INTRODUCTION TO PHARMACOGNOSY

SCIENTISTS’ CONTRIBUTION

1. Term Pharmacognosy: Seydler

2. Father of Pharmacognosy: Robert Thom
3. Term Aromatherapy: Rene Gattefosse
4. Anatomical atlas of crude drugs: Berg

Plant Tissues:

A group of cells is known as tissue.

Classification:

1. Meristematic or embryonic tissues

2. Permanent tissues

Meristematic Tissues:

 Located at the growing points of the plant, i.e., tips of shoots and roots, between the
bark and the wood of trees or in the bark themselves.
 Cells are compact without any intercellular spaces.

Permanent Tissues:

 The cells may be living or dead.

 Fundamental and well-developed part of the plant.
 These are produced by meristematic cells.
 Divided into: (i) Simple permanent tissue (ii) Complex permanent tissues

(A) Simple permanent tissues

This consists of one type of cells forming homogenous structure.

Types of Simple Permanent Tissues Function

Epidermis Conserving the moisture supplied to the
inner tissues and offering protection
against mechanical infection
Parenchyma Storing food and water, manufacturing
food, helping in excretion, secretion and
assimilation
Sclerenchyma Strengthening of the organs
Collenchyma Providing mechanical strength to plants
Cork Guarding against mechanical injury to
inner bark or cambium; preventing loss of
water
Epidermis:
  The outer walls of the epidermis is covered with a fatty substance called Cutin.
 The layer with cutin is called Cuticle.

Types of Epidermis Examples

Straight walled polygonal Senna, Coca
Beaded type Digitalis
Wavy type Hyoscyamus
Wavy walled with striated cuticle Belladonna
Papillose type Senna, coca, stigma of pyrethrum

EPIDERMAL CELL (MUCILAGE / SEED DRUGS):

Example of Drugs Biological source

Isapghula (Psyllium seeds) Plantago ovate
Linseed oil Linum usitatissimum
Fenugreek (Methi) Trigonella foenum-
graecum
Black Mustard Brassica nigra

(B) Complex permanent tissues

This consists of several types of cells in a group of closely related activities.

Type of Tissues Function

Xylem (dead tissue) Water conducting tissue (from roots to upper parts of the plant)
Phloem (live tissue) Transport of food (from leaves to stem and roots)

CONDUCTING TISSUE SYSTEM (VASCULAR BUNDLES):

Vascular elements are continuous from the root to the leaf and grouped in bundles. Such a
structure is known as Vascular Bundle.

Type of vascular bundle Examples

Open collateral Podophyllum, Valerian
Closed collateral Senna, Ginger, Vasaka

FRUITS:

The ovules of the flowers, after fertilization, are converted into Seeds; whereas, the ovary
wall develops further to form the protective covering over the seeds, known as Fruit, and the
coating is known as Pericarp.

Types of pericarp Features

Epicarp Outermost coating of the pericarp
Mesocarp Layer between the epicarp and the
endocarp
Endocarp Innermost layer of the pericarp

STEMS:

Ascending axis of the plant developed from the plumule.

Types of stems Features Examples

Weak stems Unable to stand erect
Creepers or prostate stems Grow flat on ground Gokhru
without roots
Climbers Climb on the support with Piper, Gymnema
help of tendrils, hooks,
roots etc.
Twiners Coil onto a support and Ipomoea
grow further
Herbaceous or woody stems Normal stems Ephedra

SPECIAL STRUCTURES:

Special structures Features Examples

Aril Succulent growth from hilum Nutmeg (mace)
covering entire seeds
Arillode Outgrowth originating from Cardamom
micropyle
Arista (awn) Stiff bristle-like appendage Strophanthus
Caruncle Warty outgrowth from Castor oil
micropyle
Strophiole Enlarged funicle Datura, Colchicum

WOODS:

Tissues produced by cambium on the inner side.

Types of wood Features Examples

Heartwood Inner most central region of Sandalwood, Black catechu
dicot stem or root
Sapwood Outer region of wood, Quassia
conducting water and food to
plant
PLANT HORMONES:

Hormones Function Examples

Growth Regulators
Auxins Accelerate rooting (low Indole acetic acid (IAA)
conc.) Naphthalene acetic acid
Herbicide/Weedicide (high (NAA)
conc.)
Gibberelins Cell elongation in subapical Gibberelic acid
meristem
Cytokinins Cell division Kinetin, Zelatin
Growth Inhibitors
Abscisic acid Abscission accelerating Maleic hydrazide,
substance daminozide, glyphosine etc.
Ethylene Promotion of flowering and -
fruit ripening, induction of
fruit abscission

MEDULLARY RAYS:

Medullary rays Examples of drugs

V shaped Senega
Wavy shaped Cascara, Glycyrrhiza
Star shaped Rhubarb

STOMATA:

A stoma is a minute epidermal opening present on arial parts of the plants.

Functions:

(i) Respiration / exchange of gases

(ii) Transpiration

Type of Stomata Examples of Drugs

Paracytic / Rubiaceous / Parallel celled
Diacytic / Caryophyllaceous / Cross celled
Anomocytic / Ranunculaceous / Irregular
celled
Anisocytic / Cruciferous / Unequal celled
Senna, Coca, Hypericum
Vasaka, Peppermint, Spearmint
Buchu, Digitalis, Hemlock, Opium,
Lobelia, Umbelliferous fruit
Tropane alkaloids, Vinca alkaloids

TRICHOMES:

 Trichomes are the tubular, elongated, or glandular outgrowths of the epidermal cell.
 They consist of two parts:
(i) Root (in epidermis)
(ii) Body (outside epidermis)

Type of Trichomes Examples

Covering Trichomes
Unicellular
Lignified trichomes Nux vomica, Strophanthus
Short, sharply pointed, curved Cannabis
Large, conical, strongly shrunken Lobelia (Latex is present in phloem)
Short, conical, unicellular Tea, Buchu
Strongly waved, thick walled Yerba Santa
Multicellular-unbranched trichomes
Uniseriate
Bi-cellular, conical Datura
Three celled-long Stramonium
Three to four celled long Digitalis
Four to five celled long Belladonna
Biseriate Calendula officinalis

Multiseriate Male fern

Multicellular branched trichomes
Candelabra Verbascum thapsus

T-shaped trichomes Artemisia, Pyrethrum

Glandular Trichomes
Unicellular
Glandular trichomes Piper, Betel, Vasaka
Multicellular
Unicellular head & stalk Digitalis purpurea

Unicellular head & uniseriate multicellular Digitalis thapsi, Belladonna

stalk
Multicellular head, biseriate stalk Santonica and plants of Compositae
Unicellular stalk & biseriate head Digitalis purpurea

Short stalk with secreting head formed of Mentha species

rosette or club-shaped cells
Multicellular, multiseriate, cylindrical stalk Cannabis sativa
and a rosette of secretory cells
Multicellular multiseriate head & Indian hemp and Tobacco
multicellular uniseriate stalk
CALCIUM OXALATE CRYSTALS:

Protein metabolism Oxalic acid (toxic) Calcium oxalate (absorbed from soil)

Type of Calcium oxalate Features Examples

crystals
Microsphenoidal / Sandy Crystal (minute) Belladonna, Cinchona,
evenly/non-evenly Tobacco, Hyoscyamus
distributed in more
numbers
Prismatic Single Senna, Hyoscyamus, Vasaka,
Rauwolfia, Coriander
Raphides Two or more needles Squill
(bunch of acicular)
Rosettes Aggregation of small Senna, Rhubarb, Fennel
crystals arranged in a
radiating manner around a
central core
Acicular Needle shaped Ipecac, Vasaka, Cinnamon,
Ephedra
Cluster Two or more prisms joined Senna, Podophyllum, Clove,
Hyoscyamus
Idioblast Type of microsphenoidal Cinchona, Hyoscyamus

QUANTITATIVE MICROSCOPY:

Lycopodium spore method-

 Lycopodium spores are uniform in size (25 µm).

 On an average, 94,000 spores per mg of powdered lycopodium are present.

The percentage purity of a powdered drug is calculated using following equation:

% Purity of drug = N  W  94,000  100

SMP

Where,

N = number of characteristic structures in 26 fields

W = weight in mg of lycopodium taken

S = number of lycopodium spores in same 25 fields

M = weight in mg of the sample, calculated on basis of sample dried at 105C

P = 2,86,000 in case of starch grains powder

MEDICINAL PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY

Definitions:

1. Mutation:
 Variation in characteristics of the species is known as Mutation.
 Mutations which occur due to some unknown natural reasons are called as
Spontaneous mutations.

2. Polyploidy:
 When an organism contains two or more genomes, it is called Polyploidy.
 The specific number of chromosomes characteristic to a species, is called Genome.

3. Chemodemes (Chemical Races):

Chemodemes are defined as a group of plants of a species which have identical
morphological characteristics, but differ in their chemical nature.

4. Hybridization:
 The process through which hybrids are produced is called Hybridization.
 A hybrid is an organism which results from crossing of two species, or varieties,
differing atleast in one set of characteristics.
 Hybridoma technology is used for producing Monoclonal antibodies.

Gene transfer:

(a) By using Agrobacterium tumefaciens (Gram-negative bacteria), which causes Crown gall
disease.
(b) By using chemical agents like Polyethylene glycol (PEG).

Note: Tobacco was the first plant to be genetically transformed.

