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Grade 12 Genetics
Grade 12 Genetics
Thus, the expression of gene is not independent of each other and dependent on
the presence or absence of other gene or genes; These kinds of deviations from
Mendelian one gene-one trait concept is known as Factor Hypothesis or
Interaction of Genes (Table 7.1).
2. Allelic Gene Interactions:
Incomplete Dominance or Blending Inheritance (1:2:1):
A dominant allele may not completely suppress other allele, hence a heterozygote
is phenotypically distinguishable (intermediate phenotype) from either
homozygotes.
In snapdragon and Mirabilis jalapa, the cross between pure bred red-flowered
and white-flowered plants yields pink-flowered F1 hybrid plants (deviation from
parental phenotypes), i.e., intermediate of the two parents. When F1 plants are
self-fertilized, the F2 progeny shows three classes of plants in the ratio 1 red: 2
pink: 1 white instead of 3:1 (Fig. 7.1).
Co-dominance:
Here both the alleles of a gene express themselves in the heterozygotes.
Phenotypes of both the parents appear in F1 hybrid rather than the intermediate
phenotype. In human, MN blood group is controlled by a single gene.
Only two alleles exist, M and N. Father with N blood group (genotype NN) and
mother with M blood group (genotype MM) will have children with MN blood
group (genotype MN). Both phenotypes are identifiable in the hybrid.
F2 segregates in the ratio 1M blood group: 2 MN blood group : 1 N blood group.
Over-dominance:
Sometimes the phenotype of F1 heterozygote is more extreme than that of either
parents. The amount of fluorescent eye pigment in heterozygous white eyes of
Drosophila exceeds that found in either parents.
Lethal Factor (2:1):
The genes which cause the death of the individual carrying it, is called lethal
factor. Recessive lethals are expressed only when they are in homozygous state
and the heterozygotes remain unaffected. There are genes that have a dominant
phenotypic effect but are recessive lethal, e.g., gene for yellow coat colour in mice.
But many genes are recessive both in their phenotypic as well as lethal effects,
e.g., gene producing albino seedlings in barley (Fig. 7.2).
Dominant lethals are lost from the population because they cause death of the
organism even in a heterozygous state, e.g., epiloia gene in human beings.
Conditional lethals require a specific condition for their lethal action, e.g.,
temperature sensitive mutant of barley (lethal effect at low temperature).
Balanced lethals are all heterozygous for the lethal genes; both dominant and
recessive homozygotes will die, e.g., balanced lethal system in Oenothera.
Gametic lethals make the gametes incapable of fertilization, e.g., segregation
distorter gene in male Drosophila.
Semi-lethal genes do not cause the death of all the individuals, e.g., xentha
mutants in some plants.
Multiple Alleles:
A gene for particular character may have more than two allelomorphs or alleles
occupying same locus of the chromosome (only two of them present in a diploid
organism). These allelomorphs make a series of multiple alleles.
Human ABO blood group system furnishes best example. The gene for antigen
may occur in three possible allelic forms – lA, IB, i. The allele for the A antigen is
co-dominant with the allele I8 for the B antigen. Both are completely dominant to
the allele i which fails to specify any detectable antigenic structure. Therefore, the
possible genotypes of the four blood groups are shown in Fig. 7.3.
Self-sterility in tobacco is determined by the gene with many different allelic
forms. If there are only three alleles (s1, s2, s3), the possible genotypes of plants are
s1s2, s1s3, s2s3 (always heterozygous), homozygous genotypes (s1s1, s2s2, s3s3) are not
possible in a self-incompatible species.
In this case, pollen carrying an allele different from the two alleles present in the
female plant will be able to function resulting in restriction of fertility (Fig
7.4).Iso-alleles express themselves within the same phenotypic range, e.g., in
Drosophila several alleles (W+s,W+c, W+g) exhibit red eye colour.
The inheritance of comb types in fowls is the best example where R gene gives
rise to rose comb and P gene gives rise to pea comb; both are dominant over
single comb; the presence of both the dominant genes results in walnut comb
(Fig. 7.5). Similar pattern of inheritance is found in Streptocarpus flower colour
(Fig. 7.6).
Complementary Factor (9:7):
Certain characters are produced by the interaction between two or more genes
occupying different loci inherited from different parents. These genes are
complementary to one another, i.e., if present alone they remain unexpressed,
only when they are brought together through suitable crossing will express.
In sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus), both the genes C and P are required to
synthesize anthocyanin pigment causing purple colour. But absence of any one
cannot produce anthocyanin causing white flower. So C and P are complementary
to each other for anthocyanin formation (Fig. 7.7).
Involvement of more than two complementary genes is possible, e.g., three
complementary genes governing aleurone colour in maize.
Epistasis:
When a gene or gene pair masks or prevents the expression of other non-allelic
gene, called epistasis. The gene which produces the effect called epistatic gene
and the gene whose expression is suppressed called hypostatic gene.
Dominant gene C produces black colour, absence of it causes albino. Gene A pro-
duces agouti colour in presence of C, but cannot express in absence of it (with cc)
resulting in albino. Thus recessive allele c (cc) is epistatic to dominant allele A
(Fig. 7.8).
The grain colour in maize is governed by two genes — R (red) and Pr (purple).
The recessive allele rr is epistatic to gene Pr (Fig. 7.9).
Gene A or B alone gives rise to awns of medium length (the effect of A is same as
B); but when both present, long awn is produced; absence of both results aweless
(Fig. 7.13).
Skin colour in human beings is under polygenic effect, the number of gene pairs
involved may be two (Fig. 7.18) or more than two, possibly four or five.
The number of genes involved in polygenic inheritance can be calculated from the
frequency of parental type using the formula 1/4n (n = number of gene pairs).
If parental type obtained is one out of every 64 offspring’s (1/64), then the number
of genes involved will be three (4n = 64 = 43).
5. Other Kinds of Gene Interactions:
Modifiers:
Genes which modify the phenotypic effect of a major gene called modifying gene.
They reduce or enhance the effect of other gene in quantitative manner, e.g.,
genes responsible for dilution of body colour.
Suppressors:
Genes which will not allow mutant allele of another gene to express resulting in
wild phenotype called suppressor gene, e.g., Su-s in Drosophila suppresses the
expression of dominant mutant gene star eye(s).
Pleiotropy:
Gene having more than one effect (multiple effects) are called pleiotropic genes.
They have a major effect in addition to secondary effect. In Drosophila, the genes
for bristle, eye and wing significantly influence the number of facets in bar-eyed
individuals.
Atavism:
The appearance of offspring’s which resemble their remote ancestors called
atavism.
Penetrance:
The ability of a gene to be expressed phenotypically to any degree is called
penetrance. Penetrance may be complete, e.g., in pea, expression of R allele for
red flower in homozygous and heterozygous conditions. It may be incomplete,
e.g., dominant gene P for Polydactyly in human, sometimes does not show
polydactylous condition in heterozygous state.
Expressivity:
A trait though penetrant, may be quite variable in its phenotypic expression, e.g.,
in human polydactylous condition may be penetrant in left hand but not in the
right.