not
like it).
• Main formula: Risk = Likelihood x Consequence.
• Risk matrix is a risk ranking methodology.
• Probability Assessment
The probability assessment should be in accordance with API 580, Section 9, and must be based
on all forms of damage that could reasonably be expected to affect a vessel in any particular
service. Examples of those damage mechanisms include: internal or external metal loss from
localized or general corrosion, all forms of cracking, and any other forms of metallurgical,
corrosion, or mechanical damage, (e.g. fatigue, embrittlement, creep, etc.) Additionally, the
effectiveness of the inspection practices, tools, and techniques used for finding the potential
damage mechanisms must be evaluated. Other factors that should be considered in a probability
assessment include:
a. Appropriateness of the materials of construction.
b. b. Vessel design conditions, relative to operating conditions. c.
c. Appropriateness of the design codes and standards utilized. d.
d. Effectiveness of corrosion monitoring programs.
e. e. The quality of maintenance and inspection quality assurance/quality control
programs.
f. Equipment failure data will also be important information for this assessment.
• Consequence Assessment
The consequence of a release is dependent on type and amount of process fluid contained in
the equipment. The consequence assessment should be in accordance with API 580, Section
10 and must consider the potential incidents that may occur as a result of fluid release, the
size of a potential release, and the type of a potential release, (includes explosion, fire, or
toxic exposure.) The assessment should also determine the potential incidents that may occur
as a result of fluid release, which may include: health effects, environmental damage,
equipment damage, and equipment downtime.
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II.MATERIAL
1. What are types of stainless steel?
1) Ferritic Stainless steel:
- Iron–chromium alloys with chromium ranging from 10.5 to 27% and less than 0.10% Carbon
(e.g. 405, 409, 429, 430, 442, and 446).
- Has resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
- Subject to severe embrittlement at 700–1100F temperature range.
2) Austenitic (the most common):
- iron–chromium–nickel alloys that contain 16–26% chromium and 6–22%
nickel (e.g. 304, 304L, 304H, 309, 310, 316, 316L, 316H, 321, 321H, 347,347H, and C 276).
- has a high resistance to corrosion.
- Vulnerable to stress corrosion cracking.
o Type 304—the most common grade; the classic 18/8 (18% chromium, 8% nickel) stainless
steel. Outside of the US it is commonly known as "A2 stainless steel", in accordance with ISO
3506 (not to be confused with A2 tool steel).[6]
o Type 304L—same as the 304 grade but lower carbon content to increase weldability. Is slightly
weaker than 304.
o Type 304LN—same as 304L, but also nitrogen is added to obtain a much higher yield and
tensile strength than 304L.
o Type 308—used as the filler metal when welding 304.
o Type 309—better temperature resistance than 304, also sometimes used as filler metal when
welding dissimilar steels, along with inconel.
o Type 316—the second most common grade (after 304); for food and surgical stainless steel
uses; alloy addition of molybdenum prevents specific forms of corrosion. It is also known as
marine grade stainless steel due to its increased resistance to chloride corrosion compared to
type 304. 316 is often used for building nuclear reprocessing plants.
o Type 316L—is an extra low carbon grade of 316, generally used in stainless steel watches and
marine applications, as well exclusively in the fabrication of reactor pressure vessels for boiling
water reactors, due to its high resistance to corrosion. Also referred to as "A4" in accordance
with ISO 3506.[6]
o Type 316Ti—variant of type 316 that includes titanium for heat resistance. It is used in flexible
chimney liners.
o Type 321—similar to 304 but lower risk of weld decay due to addition of titanium. See also
347 with addition of niobium for desensitization during welding.
3) Martensitic:
- High Carbon content up to 1%, and poor weldability (e.g. 410, 410S, 416, 420, 440A, 440B,
and 440C).
4) Duplex:
- Approximately 50% ferritic and 50% austenitic.
- High strength and resistance to corrosion and SSC (2205, 2304, and 2507).
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2. Differentiate between 304 and 316 and what does L and H stands for?