Culture Medium:

Ingredients Examples
Inorganic salts Nitrate, phosphate, sulphate, magnesium, potassium
Vitamins Thiamine (Vit. B1)
Carbon source Sucrose or glucose
Growth regulators Napthalene acetic acid (NAA),
2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
Organic supplements Yeast extract, malt extract, coconut milk etc.
Surface sterilization of explants Sodium hypochlorite, bromine water, hydrogen
peroxide, mercuric chloride, silver nitrate
pH of medium: 5.5 to 5.7
LEAF CONSTANTS OR DIAGNOSTIC CHARACTERISTICS:
 1. Palisade ratio: Number of palisade cells beneath each epidermal cell. Total number
of palisade is determined by camera lucida.
2. Vein-islet number: Number of vein-islets per sq. mm of the leaf surface midway
between the midrib and the margin.
3. Vein-termination number: Number of veinlet terminations per sq. mm of the leaf
surface, midway between midrib and margin.
4. Stomatal number: Average number of stomata per sq. mm of epidermis of the leaf.
5. Stomatal index: Percentage of the number of stomata per unit area, to the total
number of epidermal and stomatal cells; each stoma being counted as one cell,
remains constant throughout the age of the plant.
S. I. = S  100
E+S
Where,
S = the number of stomata per unit area
E = the number of epidermal cells in the same unit area.

QUANTITATIVE CHEMICAL EXAMINATION:

Name of test Performed for

Acetophenone test Lobelia (Heat: Smell of acetophenone)
Baljet test Cardiac glycosides (Digitalis)
Barfoed’s test Carbohydrates
Biuret test Proteins
Borax test Aloes
Borntrager’s test Anthraquinone glycosides (Senna)
Baudouin’s test Sesame oil
Carr-Price reaction Vitamin A
Saponification Claud test bees wax
Ehrlich test Ergot alkaloids

Fiehe’s test Invert sugar

Fluorescence test Pale catechu
Foam test Saponins
Frohde’s test Ipecac
Goldbeater’s Skin test Tannins
Grignard reaction Cyanogenetic glycosides
Haemolysis test Saponins
Halphen test Cottonseed oil
Kedde’s test Cardiac glycosides
Keller-Kiliani test Digitoxose
Klunge’s / Cupraloin test Aloes (isobarbaloin)
Kreis test Rancidity of fats and oils
Legal test Cardiac glycoside (Digitalis)
Libermann-Buchard test Steroids
Mandinn’s test Nux-vomica
Marqui’s test Morphine
Matchstick test Black catechu
Meconic acid test Opium
Modified Van-Urk’s test Indole alkaloids
Molisch’s test Carbohydrates
Murexide test (salt of Caffeine (+ oxidation – 1,3-dimethyl
purpuric acid) alloxan and monomethyl urea)
Ninhydrin test Amino acids
Nitrous/Nitric acid test Aloes
Noller’s test Volatile oils
Pesez-Gutierrez test Cardiac glycosides
Phenazone test Tannins
Radulescu test Opium (morphine)
Raymond’s test Cardiac glycosides
Resorcinol test Honey (Honey + Ether = Resorcinol)
No colour (Natural); Colour (Artificial)
Saponification test Fixed oils and fats
Schiller’s test Alkaloids
Sonneuschein’s test Alkaloids
Spot test Fixed oils and fats
Thalleioquin’s test Cinchona
Tilden’s test Volatile oils
Van-Urk’s test Ergot alkaloids
Vitali-Morin reaction Tropane alkaloids (Belladonna)
Wasicky test Ergot alkaloids

PHARMACOPOEIAL LIMITS:

 Roots and barks are generally dried at 40-65 oC as per pharmacopoeial limits.
 Refractive index is measured at 30oC.

BIOSYNTHESIS OF PHYTOPHARMACEUTICALS:

SHIKIMIC ACID PATHWAY

PEP + Erythrose-4-phosphate

Shikimic acid (C6-C3)

Chorismic acid

Anthranilic acid Prefinic acid

Tryptophan Phenyl pyruvic acid p-hydroxy

 phenylpyruvic acid

Phenyl alanine Tyrosine

PEP: Phosphoenol pyruvate

MEVALONIC ACID PATHWAY

Mevalonic acid: 3,5-dihydroxy-3-methyl valeric acid

SYNONYMS OF IMPORTANT DRUGS

Name of Drug Synonyms

ALKALOIDS
Nux vomica Crow fig, Semen strychni
Physostigma Calabar beans, Ordeal beans
Rauwolfia Indian Snake Root, Serpagandha
Vinca Catharanthus, Periwinkle, Lady’s Thistle
Curare South American Arrow Poison
Belladonna Deadly Night Shade Leaf
Datura herb Angel’s Trumpet
Hyoscyamus Henbane, Night shade leaf
Stramonium Thorn Apple Leaves
Duboisia Cork-wood, cork-tree
Cinchona Jesuit’s bark, Peruvian bark
Areca Betal nut
Lobelia Indian Tobacco, Asthma Weed
Jaborandi Pilocarpus
Ephedra Ma-Huang
Colchicum Meadow saffron seeds, Autumn Crocus
Kola Bissy or Gooroo seeds
Tea Thea
Veratrum viride American or green hellebore
Veratrum album European or white hellebore
Kurchi Holarrhena
Ashwagandha Withania root, Winter cherry, Indian Ginseng
Aconite Bachnag, Monkshood
Vasaka Adhatoda, Adulsa, Malabar nut
GLYCOSIDES
Rhubarb Radix rhei, Rheum
Cascara Sacred bark, Chittem bark, Bearberry bark,
Bearwood
Hypericum St. John’s wort, Millepertuis, Goat weed
Aloes Musabbar, Kumari
Cochineal Coccus, Red scale insect
Digitalis purpurea Foxglove leaves
Digitalis lanata Wooly foxglove leaves, Grecian foxglove,
Austrial digitalis
Thevetia Yellow oleander, Trumpet flower, Lucky-nut
tree
Indian squill Sea onion
European squill White squill, Meerzweibel
Strophanthus Arrow poison
G-strophanthin Ouabain
Dioscorea Yam, Rheumatism root
Liquorice Yasti
Ginseng Ninjin, Panax, Energofit
Senega Rattlesnake root
Gokhru Puncture vine, Tribulus
Wild cherry bark Virginian prune bark
Visnaga Khella, Pick-tooth fruit
Psoralea Bavachi
Chirata East Indian Balmony
Quassia Bitter wood
Kalmegh Andrographis
TERPENOIDS
Gaultheria Betula oil, Oil of wintergreen
Chenopodium American wormseed oil
Eucalyptus Lemon gum tree
Lemon Grass oil Indian Melissa oil
Peppermint oil Mentha, Colpermin
Caraway Carum
Dill Anethum
Fennel Fruit of Foeniculum
Nutmeg Myristica, Nux Moschata
Garlic Allium
Tulsi Sacred basil, Holy basil
Musk Moschus, Kasturi
Clove Caryophyllum
Acorus Sweet flag, Bach
Crocus Saffron
RESINS
Capsicum Chillies, Cayenne pepper, Axsain, Mioton,
Zostrix
Turmeric Indian Saffron
Asafoetida Devil’s dung, Food of the Gods, Asant
Cannabis Indian hemp
Ipomoea Orizaba jalap roots, Mexican scammony
Podophyllum Himalayan May Apple, Mandrakes root,
Vegetable calomel
Benzoin Loban, Bitter-almond-oil camphor
Myrrh Bol
Guggul Scented Bdellium, Commiphora
Colophony Rosin, Amber-resin, Pine-resin
Tolu Balsam Thomas balsam, Opobalsam
 Peruvian Balsam Indian balsam, Black balsam, China oil,
Honduras balsam, Surinam balsam
CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS
Isapgol Indian Psyllium, Plantain seed, Flea seed
Indian Gum Gum acacia
Guar Gum Decorpa, Cyamopsis gum, Burtonite V-7-E
Tragacanth Tragacantha
Gum Karaya Indian tragacanth, Sterculia gum, Kadaya,
Katilo Kullo, Kuteera, Mucara
Agar Japanese Isinglass, Vegetable gelatin, Layor
carang
Starch Amylum
Honey Mel
TANNINS
Amla Indian Goose Berry
Pale catechu Gambier
LIPIDS
Castor oil Ricinus oil
Chaulmoogra oil Hydnocarpus oil, Gynocardia oil
Linseed oil Flax seed oil
Kokum butter Mangosteen oil
Cocoa Butter Theobroma Oil
Shark liver oil Oleum Selachoid
Cod Liver oil Oleum Morris
Hydrous Wool fat Lanolin, Adeps Lanae
Yellow bees wax Cera-flava
Lard Adeps
ENZYMES
Diastase Amylase
Lysozyme Muramidase
NATURAL PESTICIDES
Pyrethrum Insect flowers
Neem Margosa
MINERALS
Chalk Whiting
Fueller’s earth Floridin
Kaolin China-clay, Porcelain clay
Kieselghur Diatomaceous earth
Talc French chalk
FIBRES, SUTURES AND SURGICAL DRESSINGS
Oxidized cellulose Pyroxylin

