Materials Science and Engineering A 378 (2004) 200–204

Electro discharge machining of nickel–titanium shape memory alloys

W. Theisen, A. Schuermann∗
Chair of Materials Technology, Ruhr-University Bochum, D-44780 Bochum, Germany

Received 2 June 2003; received in revised form 1 September 2003

Abstract

Electro discharge machining (EDM) is a common fabrication process for miniaturized components in medical technology and micro
engineering today. As EDM induces material changes in the near surface zone, the surface integrity becomes ever more important, the smaller
the components are. In order to characterize the influence of EDM on the near surface zone, basic metallurgical investigations on pseudo-elastic
NiTi shape memory alloys (SMAs) were carried out. Material removal in EDM depends on the electric discharge processes between the tool
and the workpiece electrode in a dielectric fluid. Material is removed by melting and vaporization in single sparks. This results in craters
with varying size and depth depending on the discharge energy. The microstructure of this melting zone is characterized by hollows, cracks
and precipitation. Cracks open at the surface in consequence of randomly and locally overlapping thermal shocks. The cracks grow vertically
into the material, starting at the surface. In the melting zone, significant precipitations were detected and subsequently identified by EDX
as titanium carbides. The material removal rate, which is an important process factor in manufacturing, approximately increases in linear
proportion with the discharge energy, and achieves commercially interesting values by using an electrode made of copper and tungsten. The
results of the microstructure analysis require the removal of the near surface zone to ensure the properties of the components. This is possible
via a smooth EDM-process, followed by electrolytic polishing.
© 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Electro discharge machining (EDM); Nickel–titanium shape memory alloy (NiTi-SMA); Miniaturized components; Surface integrity; Melting
zone; Electro-chemical polishing (ECP)

1. Introduction ufacturing miniaturized components with a thin wall thick-

NiTi-shape memory alloys (SMAs) are presently often
used in micro engineering and medical technology [1] in
many applications, because of their specific properties, the
shape memory effect, good dampening behavior and very
high elasticity, based on martensitic phase transformation.
Up to now NiTi-alloys are the most frequently used and
most promising SMA. They are suited for guide systems for
minimal invasive human surgeries as well as for implants in
surgery and cardiology (Fig. 1).
Due to their shape memory properties, NiTi-SMA are dif-
ficult to machine and form [2,3]. Shaping therefore is mostly
realized by thermal treatment via laser or electro discharge
machining (EDM). The high temperature provokes melting
at the surface and changes to the near surface zone. How-
ever, this has a particularly predominant effect when man-
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-234-32-25964;
fax: +49-234-32-14104.
E-mail address: wt@wtech.ruhr-uni-bochum.de (A. Schuermann).
ness, thus requiring a material removal of the near surface
zones. Considering these facts, any manufacturing and ma-
chining processes have to be critically observed.
2. EDM and surface integrity
Electro discharge machining is a process, in which the tool
electrode is reproduced in the workpiece, in a non-contact
procedure. Removal of material is brought about by an
electric discharge process between tool and workpiece elec-
trode in a dielectric fluid. In doing so, the metal at the
surface is locally melted, partially evaporated and removed
from this local area. As a consequence, discharge craters
form at the surface. The removal rate is mainly ruled by
the workpiece material and the input energy. The removal
mechanism is determined by the physical properties and the
microstructure of the material, so that the process, indepen-
dent of the mechanical properties, is suited for materials
that are difficult for machining and cutting. Due to the low