• 304: Popular 18–8 stainless steel
• 316: 17% chromium 11% nickel 2% molybdenum (Mo added for improved corrosion
resistance).
• The “L” and “H” suffixes refer to controlled ranges of low and high carbon content,
respectively (L has 0.03% carbon maximum in stainless For resistance to intergranular
corrosion and H has carbon range 0.04–0.10%, for high-temperature use for tensile and creep
rupture strength)
• Strength: Duplex stainless steels are about twice as strong as regular austenitic or
ferritic stainless steels.
• Toughness and ductility: Duplex stainless steels have significantly better toughness and
ductility than ferritic grades; however, they do not reach the excellent values of austenitic grades.
• Corrosion resistance: As with all stainless steels, corrosion resistance depends mostly on
the composition of the stainless steel. For chloride pitting and crevice corrosion resistance, their
chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen content are most important. Duplex stainless steel grades
have a range of corrosion resistance, similar to the range for austenitic stainless steels, i.e from
Type 304 or 316 (e.g. LDX 2101©) to 6% molybdenum (e.g. SAF 2507©) stainless steels.
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III. PRESSURE VESSELS
2. What type of pressure vessels you worked with? and what type of material
Are they?
• Separators: SA 203-E, SA 240-304 etc….
• Drums: SA 285 Gr C, SA 516 Gr 60, 70 & C etc…….
• Towers: SA 516 Gr B, SA 387 Gr CL2, SA 516 Gr 60 & 70, etc…
• Atmospheric storage tanks: A283 Gr C.
• Spherical tanks: SA 537 Gr CL2.
B. External inspection:
1. Ladders, stairways, platforms, and walkways: corroded or broken parts, cracks, tightness of
bolts, condition of paint or galvanizing material, wear of ladder rungs and stair treads, the
security of handrails, and the condition of flooring on platforms and walkways.
2. Foundations and Supports: deterioration such as spelling, cracking, settling, distortion, and
crevice formed between an exchanger shell or a horizontal vessel and a cradle support.
3. Anchor Bolts: Distortion, corrosion, and looseness.
4. Nozzles: If any settling of the vessel has occurred, nozzles and adjacent shell areas should
be inspected for distortion and cracking, If any settling of the vessel has occurred, nozzles
and adjacent shell areas should be inspected for distortion and cracking, Wall thickness, and
leaks.
5. Grounding Connections: Grounding connection resistance shall not exceed 25 ohms but 5
ohms is normally preferred.
6. Auxiliary Equipment: gauge connections, float wells, sight glasses, and safety valves
(vibration & corrosion).
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- Susceptible Locations:
- If external coverings are in good condition and there is no reason to suspect damage
behind them, it is not necessary to remove them for inspection of the vessel (Neutron
backscatter, Thermography, or/and RT thickness profile are methods used to provide
on-stream screening assessment.
8. Metal surface: wall thickness corrosion, blistering, cracking, buckling, bulging, hot
spots, and leaking.
C. Internal inspection:
1. Reviewing previous records.
2. Vessel entry: Vessel shall be isolated, drained, purged, cleaned, ventilated, and gas tested.
3. Work permit.
4. Safety gear.
5. Preliminary Visual inspection when possible: collecting samples and visualizing fresh corrosion
or damage may be useful in determining type and causes.
6. Surface preparation.
7. Metal surface: Thickness measurement, corrosion, cracking, erosion, blistering, deformation.
8. Welds.
9. Internals.
10. Nozzles.
11. Lining:
- Metallic: corrosion, erosion, bulging, mechanical and cracking.
- Nonmetallic: Bulging, blistering, chipping, cracking, and mechanical damage
(visual and holiday test).
D. Report
E. Repair
F. Records and final report
4. What type of towers your company have? With what kind of trays? And what
areas most susceptible to problems?
• Types: depropanizer, deboutanizer, and Stabilizer.
• Kind of trays: Bubble cap tray.
• Areas most susceptible to problems:
a. As a general rule, the upper third or the lower third of the tower is where the most corrosive
environment is typically found.
b. The area of the feed inlet and five to ten trays above and below the feed
inlet.