PHARMACOGNOSTIC SCHEME OF DRUGS

Sr. Name of drug Part used Biological source Family Active Uses
No. constituents
ALKALOIDS
INDOLE ALKALOIDS
1. Ergot Fungus of Claviceps Family of Ergometrine, Oxytocic,
Sclerotium purpurea in ovary fungus – Ergotamine prevents
of rye plant Clavicipitaceae postpartum
Secale cereale. (Hypocreaceae); haemorrhage;
family of rye – used in
Graminae migraine
2. Nux vomica Seeds Strychnos nux Loganiaceae Strychnine, CNS
vomica brucine (dog stimulant,
poison) bitter
stomachic
3. Physostigma Seeds Physostigma Leguminoseae Physostigmin Glaucoma
venonosum e,
physovenine
4. Rauwolfia Roots and Rauwolfia Apocynaceae Reserpine, Hypotensive
rhizomes serpentine rescinnamine tranquiliser
5. Vinca Entire Catharanthus Apocynaceae Vincristine, Anticancer
plant roseus vinblastine
ISOQUINOLINE ALKALOIDS
6. Opium Dried Papaver Papaveraceae Narcotine, Narcotic
latex somniferum papaverine analgesic,
diarrhoea
7. Ipecacunha Roots and Cephaelis Rubiaceae Emetine, Antiamoebic,
rhizomes ipecacuanha and cephaeline emetic,
C. acuminate expectorant
TROPANE ALKALOIDS
8. Belladonna Dried Atropa Solanaceae l- Anticholinergi
leaves and belladonna hyoscyamine, c,
flowering atropine antispasmodic
tops
9. Datura herb Dried Datura metel var. Solanaceae Scopolamine, Anticholinergi
leaves and fastuosa hyoscyamine, c, in duodenal
flowering atropine ulcers
tops
10. Hyoscyamus Dried leaf Hyoscyamus Solanaceae l- Anticholinergi
and niger hyoscyamine, c,
flowering hyoscine antispasmodic
tops
11. Duboisia Dried Duboisia Solanaceae Scopolamine Anticholinergi
leaves myoporoides c
12. Coca Dried Erythroxylon Erythroxylaceae Cocaine, Local
leaves coca cinnamyl anaesthetic
cocaine, α-
truxilline
QUINOLINE ALKALOIDS
13. Cinchona Dried root C. calisaya Rubiaceae Quinine, Antimalarial,
or stem C. officinalis quinidine, bitter tonic
bark C. ledgeriana cinchonine,
C. succirubra cinchonidine
PYRIDINE ALKALOIDS
14. Areca Dried ripe Areca catechu Palmae Arecoline, Respiratory
seeds arecaidine stimulant
15. Lobelia Dried Lobelia Campanulaceae Lobeline, Respiratory
leaves and nicotianefolia lobelanidine stimulant
tops
IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS
16. Jaborandi Dried Pilocarpus Rutaceae Pilocarpine, Glaucoma
leaves jaborandi pilosine
QUINAZOLINE ALKALOIDS
17. Vasaka Leaves Adhatoda vasica Acanthaceae Vasicine, Antitussive,
vasicinone expectorant
PURINE ALKALOIDS
18. Cocoa Seeds Theobroma cacao Sterculiaceae Theobromine Diuretic
, caffeine
19. Tea Leaves Thea sinensis Theaceae Caffeine, CNS
and leaf theobromine, stimulant,
buds theophylline diuretic
20. Coffee Dried ripe Coffea arabica Rubiaceae Caffeine, CNS stimulant
seeds trigonelline
STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS
21. Veratrum Dried V. album Liliaceae Germidine, Hypotensive,
rhizomes V. viride protoveratrin cardiac
e A and B depressant
22. Ashwagandh Dried Withania Solanaceae Withanine, Sedative,
a roots somnifera somniferine, antirheumatic
withanolide
(steroid)
23. Kurchi Dried bark Holarrhena Apocynaceae Conessine, Antiamoebic
antidysenterica isoconessine
PROTO (AMINO) ALKALOIDS
24. Ephedra Dried E. gerardiana Ephedraceae Ephedrine, Sympathomim
stems E. equisetina pseudoephedr etic,
E. sinica ine antiasthmatic,
(alkaloidal treatment of
amines) hay fever
25. Colchicum Seeds and Colchicum Liliaceae Colchicine, Treatment of
corms autumnale demecolcine gout, induction
of polyploidy
GLYCOSIDES
ANTHRAQUINONE GLYCOSIDES
26. Senna Dried Cassia Leguminosae Sennosides Purgative
leaflets angustifolia/ A/B
Cassia
acutifolia
27. Rhubarb Dried Rheum Polygonaceae Rhein, aloe Purgative
rhizome palmatum emodin
28. Cascara Dried bark Rhamnus Rhamnaceae Cascarosides Purgative
purshiana A/B/C/D
29. Hypericum Dried Hypericum Hypericaceae Hypericin, Antidepressant
 aerial parts perforatum hyperforin
30. Aloe Dried juice Aloe vera, Liliaceae Barbaloin, Purgative
of leaves Aloe aloe emodin
barbadensis,
Aloe ferox
31. Cochineal Dried Coccus cacti Coccidae Carminic Colouring
female acid agent
insects
STEROLS OR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES
32. Digitalis Dried D. purpurea Scrophulariacea Purpurea Cardiotonic
leaves D. lanata e glycoside
A,B,
digitoxin
Lanatosides
A,B,C,digoxi
n
33. Thevetia Dried Thevetia Apocynaceae Thevetin Cardiotonic
seeds nerifolia (Peruvoside)
34. Indian squill Dried Urginea Liliaceae Scillaren Cardiotonic
bulbs indica A/B,
sinistrine
(carbohydrate
)
35. European Dried slice Urginea Liliaceae Scillaren A/B Cardiotonic
squill bulbs maritime
36. Red squill Scaly Urginea Liliaceae Scilliroside Rat poison
leaves of maritime
bulbs
37. Strophanthus Ripe seeds S. kombe Apocynaceae Strophanthidi Cardiotonic
n
38. Ouabain Seeds S. gratus Apocynaceae Ouabain Cardiotonic
SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES
39. Dioscorea Tubers D. deltoidea Dioscoreaceae Diosgenin Synthesis of
(steroidal medicinal
sapogenin) steroids
40. Liquorice Roots and Glycyrrhiza Leguminosae Glycyrrhizin Expectorant,
stolons glabra (triterpenoid peptic ulcer
saponin),
18,β-
glycyrrhetini
c acid
41. Shatavari Roots and Asparagus Liliaceae Shatavarin I, Galactogogue
leaves racemosus II
42. Brahmi Leaves Bacopa Scrophulariacea Bacosides A, Nervine tonic
and stems moniera e B
43. Ginseng Fruits Panax Araliaceae Ginsenosides Adaptogen,
ginseng & immunostimul
panaxosides ant
44. Senega Roots Polygala Polygalaceae Senegin, Expectorant
 senega polygallic
acid
45. Gokhru Fruits Tribulus Zygophyllaceae Steroidal Diuretic
terrestris sapogenins
CYANOGENETIC GLYCOSIDES
46. Bitter Ripe seeds Prunus Rosaceae Amygdalin Demulcent,
Almond amygdalus (+ hydrolysis sedative
–
Mandelonitril
e + Glucose
47. Wild cherry Bark Prunus Rosaceae Prunasin Mild sedative,
bark serotina flavouring
agent
ISOTHIOCYANATE GLYCOSIDES
48. Black Ripe seeds Brassica Cruciferae Sinigrin Counter
mustard nigra irritant,
rubefacient
externally and
emetic
internally
COUMARIN GLYCOSIDES (Benz-α-pyrone)
49. Visnaga Ripe fruits Ammi Umbelliferae Khellin, Smooth
visnaga visnagin muscle
relaxant,
coronary
vasodilator
50. Ammi Fruits Ammi majus Umbelliferae Xanthotoxin Vitiligo
51. Psoralea Ripe fruits P. corylifolia Leguminosae Psoralea Leucoderma
corylifolia
STEROIDAL GLYCO-ALKALOIDS
52. Solanum Fruits Solanum Solanaceae Solasodine For steroidal
khasianum synthesis
BITTER GLYCOSIDES
53. Gentian Roots Gentiana Gentianaceae Gentiopicrin, Bitter
lutea amarogentin stomachic,
tonic
54. Chirata Plant Swertia Gentianaceae Gentiopicrin Stomachic,
chirata (from antipyretic
sweroside),
ophelic acid
55. Quassia Stem Picrasma Simarubaceae Picrasmin, Anthelmintic
wood excels quassin
56. Kalmegh Leaves Andrographis Acanthaceae Andrographo Anthelmintic,
and tender paniculata lide hepatoprotecti
shoots ve
57. Gymnema Leaves Gymnema Asclepiadaceae Gymnemic Antidiabetic
sylvestre acid
TERPENOIDS
MONOTERPENOIDS
58. Chenopodiu Flowers & C. Chenopodiace Ascaridole Anthelmintic,
m oil Fruits ambrosioides ae to expel hook
worms and
intestinal
amoebae
59. Eucalyptus Leaves E. globulus Myrtaceae Cineole Counter-
oil (eucalyptol) irritant,
antiseptic,
expectorant,
antitussive,
chronic
bronchitis
60. Lemon Grass Leaves & Cymbopogon Graminae Cis-citral Flavour
oil aerial parts flexuousus or (Neral)
C. citratis
61. Peppermint Flowering Mentha Labiatae l-menthol
oil tops piperita
62. Spearmint Leaves & Mentha Labiatae Carvone
flowering spicate
tops
63. Caraway Ripe fruits Carum carvi Umbelliferae Carvone,
