Name : Nur Izzah Syahirah bt Ab.

Lah
Matric No. : 2015864674
Code Programme : AP116
Group : 2B
Code Course : DBG182
 TABLE OF CONTENT :-

CONTENT PAGE
Table of content i
Types of brick and their manufacturing process 1
Types of Portland cement and suitable applications in practice 9
Advantage and disadvantages of concrete 11
References 12

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1. Types of bricks and their manufacturing process :-

i. Calcium silicate brick

This are made by mix together finely-ground sand and lime in the approximate ratio
10 : 1. The semi-dry mixture is compacted into moulds and then autoclaved, using
high-pressure steam for several hours. A surface reaction will react between the sand
and lime, producing calcium silicate hydrates which ‘glue’ the sand particles into a
solid mass. The main properties of calcium silicate bricks are:

1. A high regularity, with smooth surface texture and sharp arrises.

2. Soluble salt content must be very low so that efflorescence is not a problem.

Fig 1.1 Clay building blocks ( Mitchells Building Construction: Components and
Finishes.

3. Fairly high moisture movement

4. Compressive strength must be in the range 7 to 50 N/mm². (strength classes are
employed by BS 187 as in BS 3921 for clay bricks.)
5. Good overall durability in clean atmospheres, though they may deteriorate slowly
in polluted sulphur-containing atmospheres.

In addition, on account of their increased moisture movement joints in calcium

silicate brickwork are recommended every 7m and so on and they should not be laid
wet. Movement characteristic are different so they should not be bonded directly to
clay brickwork. The use of calcium silicate brick has increased extremely in recent
years, due at least in part to the fact that they are now obtainable in a many of colours,
such as pastel shades of red and blue as well as the original off-white colour.

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 Manufacture of calcium silicate brick

Calcium silicate brick is mainly rely on quick lime the effective caO and sand of SiO2
0.8 Mpa above pressure with steam ( 174.5 ºC above) under the condition to go on the
thermal synthetic reaction. For the most part for hydrated calcium silicate and a small
amount of magnesium silicate with aggregate sand firmly cement together, forming a
certain structure strength is to create all kinds of silicate gel material. Moreover, in the
above process the equipment pressure for high strength calcium silicate brick.

ii. Concrete brick

Concrete bricks are more simple to manufacture: suitable sands, stone, and cement are
proportionately mixed together with water, vibrated in a press, and allowed to cure for
about 14 – 28 days and it ready to use. The total process may be taken 15 to 30 days.
Concrete brick are available in many colours and as engineering brick made with
sulphate-resisting Portland cement or equivalent. Concrete bricks expand and contract
more than clay and sand lime bricks so they need movement joints every 5 to 6
meters, but are similar to other bricks of similar density in thermal and sound
resistance and fire resistance.

Manufacture of concrete bricks

1- Firstly take the cement, sand and water based on ratio.

2- Next, mixed the cement, sand and water and mixed together.
3- After mixed, vibrated the fresh concrete using the vibrator to avoid the
honeycomb.
4- Dried the fresh concrete for 26 days.

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iii. Clay brick

Clay bricks are made by pressing a prepared clay sample into a mould, extracting into
the formed unit immediately and the heating it in order to sinter (partially vitrify) the
clay.
Brick have many different type may be produced and it is depends on the type of
clay used, the moulding process and the firing process.

There are three basic subdivision of type:

1. Common bricks. Common bricks are ordinary bricks which are not design to
provide good finished appearance or high strength. There are in general of
cheapest bricks available.
2. Facing bricks. This bricks designed to give attractive appearance hence they are
free from imperfections such as cracks. -and/or pigment has been applied prior to
firing.
3. Engineering bricks. These were design primarily for strength and durability. There
are usually of high density and well fired.

Bricks also can be classified in other ways for example by quality. There are three
classifications: internal quality bricks being suitable for internal use only; ordinary
quality being satisfactory moderate exposure externally; and special quality bricks
being satisfactory in conditions of extreme exposure.

Clay bricks usually designed by their place of manufacture colour of surface

texture. Examples:

Fletton – a common brick manufactured from Oxford clay, original in Fletton, near
Peterborough.

Staffordshire blue – an Engineering quality bricks produced from clay which results
in characteristic blue colour.

Dorking stock – The term ‘stock’ was originally a piece of wood used the moulding
process, now denotes a brick characteristic of certain region.