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c. The reflux inlet, the adjacent shell/head and the first five to ten trays below the reflux inlet.
d. The shell across from and adjacent to the inlet from the rebuilder (if
present). This includes the bottom head, bottom nozzles and the head to shell seam.
* These areas are usually subjected to the most turbulence within the tower
e.g. Tray Support Rings, Support Clips, Downcomer Bars,
• Internal inspection
a. As in pressure vessel above.
b. Preliminary, or “dirty inspections”.
c. Manway covers, gasket surfaces and manway bore internal surfaces should be
labeled and inspected.
d. Access:
- Access should be provided onto the top tray, at the middle manway (if present) and
onto the bottom head.
e. Areas between trays
1. The liquid zone: Spot-checking (four to six locations per tray level) under deposits is
recommended. Scrape spots 4 in. to 8 in. long, from above the weir height down to
and including the tray support ring.
2. The froth zone: Light spot checking is usually sufficient (two to three locations per
tray level).
3. The vapor zone: The area consists of the last 3” or 4” below the tray.
f. Trays
In tray deck and attached hardware the Primary locations of concern are the active and
inactive panels of deck, the weirs, the downcomer panels and the hardware, edges of the
perforation and the edges of the raised cap.
- Pitting or roughening of the tray panels. Bulging, sagging and distortion of the tray
panels.
- Cracking of the tray deck at support and stress points.
- Cracking of the tray deck is frequently adjacent to internal manway openings.
- Loose or missing hardware on downcomer anti-jump baffles or downcomer anti-
vibration clips are the main point of failure for these tray components.
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g. Tower Attachments—Tray Support Rings, Support Clips, Downcomer
Bars, etc.
- Tray support ring top side fillet welds and the shell in this area are quite often the site of the
mosta aggressive corrosion in a tower.
- The tray support ring also supply’s a horizontal surface for collection or puddling of any
corrosives which may have precipitated out of process fluids. Corrosion of this type is often
typified by bright orange colored corrosion residue on, and sometimes under the ring.
- Cracking of Stitch welds used to attach the lower side of the tray support ring to the shell.
- Tray support ring upper attachment welds are prone to cracking, particularly at the ends
adjacent downcomers.
- Downcomer bar attachment welds are sometimes prone
to cracking at the upper and lower ends.
2. Pneumatic test:
= 1.1 X MAWP X stress ratio.
Procedure:
1st step – 50% of Test pressure
2 to 6 step – 10% of Test Pr.
Insp. Pr. (pneumatic) = Test pr. /1.1
IV.PIPING
• Category M Fluid Service: a fluid service in which the potential for personnel which
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a single exposure to a very small quantity of a toxic fluid, caused by leakage, can
produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or bodily contact.
f) Piping over or adjacent to water and piping over public throughways (refer
to Department of Transportation and U.S. Coast Guard regulations for
inspection of over water piping).
g) Flammable services operating above their auto-ignition temperature.
• Class 2
Services not included in other classes. This classification includes the
majority of unit process piping and selected off-site piping. Typical examples:
a) On-site hydrocarbons that will slowly vaporize during release such as those
operating below the flash point,
b) Hydrogen, fuel gas, and natural gas,
c) On-site strong acids and caustics.
• Class 3
Services that are flammable but do not significantly vaporize when they leak
and are not located in high-activity areas.
a) On-site hydrocarbons that will not significantly vaporize during release such
as those operating below the flash point;
b) Distillate and product lines to and from storage and loading;
c) Tank farm piping;
d) Off-site acids and caustics.
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• Class 4
Services that are essentially nonflammable and nontoxic, as are most utility
services.
a) Steam and steam condensate;
b) Air;
c) Nitrogen;
d) Water, including boiler feed water, stripped sour water;
e) Lube oil, seal oil;
f) ASME B31.3, Category D services;
g) Plumbing and sewers.
4. What is the test pressure of pining according to ASME B31.1? and how we
apply test with pneumatic test procedure?
• Hydrostatic Test pr = 1.5 × Design pr x stress ratio.