Carvacrol Carminative,
64. Cardamom Ripe fruits Elettaria Zingiberaceae Cineole stimulant,
cardamomum flavour
65. Coriander Ripe fruits Coriandrum Umbelliferae D-linalool aromatic,
sativum (coriandrol)
66. Dill Ripe fruits Anethum Umbelliferae Dill-apiole,
graveolens carvone
67. Fennel Ripe fruits Foeniculum Umbelliferae Fenchone,
vulgare Anethole
68. Lemon peel Ripe fruits Citrus Rutaceae Citral, Carminative,
limonis hesperidin stimulant
69. Orange peel Ripe fruits Citrus Rutaceae Vit.C,
aurantium hesperidin,
pectin
70. Nutmeg Kernels Myristica Myristicaceae Myristicin, In rheumatism,
fragrans elimicin, soap industry
saffrole
71. Cassia Stem bark Cinnamomum Lauraceae Mucilage, Carminative,
cinnamon cassia coumarin, spices
cinnamic
aldehyde
72. Cinnamon Inner bark Cinnamomum Lauraceae Eugenol, Carminative,
of shoots zeylanicum benzaldehyde, stomachic,
cuminaldehyde astringent
73. Garlic Bulbs Allium Liliaceae Allicin, alliin, Disinfectant,
sativum iron rubefacient,
anthelmintic
74. Anise Ripe fruits Pimpinella Umbelliferae Anethol, Stimulant,
 anisum chavicol, expectorant
anisaldehyde
75. Gaultheria oil Leaves G. Ericaceae Methyl Rheumatism,
procumbens salicylate vermicide
76. Musk Follicles Moschus Cervidae Muskone Perfumery,
moschiferus (ketone) hysteria
SESQUITERPENOIDS
77. Sandalwood Heart Santalum Santalaceae Santalol, Dysuria,
oil wood album santalal perfumery
78. Clove Flower Eugenia Myrtaceae Eugenol Dental
buds caryophyllus analgesic,
antiseptic
79. Acorus Rhizomes A. calamus Araceae Asaraldehyde Vermifuge,
, eugenol perfumery
80. Valerian Roots, Valeriana Valerianaceae Chatinine & In cough,
rhizomes wallichii Valerine, antispasmodic
& stolons Valtrate
TETRATERPENOIDS
81. Crocus Stigmas Crocus Iridaceae Crocin, Antispasmodic
and styles; sativus crocetin, ,
corms protocrocin, emmenagogue,
picrocrocin colorant
RESINS
82. Ginger Rhizomes Zingiber Zingiberaceae Gingerol, Motion
officinale shagaols, sickness
gingerone
83. Capsicum Ripe fruits C. annum Solanaceae Capsaicin, Counter
capsanthin, irritant, in
carotene rheumatism,
lumbago
84. Turmeric Rhizomes Curcuma Zingiberaceae Curcumin Anti-
longa inflammatory
85. Cannabis Flowering C. sativa Cannabinaceae Tetrahydroca Narcotic
tops (Moraceae) nnabinol, analgesic,
Trigonelline, psychotropic
choline
86. Jalap TuberclesIpomoea Convolvulaceae Jalapin, Cathartic
purga convolvulin
87. Podophyllum Roots & P. hexandrum Berberidaceae Podophyllin, Purgative,
Rhizomes P. emodi α-and β- veneral worts,
peltatins, cytotoxic
astragalin
88. Sumatra Balsamic Styrax Styraceae Benzoic, Expectorant
Benzoin resin benzoin or S. cinnamic
paralleloneur acid,
us sumaresinolic
acid
89. Siam benzoin Balsamic Styrax Styraceae Siaresinolic Antiseptic
resin tonkinensis acid, ester
 coniferyl
benzoate
90. Tolu balsam Trunk of Myroxylon Leguminosae Cinnamic Expectorant,
trees balsamum acid, benzoic antiseptic
acid,
toluresinotan
nol
91. Peru Balsam Trunk of Myroxylon Leguminosae Cinnamic Scabies,
trees balsamum acid, benzoic wounds
acid,
cinnameine
OLEO-GUM RESIN
92. Asafoetida Roots & Ferula Umbelliferae Ferulic acid, Nervine
Rhizomes foetida, F. umbellic stimulant,
rubricaulis acid, intestinal
asaresinotann flatulence
ol
93. Myrrh Oleo gum Commiphorr Burseraceae α-β-- Antiseptic
resin a molmol commiphoric
acids
94. Guggul Stem bark Commiphora Burseraceae GuggulosteroHypolipidaemi
weightii nes E and Z c, anti-
inflammatory
95. Colophony Oil of Pinus species Pinaceae α-pinene, Stimulant,
turpentine Abeitic acid, diuretic
sapinic acid,
pimaric acid
CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS
96. Isapgol Seeds Plantago Plantaginaceae Pentosan, Demulcent,
ovata Mucilage, laxative,
aldobionic pharmaceutical
acid, aid
phanteose
(carbohydrate
)
97. Bael Fruits Aegle Rutaceae Marmelosin Digestive,
marmelos & antidiarrhoeal
furocoumarin
98. Acacia Stem & Acacia Leguminosae Arabin, Emulsifying,
branches arabica oxidase suspending
agent
99. Guar gum Endosper Cyamopsis Leguminosae Guaran Antidiabetic
(Galactose + m of seeds tetragonolob
mannose) us
100. Tragacanth Stems & Astragalus Leguminosae Tragacanthin, Demulcent
Branches gummifer bassorin
101. Pectin Rind Citrus Rutaceae D- Adsorbent
limonis, C. galactouronic
aurantium acid, pectic
 acid
(methoxy
ester)
102. Gum karaya Tree Sterculia Sterculiaceae Acetyl and Emulgent
urens uronic acid
group
103. Agar Red algae Gelidium Gelidaceae Agarose, Laxative
amansii agaropectin
104. Starch Maize, Zea mays, Gramineae Amylase, Demulcent,
rice Oryza sativa amylopectin nutritive
105. Honey Honey Apis species Apidae Natural, Demulcent,
(liquid comb invert sugar sweetening
carbohydrate agent
)
All gums contain heteropolysaccharide.
TANNINS
HYDROLYSABLE TANNINS
106. Myrobalan Mature Terminalia Combretaceae Chebulic Astringent,
fruits chebula acid, gallic purgative, in
acid triphala churna
107. Arjuna Stem bark Terminalia Combretaceae Ellagic acid, Cardiotonic,
arjuna β-sitosterol hypotensive
108. Tannic acid Oak galls Quercus Fagaceae Gallic acid Astringent for
infectoria and glucose mucous
membrane
109. Amla Fruits Emblica Euphorbiaceae Vit.C, Diuretic,
officinalis phyllemblin laxative, in
Triphala and
Chyavanprash
CONDENSED TANNINS
110. Ashoka Stem bark Saraca indica Leguminosae Catechol, Uterine tonic,
ketosterol oxytocic
111. Black Heartwood Acacia Leguminosae Acacatechin, Astringent,
catechu catechu quercetin skin eruptions
112. Pale catechu Leaves & Uncaria Rubiaceae Catechin, Astringent,
shoots gambier catechutannic diarrhoea
acid
LIPIDS
113. Castor oil Seeds Ricinus Euphorbiaceae Ricinoleic, Laxative,
communis linoleic acid lubricant,
urethanes
114. Chaulmoogra Ripe seeds Hydnocarpus Flacourtriaceae Hydnocarpic Antileprotic
oil species and
chaulmoogric
acid
115. Linseed oil Ripe seeds Linum Linaceae Oleic, Lotions,
usitatissimum linoleic, liniments,
linolenic acid ointments,
varnish and
 paint industry
116. Kokum Seeds Garcinia Guttiferae Stearic, Demulcent,
Butter indica linolenic, emollient
palmitic acids
117. Cocoa Butter Roasted Theobroma Sterculiaceae Stearic, oleic, Suppository
seeds cacao palmitic acids base
118. Shark Liver Liver of Hypoprion - Vit.A, Deficiency of
Oil shark brevirostris glycerides of Vit. A, rickets
fatty acids
119. Cod Liver oil Liver of Gadus Gadidae Vit.A, Vit.D,
Deficiency of
cod fish morrhua glycerides of
Vits. A and D,
fatty acids
emollient,
rickets
120. Hydrous Wool of Ovis aries Bovidae Esters of Adsorbable
wool fat sheep cholesterol ointment base
and carnaubic
and oleic
acids
121. Yellow bees Honey Apis species Apidae Myricyl Hardening
wax comb palmitate, agent,
cerotic acid ointment base
FIBRES, SUTURES AND SURGICAL DRESSINGS
122. Cotton Epidermal Gossypium Malvaceae Cellulose and Surgical
trichomes species moisture dressings,
of seeds filtering media
and insulation
123. Silk Silkworm Bombyx mori Bombycidae Fibroin Sutures,
cocoons (Protein) ligatures
124. Wool Flees of Ovis aries Bovidae Keratin Surgical
sheep (Protein) dressings,
flannel and
blankets for
warmth
NATURAL PESTICIDES
125. Pyrethrum Flowers Chrysanthem Compositae Pyrethrins Domestic
um insect repellent
cinerarifoliu (contact
m poison)
126. Neem Aerial part Azadirachta Meliaceae Nimbin, Insecticide,
indica nimbidin, antifeedant,
azadirachtin nematicide
127. Tobacco Leaves Nicotiana Solanaceae Nicotine, Potent
tobaccum anabasine insecticide
128. Shilajit Fissures in Herbo-mineral drug Albuminoids, Aphrodisiac
iron rich fulvic acid
rocks etc.