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2003.09.115
 W. Theisen, A. Schuermann / Materials Science and Engineering A 378 (2004) 200–204
Fig. 1. Application of NiTi-alloys in medical technology—coronary stent.
melting volume of only a few ␮m3 , EDM it is particularly
appropriate for machining of micro components.
Caused by the locally high energy density in thermal ma-
chining, local melting areas at the surface are generated,
producing a heat affected zone (HAZ) in the material of the
workpiece. Consequently, structural modifications may oc-
cur at the surface as well as in the near surface zone below.
In addition to that, caused by the locally prevailing thermal
affection, residual stresses are created at the surface, that
may—during the machining process—be relieved by crack
formation. Any surface, that has been exposed to so many
various effects, as mentioned above, will have a significantly
reduced service life, especially after cyclical stress, what
may—in an extreme case—lead to the failure of the com-
ponent [4,5]. With the example of coronary stents (Fig. 1)
with their thin bars, it is clearly exhibited, that the surface
affected, may cover about half of the material volume, when
manufactured by EDM processes. In view of these consid-
erations, it is—particularly for this group of materials—of
interest, which material changes occur in EDM-processes.
3. Test procedure
Objective of these investigations was the determination of
machining-related surface modifications in EDM-processes
of NiTi-SMA. Investigations were done on at room tem-
perature austenitic NiTi-SMA, using a CuW-electrode in a
common dielectric fluid from synthetically produced hydro-
carbon compounds. The most decisive machining parameter
in the process is discharge energy. It characterizes the energy
generated at the discharge area and determines the material
removal rate as well as the influence on the microstructure
of the near surface zone and the surface integrity. Energy
inputs were varied by different EDM parameters, whereas
machining-related working parameters were kept constant
Table 1
Machine-related parameters of the EDM-processes
EDM Working voltage U (V) Working current I (A) Frequency f (kHz)
1 240 2 10
2 240 2 20
3 240 4 5
4 240 4 10
201
in the course of the EDM process (Table 1). At a constant
working voltage, discharge energy in the test was adapted
via the working current, where small currents corresponded
to low energy, and great currents, to high energies.
Documentation of surface modifications was made by
means of investigations of the surface roughness (confocal
laser scanning microscope (CLSM), scanning electron mi-
croscope (SEM), perthometer) and on the base of metal-
lographic investigations at cross sections (light microscope
(LM), scanning electron microscope, micro hardness mea-
suring, element dispersion). The material removal rate as
measure for the removal speed was determined by the mass
loss per time unit, measured with a precision scale. In a
last working step, it was investigated whether the EDM ma-
chined surface could be removed by any electro-chemically
polishing process.
4. Results and documentation
The surface is characterized by a melting zone, which
is generated by the sum of single sparks. Surface topog-
raphy of NiTi after EDM-process depends on the working
parameters and is presented in Fig. 2 for two different ma-
chining parameters. It is characterized by discharge craters
and melting drops. With increasing current intensity, the
working energy increases, so that discharge craters become
deeper and wider, thus contributing to a more noticeable
surface roughness. Rise in frequency also produces an in-
creased surface roughness, since craters depth becomes more
profound. For the here examined machining parameters the
maximum roughness values Rt vary between 10 and 30 ␮m
(Fig. 3).
Similar to surface roughness, the thickness of the melting
zone depends decisively on the machining parameters. In the
investigations of cross sections, it can be optically measured
and varies between 5 and 22 ␮m for the selected machining
parameters. Fig. 4 exhibits the influence of current intensity
and frequency on the mean layer thickness. Thickness in-
creases with rising current intensity, what is understandable
in view of increasing discharge energy. Fig. 5 reveals, that the
roughness of the melting zone under increasing current in-
tensity becomes more and more significant, due to enlarged
discharge craters, what has already been noticed regarding
roughness depth values. Apart from discharge craters, cracks
are forming in the melting zone. They are initiated in locally
high temperature gradients between the discharge crater and
the colder surroundings. The small melting volumes provoke
Pulse-duty factor τ (%) Idling pulse IP (%) Polarity
80 40 +
80 40 +
80 40 +
80 40 +
202 W. Theisen, A. Schuermann / Materials Science and Engineering A 378 (2004) 200–204