• Pneumatic test pr = 1.1 x Design pr
• Procedure: Pressurization should be in steps. Initially, pressure shall be slowly
increased to 25 psi or 50% of test pressure (whichever is lower). Check for
leakage, if any, and correct them.
Thereafter, the pressure shall be increased in steps up to the full
pressure. Inspection shall be carried out at Design Pressure.
5. What are the different damage mechanisms that you faced in piping?
• Atmospheric corrosion, Crevice corrosion, Galvanic corrosion, Erosion
corrosion, Cracking, CUI, Thermal fatigue, MIC, And soil corrosion.
tm = PD +C
2(SE + PY )
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HEAT EXCHANGER
1. What type of heat exchangers your company has? With what type of material?
• Type: Shell & tube (fixed tube sheet, floating head, and U tube), double pipe,
and cooler.
• Material:
a. Shell → SA 517 Gr. 70, and SA 240 Gr. 304.
b. Tube → SA 334 Gr. 6, SA 335 Gr P9 SA213 Gr. TP304, and SA179.
2. What are shell & tube exchanger components? And how to inspect?
• Components:
1. Heads (channel & bonnet).
2. Shell.
3. Tubes.
4. Tube sheet.
5. Expansion joint.
6. Tie rods and spacers.
7. Transverse baffles.
8. Nozzles.
9. Support prackets
• Inspection:
A. Externally
c. As in pressure vessel.
B. Internally
• Inspection:
A) Externally
1. Access, ladders, platforms, and stairways.
2. Concrete base, supporting elements and load carrying beams.
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3. Plenum, fan ring, fan blades, and fan deck.
Attention should be paid to:
- Corroded or broken parts
- Cracks
- Tightness of bolts
- Condition of paint
- Wear of ladder rungs or stair treads
- Security of handrails
- Condition of flooring on platforms and walkways
- Condition of fireproofing
- Buckling or excessive deflection (on supports and beams)
- Condition of insulation
- Relief valve condition and Tag number
- level gauges and associated piping
- Stalling, cracking and settling of concrete foundation and
supports.
- Fan blades wear, corrosion or mechanical damage.
4. Insulation and susceptible areas for CUI.
5. Earth connection.
6. Anchor bolts and threaded joints for loose or corrosion.
7. Vibration.
8. Fins for fouling or damage (collect a sample).
9. Exposed tubes for corrosion.
10. Tube sheet and plug sheet for leakage
Nozzles weld (NDT applied).
Thickness measurements for:
d. Tube sheet (min. 20 mm including CA). e. Plug
sheet (min. 20 mm including CA).
f. Box top, bottom, and end plate (min. 12 mm including CA). g. Exposed
tubes (min. 2 mm).
h. Nozzles neck (min. as table 3 of API 661).
*Note: all tolerances is for CS.
B) Internally
1. Preliminary inspection:
• Remove about 25% of plugs and visually check tubes for fouling, if fouled
remove all plugs.
• Visually inspect tube internal condition using borescope (Erosion- corrosion in tube
inlet and last foot of outlet is common problem).
• Visually inspect header using borescope.
• Check gasket surface for mechanical damage (cut or scratches).
• Check nozzles internal surface for fouling, pitting, erosion, corrosion, or cracks.
• Check flange face for flatness.
• Apply leak test for at least 1 hour. According to pressure code.
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VI.TANKS ( MFL MANDATORY)
1. What are the types of tanks your company have? And what material they
are made from?
• Tanks types: floating roof (annular pontoon & double deck pontoon), fixed roof, horizontal
tanks.
• Material: SA 283 Gr C
• Internal inspection
j. Reviewing tank data & inspection records.
k. Tank must be emptied of liquid, freed of gases, and washed or cleaned.
l. Safety permit.
m. Preliminary Visual Inspection: checking internal condition of roof and legs or
columns for safe inspection.
n. Bottom: Corrosion, Depressions (especially areas around or under roof
supports), sumps, weld cracking.
o. Shell: Shell to bottom weld, liquid-level line, vapor, corrosion, blistering,
cracking, bulging, buckling.
p. Lining: Holes (indicated by bulging, blistering, spalling), cracking, and
mechanical damage.