ALTERNATIVE NAMES OF PLANT FAMILIES

 Family Alternative Name
Apocynaceae Asclepiadoideae
Compositae Asteraceae
Cruciferae Brassicaceae
Graminae Poaceae
Guttiferae Clusiaceae
Labiateae Lamiaceae
Leguminosae Fabaceae
Liliaceae Colchicaeae
Palmae Arecaceae
Polypodiaceae Aspidiaceae
Umbelliferae Apiaceae
ALKALOIDS
Definition: These are the organic products of natural or synthetic origin, which are basic in
nature and contain one or more nitrogen atoms, of heterocyclic nature and possess specific
physiological actions on humans or animals and are used in small quantities.

History:

 Alkaloid term coined by Meissner.

 First synthesized alkaloid Coniine.

Isolation and extraction of Alkaloids:

 Stas-Otto method

Classification:

True Proto / Amino Pseudo

Contain heterocyclic nitrogen Do not contain heterocyclic
nitrogen
Derived from amino acids Derived from amino acids Not derived from amino
acids
Present as salts of organic Present as biological amines
acids
Toxic in nature Non-toxic -
Basic in nature Basic in nature -
Insoluble in water and Higher solubility in water Higher solubility in
sparingly soluble in organic water
solvents
e.g. quinine sulphate e.g. colchicines, ephedrine e.g. conessine, caffeine

Chemical Tests for Alkaloids:

Test Reagent Inference

Mayer’s test Potassium mercuric iodide Cream coloured precipitate
Dragendroff’s test Potassium bismuth iodide Reddish-brown precipitate
Wagner’s test Iodine-potassium iodide Reddish-brown precipitate
Hager’s test Picric acid Yellow coloured precipitate

Properties:

Properties Examples of drugs

Liquid alkaloid Nicotine, coniine, sparteine
Coloured alkaloid Betanidin (red), berberine (yellow), sanguinarine (copper red)
Alkaloids Biosynthesized:

Amino acid Alkaloid Biosynthesized

Ornithine Tropane alkaloids
Lysine Lupinine, Isopelletierine, Anabasine, Conneine
Phenyl alanine Ephedrine, Mescaline, Prunasin
Tyrosine Opium alkaloid, Dhurrin
Tryptophan Indole, Quinoline, Psilabin
Dopamine Emetine, Colchicine
Histidine Pilocarpine
Valine Linamarine
Isoleucine Lotaustraline
Tryptophan and Tryptamine Reserpine

INDOLE ALKALOIDS

ERGOT

Synonym: Ergot of Rye

Biological source:

Ergot is the dried sclerotium of the fungus, Claviceps purpurea (Clavicipitaceae or

Hypocreaceae) in ovary of rye plant, Secale cereale (Graminae).

Life cycle of Ergot:

1. Ascospore (asexual spores-conidiospores).

2. Sphacelial stage (Honey-dew stage).
3. Sclerotium stage (Ergot stage).

Shape of Ergot - Fusiform

Microscopic characteristics:

 Inner part – Dense pseudoparenchymatous cells composed of chitin.

Chemical Constituents:

 Peptide alkaloid
 Derivatives of Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).

(-) Active laevorotatory alkaloids (+) Inactive dextrorotatory alkaloids

Water-soluble
Ergometrine Ergometrinine
Water-insoluble
Ergotamine Ergotaminine
Ergosine Ergosinine
ERGOTOXINE CLASS
Ergocristine Ergocristinine
Ergocryptine Ergocryptinine
Ergocornine Ergocorninine

Chemical Tests:

1. Van-Urk’s test: Ergot + p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde = Blue colour.

2. Fluorescence test: Ergot + water = Blue fluorescence.
3. Ergot + NaOH = Odour of Trimethylamine.

Ergot Poisoning:

 Ergot poisoning = St. Antony’s fire (Gangrene).

NUX VOMICA

Synonyms: Crow-fig, Semen Strychni.

Biological Source:

 Nux vomica consists of dried ripe seeds of Strychnos nuxvomica (Loganiaceae).

Shape of Seeds: Disc shaped.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Unicellular lignified trichomes

 Plasmodesmata is present in endosperm
 Collapsed cells

Chemical constituents:

 Strychnine, Brucine, α-colubrine, β-colubrine

 Loganin (Glycoside)

Chemical Tests:

1. Mandinn’s test – T. S. + Ammonium vanadate + H2SO4 = Endospermic cells become

purple due to strychnine.
2. T. S. + conc. HNO3 = Endospermic cells become purple due to brucine.

Uses:

 Brucine is about 1/6th in potency as compared to strychnine.

 Brucine = Dog poison.
Adulterants:

1. Strychnos nuxblanda Hill:

 Distinct ridge on the edge of the seeds.
 Strychnine does not have a bitter taste.
2. Strychnos potatorum:
 Seeds = clearing nuts
 Seeds contain diaboline (curare alkaloid)

PHYSOSTIGMA

Synonyms: Calabar bean, Ordeal bean

Biological Source:

 It is the dried ripe seed of Physostigma venonosum (Leguminosae).

Chemical Constituents:

 Physostigmine (Eserine) present in cotyledons.

 Physostigmine Air Rubeserine (red colored)

RAUWOLFIA:

Synonyms: Serpagandha, Indian Snake Root

Biological Source:

Rauwolfia consists of dried roots of plant Rauwolfia serpentine (Apocynaceae).

Microscopic characteristics:

 Stratified cork
 Prismatic calcium oxalate crystals
 Stone cells and phloem fibres absent

Chemical constituents:

 Reserpine, Ajmaline, Ajmalicine, Rescinnamine, Yohimbine.

Uses:

 Ajmaline is used in treatment of cardiac arrhythmias.

Adulterants:

1. Rauwolfia tetraphylla: Uniform cork, abundant sclereids and fibres, but devoid of
rescinnamine.
2. R. densiflora: Sclerenchyma.
3. R. vomitoria: 5 discontinued bands of sclerenchyma
VINCA

Synonyms: Catharanthus, Periwinkle

Biological Source:

 It is the dried whole plant of Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae).

 It is also known as Vinca rosea.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Dorsiventral leaf
 Unicellular covering trichomes
 Anisocytic (cruciferous) stomata

Chemical constituents:

 Vincristine and Vinblastine

Vinblastine

Indole alkaloid Dihydroindole alkaloid

Catharanthine Vindoline

Semisynthetic derivatives of Vinca alkaloids:

 Vinorelbine
 Vindesine

Uses:

 Vincristine/Vinblastine sulphate are used as antineoplastic agents.

 Vincristine = Childhood leukemias
 Vinblastine = Hodgkin’s disease/Choriocarcinoma

ISOQUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

OPIUM

Synonym: Raw opium

Biological Source:

It is the dried latex obtained by incision from the unripe capsules of Papaver somniferum
(Papaveraceae).
 Types of poppy Biological source
Opium poppy P. somniferum
Iceland poppy P. nudicaule
Corn poppy P. rhoeas

Chemical Constituents:

Opium

Phenanthrene Benzylisoquinoline

Morphine, codeine, Narcotine, narceine,

Thebaine Papaverine

 Morphine Monoacidic base (Basic)

 Papaverine is the only optically inactive compound.
 Opium salts are present as salts of meconic acid.

Chemical Tests:

Meconic acid test:

Opium + Water Filter Filtrate + FeCl3 Reddish-purple color

Persists Hydrochloric acid

Adulterants:

Papaver orientale Morphine absent

Papaver bracteatum Only thebaine present

IPECACUANHA

Synonym: Ipecac

Biological Source:

It consists of dried roots of Cephaelis ipecacuanha or the rhizomes and roots of Cephaelis
acuminate (Rubiaceae).
Geographical Source:

 Cephaelis ipecacuanha: Rio or Brazilian ipecac

 Cephaelis acuminata: Panama or Cartagena ipecac

Macroscopic characteristics:

Types of Ipecac Shape of roots

Brazilian ipecac Tortuous roots
Panama ipecac Cylindrical roots

Microscopic characteristics:

Roots Rhizomes
Thin walled parenchyma -
Starch grains smaller in size Starch grains larger in size
Acicular calcium oxalate crystals -
Size of starch grains – 15 µ Size of starch grains – 22 µ

Chemical constituents:

 Emetine, Cephaeline, psychotrine etc.

Properties Rio-ipecac Panama ipecac

Alkaloidal content 2% 2.2%
Emetine : Cephaeline 4:1 1:1

Chemical Tests:

Frohde’s test:

Emetine + Sulphuric acid + Sodium molybdate  Bright Green colour

Uses:

Small doses Expectorant

Large doses Emetic

TROPANE ALKALOIDS

BELLADONNA HERB

Synonym: Deadly Night Shade leaf

Biological Source:

Belladonna herb consists of dried leaves or flowering tops of Atropa belladonna (European
belladonna) or Atropa acuminata (Indian belladonna)

Family: Solanaceae.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Epidermis – Wavy (anticlinal) wall with striated cuticle

 Uniseriate multicellular covering trichomes
 Uniseriate glandular trichomes

Chemical Constituents:

Hyoscine l-scopolamine

Atropine ± Hyoscyamine

Chemical Test:

 Vitali-Morin reaction

Uses:

It is used as an antidote in opium and chloral hydrate poisoning.