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Manufacture of clay bricks

There are four basic stages in brick manufacture, through many the operations are
independent – a particular brick will follow through these stages in a way designed
specifically to suit the raw material used and the final output :

i. Clay preparation
ii. Moulding
iii. Moulding
iv. Firing

Clay preparation

After process digging out, the clay must be prepared by crushing and/or grinding and
mixing until it is of a uniform consistence. Water should be added to increase
plasticity (tempering) and in some cases chemicals may be added for specifics
purposes – for example, barium carbonate which reacts with soluble salts producing
an insoluble product.

Moulding

The moulding method was designed to suit the moisture content of the clay, the
following methods being described in order of increasing moisture content.

Semi-dry process

The manufacture of Fletton bricks used this process. Utilities a moisture content in the
region of 10 per cent. The ground and screened material has a granular consistence
which is still evident in fractured surfaces of the fired bricks. The material pressed
into the mould in up to four stages. After pressing, the faces of the brick must be
textured or sandfaced.

Stiff plastic process

15 per cent are tempered to moisture content this utilises clays. A stiff plastic
consistence is obtained, the clay being extruded and then compacted into a mould
under high pressure. Many Engineering bricks are made in this way, the clay for these
brick contain a relatively large quantity of iron oxide which helps promote fusion
during firing.

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The wire-cut process

to form homogeneous material, the clay must tempered about 20 per cent moisture
content and must be processed. This is extruded to a size which allows for drying and
firing shrinkage and units are cut to the correct thickness by tensioned wires. The
perforations being formed during the extrusions process. Wire cut bricks easily
recognised by the perforations or the ‘drag marks’. Caused by dragging of small
particles under the wire.

Soft-mud process

This process used clay, usually from shallow surface deposits, in a very soft
condition, the moisture content being as high as 30 per cen. Breeze or town ash added
to avoid combustible material to assist firing or improved appearance. The clay is
pressed into moulds which are sanded to prevent sticking. The green bricks are really
soft and must be handle with care prior to drying.

Hand-made bricks were produce by a similar process, except that ‘clots’ of clay
are thrown by hand into sanded moulds. This produces a characteristic surface texture
(fig 2.1), which has great aesthetic appeal and it is the reason for the continued
production, on a limited scale, of hand-made bricks.

Fig. 2.1 Characteristic surface texture of a handmade clay brick is slightly different.

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Drying

If the bricks are made from clay and relatively high moisture content, it must carried
out prior to firing. Drying enables such bricks to be stacked higher in the kiln without
lower bricks becoming distorted by the weight of bricks above them. Drying enables
the firing temperature to be increased more rapidly without problems such as bloating,
which may result when gases and vapour are trapped within the bricks. Drying is
carried out in chambers, the temperature being increased and the relative humidity
progressively decreased as bricks lose moisture. Usually this process take several
days, bricks and those produced by the soft mud process must be dried prior to firing.

Firing

The object of firing is to cause localised melting(sintering) of the clay, which

increases strength and decreases soluble salt content without lose of shape of the clay
unit. The main constituents of the clay – silica and alumina, do not melt, since their
melting points are very high; there are merely fused together by the lower melting
point minerals such as metallic oxides and lime. The main stages of firing are,

100 ºC evaporation of free water

400 ºC burning of carbonaceous matter

900 – 1000 ºC sintering of clay

The latter stages of firing may be assisted by fuels either present naturally in the
clay or those added during processing – one of the factors contributing to the low cost
of Fletton bricks is the presence of carbonaceous material, which is largely
responsible for the heat supplied in the later stages of firing.

In order to produce bricks having satisfactory strength and quality, the control of
the rate of increase of temperature and the maximum temperature is most important
in particular, too-rapid firing will cause bloating and overburning of external layers,
while too-low a temperature seriously impairs strength and durability. Stronger bricks,
such as engineering brick, are normally fired at higher temperatures.

The following are the main processes:

Clamps

Bricks are stacked in large special formations on a layer of breeze, though the bricks
also contain some fuel. The breeze base is ignited and the fire spreads slowly through
the stack, which contracts as the bricks shrink on firing. This process may be take one
month to complete and the fired product is very variable, many underburnt and
overburnt bricks being obtained. After firing, the bricks are sorted and marketed for

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various applications. Well- fired bricks are extremely attractive with local colour
variations being caused by temperature differences and points where fuel ignition
occurred. The use of clamps has now decreased, owing to the difficulty in controlling
these kilns and the high wastage involved.

Continuous kilns

Based on the Hoffman kiln and comprise a closed circuit of about 14 chambers
arranged in two parallel rows with curved ends (Fig 2.2) Divisons between the
chambers are made from strong paper sealed with clay and by means or flue, the fire
are directed to each chamber in turn. Drying must be carried out prior to the main
firing process and is achieved by warm air obtained from fired bricks during cooling.
Since the fired is not extinguished- it is simply diverted from one kiln to the cycle
taking about one week, the kilns are described as continuous. Nowadays, firing may
be by oil and gas whereas coal was traditionally used. These kilns are very widely
used for brick production.