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q. Roof: Corrosion, distortion.
r. Internals: Nozzles, supports, floating roof swing lines
s. Primary report.
t. Repair.
u. Final report.
5. What is the pressure you use when conducting a vacuum test on a tank?
• In general 3-5 psi and for detection of very small leaks 8-10 psi.
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VII. PSV
1. What are the types of Pressure relief devices that you worked on?
• Rel
•
• ieve valves, safety valves, safety relieve valves, Conventional Safety-
relief Valve, Pilot-operated Pressure-relief valve.
• Relieve valves used for liquid service.
• Safety valves used for gas or steam service.
• safety relieve valves for both gas and liquid service.
• Final test:
1. Pop test.
2. Bubble test (seat tightness):
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- At 90% of the set pressure for set pressure > 50 psig.
- At 5 psig less than the set pressure for set pressure ≤ 50
psig.
VIII. WELDING
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NDT
1. What is IQI in RT? And what are the types?
• IQI = Image quality indicator.
• Hole type and Wire type.
3. What is dwell time? And what are factors to determine the dwell time?
• Dwell time: the time required for liquid penetrant to penetrate
inside any surface defect.
• Factors:
1. Material.
2. Material form.
3. Type of discontinuity.
C.IRIS (Internal Rotary inspection system): Used for all types heat exchanger
tubes
• An immersion pulse echo technique whereby the ultrasonic transducer is centered in the tube to be
inspected. Ultrasonic pulses are emitted along a path parallel to the tube axis.
• These pulses are then reflected by a 45º mirror so that they are directed radially onto the tube wall.
• As the mirror rotates, the ultrasonic beam is traversed around the tube circumference as illustrated in.
All the measurements made during a complete scan around the circumference of the tube are
displayed on a screen.
• The couplent in this technique is the water.
• IRIS limitations are 1- very slow 2- need good cleaning.
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Tubular NDT
Common Methods
• Eddy-current testing (ECT) is commonly used on non-[ferromagnetic] metals and alloys such as
copper, brass, and copper nickel. Variations on ECT are partial saturation ECT and magnetic
biased ECT, both of which use magnets to allow ECT to operate in lightly ferromagnetic materials
or in thin-wall ferromagnetic tubes.
•Remote field testing (RFT) is used on [ferromagnetic] materials such as carbon steel.
• IRIS (Internal rotary inspection system) can be used on all types of metal tubes. IRIS is very slow,
but very accurate, and is often used as a back-up to a remote field examination.
•Magnetic flux leakage (MFL) testing is used on carbon steel tubes, although it tends to be less
accurate than remote field testing.[1]
Graphitization
Graphitization is a change in the microstructure of certain carbon steels and 0.5Mo steels after long-
term operation in the 800F to 1100F (427C to 593C) range that may cause a loss in strength,
ductility, and/or creep resistance. At elevated temperatures, the carbide phases in these steels are
unstable and may decompose into graphite nodules. This decomposition is known as graphitization.
Softening (Spheroidization)
Spheroidization is a change in the microstructure of steels after exposure in the 850F to 1400F
(440C to 760C) range, where the carbide phases in carbon steels are unstable and may agglomerate
from their normal plate-like form to a spheroidal form, or from small, finely dispersed carbides in
low alloy steels like 1Cr-0.5Mo to large agglomerated carbides. Spheroidization may cause a loss in
strength and/or creep resistance.
Temper Embrittlement
Temper embrittlement is the reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can occur in
some low alloy steels as a result of long term exposure in the temperature range of about 650oF to
1100oF (343C to 593C) . This change causes an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle transition
temperature as measured by Charpy impact testing. Although the loss of toughness is not evident at
operating temperature, equipment that is temper embrittled may be susceptible to brittle fracture
during start-up and shutdown.
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Creep
a) At high temperatures, metal components can slowly and continuously deform under load below
the yield stress. This time dependent deformation of stressed components is known as creep.
The initial stages of creep damage can only be identified by scanning electron microscope
metallography. Creep voids typically show up at the grain boundaries and in later stages form
fissures and then cracks.