Adulterants:

1. Phytolacca Americana: Idioblast present, Anomocytic stomata.

2. Solanum nigrum: Palisade ratio is 2-4.
3. Ailanthus glandulosa: Clustered crystals of calcium oxalate.

DATURA

Synonyms: Angel’s trumpet

Biological Source:

It consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of Datura metel (Solanaceae).

Microscopic characteristics:

 Dorsiventral leaves
 Anisocytic or Cruciferous stomata
  Glandular and Non-glandular simple trichomes
 Palisade Ratio: 3.5 – 6.5

Chemical Constituents:

 Hyoscine (scopolamine) and l-hyoscyamine (scopoline)

 Hyoscine Ester Tropic acid + Scopine

Chemical Test:

Vitali-Morin reaction

Tropane alkaloid + Fuming nitric acid Evaporation to dryness + Methanolic KOH

Violet coloration Acetone solution

Uses: Hyoscine is a drug of choice for treating motion sickness.

HYOSCYAMUS

Synonym: Henbane

Biological Source:

- It consists of the dried leaves and flowering tops of

Hyoscyamus niger (Solanaceae).
- Hyoscyamus is a biennial herb.

Microscopic characters:

- Prismatic or cluster crystals of calcium oxalate.

- Idioblasts are present, containing microsphenoidal
crystals.

Chemical Constituents:

- Alkaloidal percentage is more in petiole than in the stem

or lamina.

Adulterants:

- Egyptian henbane (H. muticus)

COCA

Biological Source:
 - Dried leaves of Erythroxylum coca (Bolivian coca) and
Erythroxylum truxillense (Peruvian coca); Family:
Erythroxylaceae.
- Coca is known as divine plant.

Type of coca Shape

Bolivian Oval
Peruvian Elliptical

Microscopic characteristics:

- Paracytic stomata
- Isobilateral leaf
- Idioblasts present near the veins

Chemical constituents:

Cocaine Ecgonine + Methyl alcohol + benzoic acid

Cinnamyl cocaine Ecgonine + Methyl alcohol + cinnamic acid

α-truxilline Ecgonine + Methyl alcohol + α-truxillic acid

QUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

CINCHONA

Synonyms: Jesuit’s bark, Peruvian bark

Biological Source:

It is the dried bark of the cultivated trees of Cinchona calisaya, C. ledgeriana, C. officinalis,
C. succirubra (Rubiaceae).

Macroscopic characters:

C. succirubra Red bark

C. ledgeriana Yellow bark

C. robusta C. succirubra + C. officinalis

Microscopic characteristics:

 Idioblast of calcium oxalate

 Medullary rays 2-3 cells wide

Chemical Constituents:

 Quinine, quinidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine.

  Quinine present in highest amount in C. ledgeriana.
 Quinovin (Glycoside)

Chemical Tests:

Thalleoquin test

Powdered drug + Bromine water + dil. Ammonia solution  Emerald green colour

Uses:

 Cinchona bark is antimalarial in nature.

 Quinine is a protoplasmic poison.
 Quinidine is used in prevention of cardiac arrhythmias.
 The disease Stripe canker connected with cinchona bark.

Adulterants:

Cuprea bark (Remijia pedunculata) Coppery red colored drug

False cuprea bark (R. purdiena) Cusconidine No quinine

QUINAZOLINE ALKALOIDS

VASAKA

Synonyms: Adhatoda, Adulsa, Malabar nut

Biological source:

It consists of dried, as well as, fresh leaves of the plant Adhatoda vasica, Family:
Acanthaceae.

Microscopic characteristics:

Microscopy Characteristics
Leaves Dorsiventral
Stomata Diacytic / Cross-celled stomata
Trichomes Uniseriate multicellular covering trichomes
Sessile quadracellular glandular trichomes
Calcium oxalate crystals Prismatic, acicular
Calcium carbonate crystals Cystolith

Chemical constituents:

Vasicine oxidation Vasicinone (bronchodilator)

PROTO / AMINO ALKALOIDS

EPHEDRA

Synonym: Ma-Huang

Biological source:

It consists of the dried young stems of Ephedra gerardiana and Ephedra nebrodensis;
Family: Gnetaceae (Ephedraceae).

Morphology:

Part Features
Internodes At distance of 3 to 3.5 cm
Nodes Bears scaly leaves

Microscopic characteristics:

Microscopy Characteristics
Stomata Sunken (plant grow in desert condition to reduce
water loss)
Calcium oxalate crystals Acicular

Chemical Constituents: Ephedrine (adrenergic)

STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS

Synonym: Holarrhena

Biological source:

It consists of dried bark of Holarrhena antidysentrica

Family: Apocynaceae

Microscopic characteristics:

 Rhombocidal / Prismatic calcium oxalate crystals

 Calcium oxalate crystals present in sclerenchymatous tissue.
 Horseshoe-shaped stone cells.
 Phloem fibres absent.

Chemical constituents: Kurchicin (conessine)

Uses: Active against Entamoeba histolytica in treatment of dysentery.

ASHWAGANDHA

Synonyms: Withania root, Asgandh, Winter cherry, Indian Ginseng

Biological Source:

It consists of dried roots and stem bases of Withania somnifera

Family: Solanaceae

Chemical constituents:

Type of constituent Constituent

Alkaloids (steroidal) Withanine
Glycosides Sitoindosides VII, VIII
Steroidal lactones Withanolides
Alcohol Somnitol, somnirol
Uses:

 Gout
 Induction of polyploidy
 Horticulture

GLYCOSIDES

Definition: Glycosides may be defined as the organic compounds from plant or animal
sources, which on enzymatic or acid hydrolysis, give one or more sugar moieties along with
non-sugar moiety.

 The former is called as glycone and the later as aglycone or genin.

 The sugar involved in glycosides is mostly β-D-glucose (present in body).
 Soluble in water and dilute alcohol, except resin glycosides; while insoluble in
organic solvents like chloroform or ether.
 Method of isolation: Stas-Otto method (soxhlet apparatus)

Types of Glycosides:

Type of glycosides Examples of drugs

C-glycosides (Aloin type)
O-glycosides (Cyanogenetic)
S-glycosides (Isothiocyanate)
N-glycosides
Cascarosides (cascara), aloin (aloe),
carminic acid (cochineal)
Senna, rhubarb, cascara
Sinigrin (black mustard)
Nucleosides

ANTHRACENE GLYCOSIDES

Glycosides Anthranol Anthrone

Colour Pale yellow Brownish-yellow
Solubility Insoluble in alkali Soluble in alkali
Fluorescence Strong fluorescence Non-fluorescent
in alkali
Borntrager’s Negative Positive
test

Borntrager’s Test:

Powdered drug + ether (water immiscible organic solvent) Filtrate + caustic soda or
ammonia aqueous layer shows pink, red or violet colour.

INDIAN SENNA

Synonyms: Tinnevelly senna

Biological Source:

It consists of dried leaflets of Cassia angustifolia, Family: Leguminosae. It contains not less
than 2.0% of anthracene derivatives as sennoside B.

Shape: Lanceolate

Microscopic characteristics:

 Isobilateral leaf
 Unicellular, conical, thick-walled warty trichomes
 Paracytic (rubiaceous) stomata
 Cluster-crystals of calcium oxalate

Chemical constituents:

Constituent Features
Sennoside A / C Dextro (trans) rotatory
Sennoside B / D Meso rotatory
Tinnevellin and 6-hydroxy musizin glycoside Napthalene glycosides
Note: Sennosides A and B are stereoisomers of each other. They are dimeric glycosides with rhein
dianthrone as aglycone.

Chemical Test: Borntrager’s test

Uses: Purgative

Adulterants and Substitutes:

Adulterant Biological source Features
Dog senna C. obovata Leaves are obovate in shape and show
papillose cells in lower epidermis
Palthe senna C. auriculata Absence of anthraquinone glycosides

Difference between Indian Senna and Alexandrian Senna:

Senna Indian Senna Alexandrian Senna

Synonym Tinnevelly senna Cassia senna, Egyptian senna
Biological source Cassia angustifolia Cassia acutifolia
Family Leguminosae Leguminosae
Shape of leaves Ovate Ovate-lanceolate
Percentage of sennosides Not less than 2.5% 3 - 3.6 %

RHUBARB

Synonym: Radix rhei, Rheum, Revandchini

Biological Source:

It consists of the dried rhizome of Rheum emodi (Indian rhubarb), Rheum palmatum, Rheum
webbianum (Chinese rhubarb).

Family: Polygonaceae.

Macroscopic characteristics:

 They are also known as “Flats” or “Rounds”.

 Round pieces are prepared from small rhizomes, while flat pieces are prepared from
large rhizomes.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Medullary rays star shaped.

 In Rheum officinale, they occur irregularly, while in R. palmatum, they are present in
a continuous ring-like manner.

Chemical constituents:

 Rhein and glucorhein (carboxyl group anthraquinones)

Palmidin A aloe-emodin anthrone + emodin anthrone

Palmidin B aloe-emodin anthrone + chrysophanol anthrone

Palmidin C emodin-anthrone + chrysophanol anthrone

Chemical Tests:
  Modified borntrager’s test

Uses: Purgative

Indian Rhubarb (Revandchini)

 Source: R. webbianum, R. emodi

 Shows deep violet fluorescence in UV light.
 It does not contain rhaponticin.