Fig. 2. Surface topography of NiTi after EDM process with different

working currents (SEM): (a) I = 2 A and (b) I = 4 A.
Fig. 3. Influence of the current intensity and the frequency on the thickness
of the melting zone: (a) I = 4 A, f = 10 kHz; and (b) I = 4 A, f = 5 kHz.
a high cooling rate of up to 106 K/s,resulting in a rapidly
increase of the yield stress. The areas that have been plas-
tically transformed during the heating, cannot flow back, so zone as well as EDX-analyses detect titanium carbides of
that plane tensile stresses build-up parallel to the surface, MC-structure. This probably derives from the cracking of
resulting in cracks normal to the surface. The reason for the hydrocarbon molecules in the dielectric fluid which
these cracks is not, as has been frequently assumed before, took place in the plasma channel of the short circuit. The
thermal fatigue, but thermal shock stress. On the basis of carbon reacts with the highly reactive titanium, forming
a single spark test, it was demonstrated that even a single TiC in a high volume fraction. This results in a hardness
thermal shock produced by one spark, may cause thermal
stresses, exceeding the tensile strength limit.
When observing crack distribution, it was possible to
evaluate crack density and mean free path of the cracks.
At increasing discharge current and accordingly more and
more extending discharge craters, the mean free path be-
comes bigger and at the same time crack density decreases.
The cracks noticeable at the surface mostly grow vertically
into the material and end at the foot of the melting zone. A
crack extension into the base material as it is known from
tool steels could not be observed. Apart from the vertical
cracks, some few cracks were found parallel to the surface,
especially at high current intensity.
Investigation of the near surface zone by SEM reveals a
high volume fraction of precipitations in the melting zone Fig. 4. Melting zones of NiTi after EDM process optically measured in
(Fig. 6). X-ray diffraction analyses of the near surface cross sections (LM).
 W. Theisen, A. Schuermann / Materials Science and Engineering A 378 (2004) 200–204 203

6. Electro-chemical polishing (ECP)

Due to the fact that the described surface changes caused

by EDM may lead to failure of the components, the surface
has to be machined by an additional finishing process. Here,

Fig. 5. Development of the surface roughness depending on the working

current and the frequency.

Fig. 6. TiC precipitations in the melting zone of machined NiTi (SEM).

Fig. 7. Surface topography of electrolytic polished NiTi after EDM process

(SEM) EDM parameters: I = 2 A, f = 10 kHz. (a) Polishing time: 2 min
of the melting zone between 1000 and 1300 HV, which and (b) polishing time: 5 min.
is significantly higher, than the hardness of the unexposed
material. Below the melting zone, in the heat affected
zone, neither structural nor hardness changes could be
detected.

5. Material removal rate at EDM

To evaluate the course of the EDM process, the material

removal rate VW was determined, that is also characteristic
for the removal speed. It is a measure, defining removed ma-
terial volume per time unit and accordingly a relevant fac-
tor for the production process. The material removal speed
increases with the discharge current that principally has a
significantly higher effect, than frequency. The maximum
working current of I = 4A, which was limited by melting
of the electrode, a maximum removal rates of 4 mm3 /min Fig. 8. Development of the thickness of the melting zone depending on
can be obtained. the polishing time.
204 W. Theisen, A. Schuermann / Materials Science and Engineering A 378 (2004) 200–204
electro-chemical polishing in an electrolyte containing 75%
acetic acid and 25% perchloric acid is suitable [6].
In the initial step of the ECP-process, the edges of dis-
charge craters are removed due to the locally high galvanic
currents, leading to a low decrease of thickness of the melt-
ing zone (Fig. 7). For longer polishing periods, the material
removal proceeds homogeneously across the entire surface
of the specimen. By using the ECP method, the melting
zones formed in EDM of 10–14 ␮m can be removed in an
acceptable period of time (8 min) (Fig. 8). Finally, all pol-
ished specimen surfaces are free from melting zones, cracks
and precipitations.
7. Conclusions
NiTi-SMA can be machined commercially by electro dis-
charge machining processes, using a CuW-electrode in di-
electric fluid of the type Aralux. Hereby, structural changes
in the machined surface occur, depending on the machining
parameters. Precipitations of titanium carbides in the melt-
ing zone lead to the assumption, that the shape memory
properties might have been lost in HAZ. Taking into account
this consideration and also in view of the network of cracks
in the melting zone, such melting zone and a part of the
heat affected zone have to be removed in a subsequent addi-
tional finishing. This can be done either via machining with
low process energy, or, by electro-chemical removal of the
melting zone. Due to the significant depth of the EDM in-
fluence stocks must be accounted for, in any case, covering
a magnitude of about 60 ␮m, in particular, where miniatur-
ized components are concerned.
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