Inspection and Monitoring
a. Creep damage with the associated microvoid formation, fissuring and dimensional changes is not
effectively found by any one inspection technique. A combination of techniques (UT, RT, EC,
dimensional measurements and replication) should be employed. Destructive sampling and
metallographic examination are used to confirm damage.
b. For pressure vessels, inspection should focus on welds of CrMo alloys operating in the creep
range. The 1 Cr-0.5Mo and 1.25Cr-0.5Mo materials are particularly prone to low creep ductility.
Most inspections are performed visually and followed by PT or WFMT on several-year intervals.
Angle beam
(shear wave) UT can also be employed, although the early stages of creep damage are very difficult
to detect. Initial fabrication flaws should be mapped and documented for future reference.
c. Fired heater tubes should be inspected for evidence of overheating, corrosion, and erosion as
follows:
1. Tubes should be VT examined for bulging, blistering, cracking, sagging, and bowing.
2. Wall thickness measurements of selected heater tubes should be made where wall losses are most
likely to occur.
3. Tubes should be examined for evidence of diametric growth (creep) with a strap or go/no go
gauge, and in limited cases by metallography on in place replicas or tube samples. However,
metallography on the OD of a component may not provide a clear indication of subsurface damage.
4. Retirement criteria based on diametric growth and loss of wall thickness is highly dependent on
the tube material and the specific operating conditions.
Caustic Corrosion
1. Localized corrosion due to the concentration of caustic or alkaline salts (NaOH or KOH). that
usually occurs under evaporative or high heat transfer conditions. However, general corrosion
can also occur depending on alkali or caustic solution strength. (Primarily carbon steel, low alloy
steels and 300 Series SS).
Sulfidation
• Corrosion of carbon steel and other alloys resulting from their reaction with sulfur compounds in
high temperature environments. The presence of hydrogen accelerates corrosion.
• In general, the resistance of iron and nickel base alloys is determined by the chromium content of
the material. Increasing the chromium content significantly increases resistance to sulfidation. 300
Series SS, such as Types 304, 316, 321 and 347, are highly resistant in most refining process
environments. Nickel base alloys are similar to stainless steels in that similar levels of chromium
provide similar resistance to sulfidation.
• Avoiding:
1. Using Low carbon ”L” grades < 0.03% C ( if exposed more than several hours
above about 538oC or long term above 400oC.
2. Using stabilized grades with Titanium and niobium Stabilizers (types 321 and
347).
3. Use stabilizing heat treatment at about 900 °C to chemically stabilized austenitic
stainless steel welds after all welding is complete.
XI.DAMAGE MECHANISEM
6. What is the associated failure mech. of cyclic load, notch, and stress riser?
- Mechanical fatigue.
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DEFINITIONS
• Hold point: A point in the repair or alteration process beyond which work may not proceed until
the required inspection or NDE has been performed and documented.
• Imperfections: Flaws or other discontinuities noted during inspection that may or may not
exceed the applicable acceptance criteria.
• On-stream inspection: An inspection performed from the outside of a pressure vessel while it
is on-stream using NDE procedures to establish the suitability of the pressure boundary for
continued operation.
• temper embrittlement: The reduction in toughness due to a metallurgical change that can
occur in some low alloy steels, e.g. 2-1/4Cr-1Mo, as a result of long term exposure in the
temperature range of about 650ºF – 1100ºF (345ºC – 595ºC).
• transition temperature: The temperature at which a material fracture mode changes from
ductile to brittle.
• Thermocouples are simple temperatures sensors that consist of two dissimilar materials in
thermal contact. The operation of thermocouple is based on the thermoelectric effect. Common
thermocouple, The K type is made with Ni-Cr and Ni-Al wires (ranging from room temp to 1250
ºC).
• Heat treatment for carbon steel at 650 ºC, for stainless steel at 730 ºC.
• SA 333 used in LNG plant (-45 ºC), the electrode used in to weld this material is
ER70S6 in first pass (Argon welding), and complete the weld with E7018.
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