Rhapontic rhubarb

 Source: R. rhaponticum
 It shows blue fluorescence in UV light.

ALOES

Synonyms: Musabbar, Kumari

Biological Source:

Aloe is the dried juice of the leaves of Aloe barbadensis (Curacao aloes); or of Aloe perryi
(Socotrine aloes); or of Aloe ferox and hybrids of this species with Aloe africana and Aloe
spicata (Cape aloes).

Family: Liliaceae.

Microscopic characteristics of Aloe powder:

Type of Aloe Characteristics

Curacao aloe (crystalline) Small needles or slender prisms
Cape aloe (amorphous) Angular or irregular fragments
Socotrine aloe Large prisms (present in group or in dispersed form)
Zanzibar aloe Irregular lumps

Chemical Constituents:

 Barbaloin is a C-glycoside and not hydrolysed by heating with dil. acids or alkalies.
 The resin of aloe contains aloesin (purgative action of aloes).

Chemical Test:

 Schoenteten’s reaction (Borax test)

 Cupraloin test (Klunge’s isobarbaloin test)
 Nitrous acid / Nitric acid test
Adulterants and substitutes:

1. Natal aloes: It resembles cape aloes.

2. Mocha aloes
3. Black catechu

STEROLS OR CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES

Types Steroidal Lactone ring No. of double Attached to Examples

moiety bond position
Cardenolides C23 5 membered 1 C-17 Digitalis, thevetia,
strophanthus
Bufadienolides C24 6 membered 2 17β Squill
Cardiac glycosides configuration: 5β, 14β

DIGITALIS

Synonyms: Foxglove leaves

Biological Source:

It consists of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, Family: Scrophulariaceae, dried at a

temperature below 60oC and not more than 5% moisture.

History: William Withering discovered Digitalis.

Shape of foxglove leaves:

 Ovate-lanceolate to broadly ovate; irregularly crenate or serrate, or occasionally

dentate margin.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Dorsiventral leaf
 Anomocytic stomata
 Uniseriate multicellular glandular trichomes (3-5 celled)
 Collapsed cell covering trichome (most imp. feature)
 Absence of calcium oxalate crystals

Chemical constituents:

Purpurea glycoside A digitoxin + glucose digitoxigenin + 3 digitoxose

Purpurea glycoside B gitoxin + glucose gitoxigenin + 3 digitoxose

Saponin glycosides – digitonin and gitonin

Chemical Tests:

Test Inference
Keller-Killiani test (digitoxose) Reddish-brown colour changing to
bluish-green
Legal test Pink or red colour
Baljet test Yellow or orange colour

Uses: Cardiotonic

Adulterants:

Name Biological source Family Features

- Verbascum thapus Scrophulariaceae Candelabra trichomes
Primrose leaves Primula vulgaris Primulaceae Uniseriate covering
trichomes (8-9 celled)
Comfrey leaves Symphytum officinale Boraginaceae Multicellular
trichomes forming
hook at the top
DIGITALIS LANATA

Synonym: Wooly fox glove leaf

Biological source:

It consists of dried leaves of Digitalis lanata, Family: Scrophulariaceae. It contains 1-1.4 %

mixture of cardiac glycosides.

Macroscopic characteristics:

 Leaves are oblong, lanceolate, sessile with entire margin.

Chemical constituents:

 Lanatoside A Digitoxigenin
 Lanatoside B Gitoxigenin
 Lanatoside C Digoxigenin
 Lanatoside D Diginatigenin

Adulterants:

Adulterants Biological source Features

Straw foxglove Digitalis lutea Sessile, oblanceolate with serrate
or dentate margin
Spanish foxglove Digitalis thapsi Lanceolate with crenate margin
and decurrent lamina; Absence
of non-glandular trichomes and
contain Ca oxalate crystals
SAPONIN GLYCOSIDES:

GINSENG

Synonyms: Ninjin, Pannag, Panax

Biological Source:

It is the dried tuberous corpulent root of various species of Panax, like:

Type of Ginseng Biological source

Korean ginseng P. ginseng
Japanese ginseng P. japonica
Chinese ginseng P. notoginseng
American ginseng P. quinquefolium
Indian ginseng (Ashwagandha) Withania somnifera

Chemical constituents:

Triterpenoid saponins Aglycone part Decomposition product

Ginsenosides Dammarol -
Panaxosides Oleanolic acid Oleanolic acid, panaxadiol,
panaxatriol
Chikusetsusaponin - -

Uses: Immunomodulator; Aphrodisiac; Adrenal and thyroid dysfunctioning

FLAVONOIDS

Origin / Biogenesis:

Shikimic acid Phenylalanine Cinnamic acid C15 intermediates

(C6 – C3) (chalkone)

Flavonoids

Chemistry of Flavonoids:

 Chalkone is a precursor of flavonoids (C6-C3-C6).

 In Chalkone, the 3-carbon bridge is converted into 6-membered heterocyclic ring and
in some cases 6-membered ring is replaced by 5-membered ring.
 Chemical name of flavonoid is 2-phenyl γ-chromone OR 2-phenyl benzo-γ-pyrone.
 In isoflavonoids, 2-phenyl ring is replaced with 3-phenyl ring.
 Chemical/Basic nucleus is γ-chromone OR benzo-γ-pyrone.
Flavonoids Moiety present
Quercetin Aglycone
Quercetrin Glycone

Types of flavonoids:

Sr. Flavonoids Examples

No.
1. Flavone (acronym: “ABCFL”)
Apigenin (trihydroxy),
Butin (tri),
Chrysin (di),
Fisetin (tetra),
Luteolin (tetra)
2. Flavonone (one less double Hesperidin (trihydro),
bond) Narigenin (trihydro)
3. Flavonol (extra –OH) Quercetin (penta),
Kaempferol
4. Isoflavone Genestin,
Formononetin
5. Xanthone Gentisin,
Mangiferin

Vitamin P (P – Permeability factor):

 Rutin (flavonoid)
 Source of rutin: Buck wheat plant.
 Use: Anti-inflammatory

Biflavonoids:

 Dimer of flavonoids
 e.g. Agastiflavone, amentoflavone

Chemical Test for Flavonoids:

Test Features
Shinoda test Magnesium turnings (Pink to blue)
Zinc chloride test Zinc dust
Ferric chloride test Specific for phenol

VOLATILE OILS AND TERPENOIDS

 The odorous, volatile principles of plant and animal sources are known as volatile oils.
 Soluble in alcohol, ether and other lipid solvents and practically insoluble in water.
Methods of extraction:

1. Hydro-distillation
2. Enfleurage
3. Ecuelle
4. Liquid carbon dioxide

Iodine value: Extent of unsaturation

Reichert-Meissl value: Volatile constituent in fatty acid

Types of volatile oils:

Types
Alcohol volatile oils
Aldehyde volatile oils
Ester volatile oils
Hydrocarbon volatile oils
Ketone volatile oils
Oxide volatile oils
Phenolic ether volatile oils
Phenol volatile oils
Examples
Peppermint, cardamom, coriander,
sandalwood
Cinnamon, lemon peel, orange peel, lemon-
grass, bitter almond
Gaultheria, lavender, mustard
Turpentine, black pepper
Caraway, spearmint, camphor, musk
Chenopodium, eucalyptus
Anise, fennel, nutmeg
Clove

Occurrence of terpenoids:

Volatile oils Terpenoids present

Caraway oil Carvone and limonene
Eucalyptus oil Cineole
Peppermint oil Menthol
Fennel oil Anethole
Ginger oil Zingiberene
Sandalwood oil Santalol
Clove oil Eugenol

Types of terpenoids:

Sr. Types Structure

No.
1. Acyclic terpenoids Open chain
2. Monocyclic terpenoids One-ring
3. Bicyclic terpenoids Two-rings
4. Tricyclic terpenoids Three-rings

Isolation of Terpenoids: Clevenger Apparatus

Classification of Terpenoids:

They are classified on the basis of isoprene units, i.e., (C5H8) they contain.

Sr. Class of terpenes No. of Molecular

No. Isoprene formulae
units
1. Monoterpenes or terpenes 2 C10H16
2. Sesquiterpenes 3 C15H24
3. Diterpenes 4 C20H32
4. Triterpenes 6 C30H48
5. Tetraterpenes or Carotenoids 8 C40H64
6. Pentaterpenes 10 C50H80
7. Polyterpenes or rubber n (C5H8)n

NUTMEG

Synonyms: Myristica, Nux Moschata

Biological Source: Nutmeg consists of dried kernels of the seeds of Myristica fragrans;
Family: Myristicaceae. The kernels are freed from their arillus and seed coat.

Chemical Constituents:

 Myristicin (methoxy safrole) is poisonous and responsible for narcotic effect.

 Elimicin
 Safrole
 The fat of nutmeg is known as nutmeg butter which contains trimyristicin.
 The fat (nutmeg butter) is known as Banda soap.

Mace:

 The arillus of the seeds of myristica is known as mace, which is present in hilum.
 The mace is an orange coloured modification of nutmeg seed.
 It contains amylodextrin, which gives red colour with iodine.

Uses:

The fat and volatile oil of nutmeg is used in rheumatism.

CARDAMOM

Synonyms: Small cardamom

Biological Source:

It consists of dried ripe fruits of Eletaria cardamomum.