Fig. 2.2 Continuous kiln showing sequences of zones and measurement of air for
drying purposes

Tunnel kilns

The most recently introduced kilns and they can reduce firing time to little over one
day. Units are specially stacked onto large trolleys incorporating a heat-resistant
loading platform. The trolleys are then pushed end-to-end into a straight tunnel with a

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waist that fits that loading platform closely. The bricks pass successfully through
drying, firing, and cooling zones, firing normally by oil or gas. The process must be a
high degree of control over temperature, so that process suited to the production of
high-strength, dimensionally accurate bricks. Perforated bricks are often fired in this
way.

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 2. The differences among four type of Portland cement and suitable applications to each
type Portland cement of cement in practice :-

i. Rapid- hardening Portland cement

This is specified by the same British Standard as OPC, being only essentially
different in respect fineness – BS 12 requires a minimum fineness of 325 m²/kg.
Rapid-hardening Portland cement (RHPC) therefore tends to set and harden at a
more faster rate than OPC. The rate of set is controlled by the addition of slightly
more gypsum during manufacture, since it is the hardening properties and heat
emission rather than setting rate which form the basis of applications. Early
strength development is considerably highly than that of OPC, while long-term
strength is similar. Applications include the following.

1. To permit increased speed in constructions, for example subsequent lifts of

concrete can proceed more rapidly on account of its increased early strength.
2. In frosty weather there is less risk of the concrete freezing, since the cement
has a higher early heat output
3. Concrete made with rapid-hardening cement can be safely exposed to frost
sooner, since it matures more quickly.

ii. Sulphate-resisting Portland cement BS 4027

This cement (SRPC) has better resistance to sulphate attack than OPC. In BS
4027, the percentage of the sulphate susceptible tricalcium aluminate is limited
3.5 per cent in order to minimise chemical combination with sulphates in solution.
Addition of extra iron oxide before firing; this combines with alumina which
would otherwise form C A instead forming C AF , which is not affected by
sulphates, may be produce sulphate-resisting cement. Also, sulphate-resisting
cement may be slightly darker in colour than OPC. Application include foundation
in sulphate-bearing soils, in mortar for flues in which sulphur may present from
fumes and in marine structures, since sea water contains sulphates.

iii. Low-heat Portland cement BS 1370

The heat output of this cement (LHPC) is limited by BS 1370 to 250 J/g at the of
days and 290 J/g at the age of 28 days. These are may be compared to typical

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heat outputs of 330 J/g and 400 J/g at the same ages for OPC. The reduction in
heat output is obtained by means of lower quantities of the rapidly hydrating
compound C S and C A. in order to produce satisfactory development of strength
with time, the fineness of this cement is higher than that of OPC – must not be less
than 320 m²/kg. Even early strength is slightly less than that of OPC, long-term
strength is similar.
Since there is a tendency for the heat to build up internally in such structures,
the chief use of LHPC is in mass concrete and causing cracking due to the
temperature differential between inner and outer layers. Typical applications
include large raft foundations and dams.

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3. Advantages and disadvantages of concrete :-

Advantages

 Concrete possess is not subjected to corrosive and weathering effects and a high
compressive strength.
 Concrete can be easily handle and mould in any shape.
 Concrete can even be sprayed in and filled into fine cracks for repairs by Gunting
process.
 Concrete and steel form a very good combination because the co-effients of expansion
of concrete and steel are nearly equal in reinforced cement concrete (R.C.C).
 Concrete is economical in the long run as compared to other engineering materials.

Disadvantages

 Concrete has low tensile strength and hence cracks easily. So, concrete has to be
reinforced with mild steel bars, high tensile steel bars or mesh.
 Concrete expands and contracts with the changes in temperature. Hence expansion
joints are to be provided to avoid the formation of cracks due to thermal movements.
 Fresh concrete shrinks on drying. It can also expands and contracts with weting and
drying. Provision of contraction joints to be made to avoid the formation of cracks
due to drying shrinkage and moisture movements.
 Concrete may contains soluble salts which may cause efflorescence. This requires
special care at the joints.
 Concrete is heavy in weight and requires large quantity of steel in the construction as
the self load is greater.

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References:
1. http://cescientist.com/advantages-and-diadvantages-of-concrete/
2. http://www.brickmakingmachinetm.com/news/Web/ahtml/A_475.htm
3. Construction materials part 2

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