Family: Zingiberaceae.
Macroscopic characteristics:

 The capsule of the fruit contains three chambers with two rows of seeds.
 Seeds are derived from Boletus erythropus ovules.
 Seed White coating Rugae (used in detection of adulteration)

Microscopic characteristics:

 First layer of seed is known as arrilus, and is followed by two layers of testa.

Chemical constituents:

 Cineole (volatile oil)

Substitutes and adulterants:

1. Long wild native cardamom: Big cardamom

2. Korarima cardamom: Absence of rugae
3. Orange seeds
4. Unroasted coffee grains

CORIANDER

Biological source:

It consists of dried ripe fruits of the plant Coriandrum sativum, Family: Umbelliferae

Macroscopic characteristics:

 Cremocarpous fruit

Ridges Number Shape

Primary 10 Wavy
Secondary 8 Straight

Microscopic characteristics:

 Parquetry arrangement
 Anomocytic stomata
 Prismatic calcium oxalate crystals
 Starch grains and trichomes absent
 No lignified reticulate parenchyma

Chemical constituents:

 Coriandrol (D-linalool)

FENNEL
Synonyms: Fructus foeniculum

Biological Source:

It consists of dried ripe fruits of Foeniculum vulgare, Family: Umbelliferae.

Macroscopic characteristics:

 Orthospermous fruit
 Cremocarp fruit.
 Yellow coloured five primary ridges
 Bifid stylopod at the top
 2 commissural (ventral) vittae and 4 dorsal vittae.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Lignified reticulate parenchyma

 Anomocytic stomata
 Vittae (secretory canals) contain volatile oil, brown in colour.
 Rosette crystals of calcium oxalate.

Chemical Constituents:

Fenchone Camphoraceous odour

Anethole Sweet taste

Uses:

Expectorant

CLOVE

Synonym: Caryophyllum

Biological Source:

It consists of dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus.

Family: Myrtaceae.

Macroscopic characteristics:

 Hypanthium is surmounted with 4 acute divergent sepels surrounded by dome-shaped

corolla.
 Cloves are heavier than water.

Microscopic characteristics:

 Anomocytic stomata
  Schizolysigenous oil glands (present in ‘hypanthium’)
 Cluster crystals of calcium oxalate

Chemical constituents:

 Tannin (Gallotannic acid)

 Eugenol

Chemical Test:

T.S. + strong KOH solution Potassium eugenate (needle-shaped crystals)

Uses:

 It is used in the preparation of cigarettes.

 It is used in the manufacture of vanillin.

Adulterants:

1. Mother cloves (Anthophylli): contain starch.

2. Blown cloves: The volatile oil content is less as compared to authentic drug.
3. Clove stalks: Isodiametric sclereids and prisms of calcium oxalate.
4. Exhausted cloves: float on water.

CROCUS

Synonyms: Saffron, Hay saffron, Kesar

Biological Source:

It consists of dried stigmas and upper parts of styles of Crocus sativus.

Family: Iridaceae.

Chemical Constituents:

Constituent Features
Crocin and crocetin Red colouring matter
Picrocrocin Bitter principle

Protocrocin

(Carotenoid glycoside)

2 Picrocrocin 1 Crocin

Glucose Safranal Crocetin Gentiobiose

Chemical Test:

1. Dry stigma + H2SO4 Blue Purple Purplish-red

2. Saffron + Water Orange brown colour

Uses:

 Colouring and flavouring agent

 Antispasmodic
 Emmenagogue

Adulterant:

Florets of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), Family: Compositae, orange in colour.

CINNAMON

Crude drug Cassia cinnamon Cinnamon

Biological source Outer bark of Cinnamon
cassia, Family: Lauraceae
Shape Single quill
Transverse section Cork, cortex present
Calcium oxalate crystals Acicular
Chemical constituents 90 % cinnamaldehyde, 3-5 %
eugenol
Inner bark of Cinnamomum
zeylanicum, Family: Lauraceae
Compound quill
Cork, cortex absent
Acicular
70-80 % cinnamaldehyde, 10 %
eugenol

EPICARP

Crude drug Lemon peel Orange peel

Synonym Cortex limonis Orange cortex
Biological source Citrus limonis Citrus aurantium
Family Rutaceae Rutaceae
Chemical constituents Limonene Hesperidine, aurantiamarin &
aurantiamaric acid (bitter
glycosides)

RESINS

Resins Ginger Capsicum Turmeric

Synonym Zingiber, sunthi Chillies, cayenne Indian saffron
pepper
Biological source Zingiber officinale Capsicum annum Curcuma longa
Family Zingiberaceae Solanaceae Zingiberaceae
Pungent principle Gingerol Capsaicin -
Constituents Shogaol (hydrolysis Capsanthin/carotene Curcumine (yellow
product of gingerol) (red pigment) pigment)
Chemical test Pungency removed Pungency destroyed Powder + H2SO4 =
by 0.1 N by KmNO4 Crimson colour
NaOH/KOH (alkali) (oxidising agent)

PODOPHYLLUM

Synonyms: Himalayan May-Apple

Biological source:

It consists of dried rhizomes and roots of Podophyllum hexandrum or Podophyllum emodi,

Family: Berberidaceae. American podophyllum consists of dried rhizomes and roots of P.
peltatum.

Microscopic characteristics:

Roots Rhizomes
Absence of cork Presence of cork
Presence of epiblema Absence of epiblema
Calcium oxalate crystals absent Cluster type calcium oxalate crystals
Exodermis and endodermis contain -
suberin.
Pitted sclereids Short sclereids
More resin content Less resin content

Chemical constituents:

 Podophyllin (lignan compound)

 Active principle: Podophyllotoxin
 α and β peltatins (present only in American podophyllum)
 Flavonoid: Astragalin

Uses:

 Cis – Purgative; Trans – Antiemetic

 Cytotoxic

GUGGUL

Synonyms: Scented Bdellium

Biological source:

It is the oleo-gum resin obtained by making deep incisions at the basal part of stem bark of
Commiphora wightii.

Family: Burseraceae.
‘Guggulip’ obtained from Commiphora mukul is an antihyperlipidaemic product.

Chemical constituents:

 Guggulosterones E and Z responsible for antihyperlipidaemic activity.

CARBOHYDRATES AND DERIVED PRODUCTS

Carbohydrates are defined as a group of compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen, in which the later two elements are in the same proportion as in water, expressed by
a formula (CH2O)n, i.e., hydrates of carbon.

Carbohydrates Hydrolysis product

Sucrose (Cane-sugar)
Maltose (Malt-sugar)
Lactose (Milk-sugar)
Raffinose (beet and manna)
Gentianose (Gentian roots)
Glucose + Fructose
Glucose + Glucose
Glucose + Galactose
Glucose + Fructose + Galactose
Glucose + Glucose + Fructose

STARCH

Synonym: Amylum

Biological source:

Starch consists of polysaccharide granules obtained from the grains of maize (Zea mays); rice
(Oryza sativa); or wheat (Triticum aestivum).

Family: Graminae.

Also from the tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum).

Family: Solanaceae.

Type of starch Use

Potato starch Disintegrating agent
Corn starch Lubricating agent

Chemical Constituents:

 Amylose (β-amylose) : Amylopectin (α-amylose) – 1:2

 Amylose is water-soluble, while amylopectin is water-insoluble.
 Amylose gives blue colour with iodine, while amylopectin gives bluish-black
colouration.
 Carbohydrates Linkage
Cellulose α-1,4 linkage
Cellulose of starch β-1,4 linkage

Uses:

 Antidote in iodine poisoning

 Glycerine of starch used as an emollient and as a base for suppositories.

TRAGACANTH

Synonym: Tragacantha

Biological source:

It is the dried gummy exudation obtained by incision from stems and branches of
Astragalus gummifer.

Family: Leguminosae.

Chemical constituents:

Constituent Solubility Amount of gum (%)

Tragacanthin Water-soluble 8-10
Bassorin (methoxy Water-insoluble (swells) 60-70
tragacanthin)
Bassorin is less in powdered tragacanth

Note: Swelling factor of lump is more than powder due to loss of heat during milling and loose
methoxy group.

Difference between Pursian and Indian tragacanth:

Tragacanth Pursian Indian Tragacanth

Tragacanth
Colour White Slight yellow
Chemical test No pink colour Pink colour
(+ve
Ruthenium red)

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER:

 ALGINATES (Alginic acid):

- Sea weeds (brown algae)
- Laminarea speices and Kelps

 CHITOSAN
 - Deacetylated chitin is known as chitosan (natural
polysaccharide).
- Chitin: N-acetyl-D-glucosamine

 INULIN
- Only polysaccharide soluble in water

MARINE DRUGS

Sr. Class of compounds Examples

No.
1. Cardiovascular Anthopleurins, laminine, eptatretin, saxitoxin,
spongosine, eledosin, ATX-II, Autonomium
2. Cytotoxic (Anticancer) Ara-C, crassin acetate, simularin
3. Antimicrobial Holotoxin ABC, thelpin, eunicin, acanthelin
4. Antibiotic Cycloeudesmol, variabilin, Ircinin-1
5. Anti-inflammatory and Manoalide, Tetradotoxin
Antispasmodic
6. Marine toxins Ciguatoxin, Palytoxin, Saxitoxin, Brevetoxin
7. Miscellaneous Kainic acid, Domoic acid, Aplysinopsin