FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

(203106101)

1ST SEMESTER
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Laboratory Manual
 Faculty of Engineering& Technology
Basic Electrical Engineering (203106101)
B. Tech. 1st Year

PREFACE

The Basic Electrical Engineering theory and laboratory course at PARUL

UNIVERSITY, WAGHODIA, VADODARA is designed in such a way that students develop
the basic understanding of the subject in the theory classes and then try their hands on the
experiments to realize the various concepts learnt during the theoretical sessions. The main
objective of the Basic Electrical Engineering laboratory course is: Getting Hands on experience
of the concepts they have learned in theory classes. All the experiments are designed to understand
the interfacing of various elements of Basic Electrical Engineering and also to expose the students
to their uses.

The objective of this Basic Electrical Engineering Practical Book is to provide a

comprehensive source for all the experiments included in the Basic Electrical Engineering
laboratory course. It explains all the aspects related to every experiment such as: safety, basic
elements of electrical engineering, types of power, analysis and simplification circuits, details of
the instruments, how to use these instruments for the desired purpose, the theoretical formalism
& formulae, procedure of performing the experiment and how to calculate the desired electrical
quantities from the observations etc. It also gives sufficient information on how to interpret and
discuss the obtained results
 Faculty of Engineering& Technology
Basic Electrical Engineering (203106101)
B. Tech. 1st Year

INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Be prompt in arriving to the laboratory and always come well prepared for the experiment.
2. Be careful while working on the equipment’s operated with high voltage power supply.
3. Work quietly and carefully. Give equal opportunity to all your fellow students to work on the
instruments.
4. Every student should have his/her individual copy of the Basic Electrical Engineering
Practical Book.
5. Every student have to prepare the notebooks specifically reserved for the Basic Electrical
Engineering practical work:”Basic Electrical Engineering Practical Book”
6. Every student has to necessarily bring his/her Basic Electrical Engineering Practical Book,
Practical Class Notebook when he/she comes to the Practical to perform the experiment.
7. Record your observations honestly. Never makeup reading or doctor them either to get a better
fit on the graph or to produce the correct result. Display all your observations on the graph (if
applicable)
8. All the observations have to be neatly recorded in the Basic Electrical Engineering Practical
Class Notebook (as explained in the Basic Electrical Engineering Practical Book) and verified
by the instructor before leaving the laboratory.
9. If some of the readings appear to be wrong then repeat the set of observations carefully.
10. Do not share your readings with your fellow student. Every student has to produce his/her
own set of readings by performing the experiment separately.
11. After verification of the recorded observations, do the calculation in the Basic Electrical
Engineering Practical Class Notebook (as explained in the Basic Electrical Engineering
Practical Book) and produce the desired results and get them verified by the instructor.
12. Never forget to mention the units of the observed quantities in the observation table. After
calculations, represent the results with appropriate units.
13. Calculate the percentage error in the results obtained by you if the standard results are
available and also try to point out the sources of errors in the experiment.
14. Find the answers of all the questions mentioned under the section ‘Find the Answers’ at the
end of each experiment in the Basic Electrical Engineering Practical Book.
15. Finally record the verified observations along with the calculation and results in the Basic
Electrical Engineering Practical Notebook.
16. Do not forget to get the information of your next allotment (the experiment which is to be
performed by you in the next laboratory session) before leaving the laboratory from the
Technical Assistant.
17. The grades for the Basic Electrical Engineering Practical course work will be awarded based
on your performance in the laboratory, regularity, recording of experiments in the Basic
Electrical Engineering practical Final Notebook, lab quiz, regular viva-voce and end-term
examination.
 Faculty of Engineering& Technology
Basic Electrical Engineering (203106101)
B. Tech. 1st Year

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that

Mr./Ms......................................................................................................................

......with enrolment no. ................................................................ has successfully

completed his/her laboratory experiments in the Basic Electrical Engineering

(203106101) B.Tech. 1st Year from the department of

……………………………………….. Engineering during the academic year

…………….

Date of Submission:......................... Staff In charge:...........................

Head Of Department:...........................................
 Faculty of Engineering& Technology
Basic Electrical Engineering (203106101)
B. Tech. 1st Year

INDEX

Page No Marks
Sr. Date of Date of
Experiment Title (out of Sign
No. Performance Assessment
From To 10)
To Study in Brief About Various
1 Measuring Equipments Used in
Electrical Laboratories.
To Perform and Solve Electrical
Networks With Series and Parallel
2
Combinations of Resistors Using
Kirchhoff’s Laws.
To Obtain Inductance, Capacitance,
Power and Power Factor of the
3
Series RL Circuit With AC Supply
Using Phasor Diagram
To Obtain Inductance, Capacitance,
Power and Power Factor of the
4
Series RC Circuit With AC Supply
Using Phasor Diagram
To Obtain Inductance, Capacitance,
Power and Power Factor of the
5
Series R-L-C Circuit With AC
Supply Using Phasor Diagram.
Verification of principle of
6 superposition with dc and ac
sources.
Verification of Thevenin's and
7 Maximum power transfer theorems
in dc circuits.
Verification of Norton's theorems in
8
dc circuits.
Verification of transient RL circuit
9
and obtain time constant.
Verification of Current and Voltage
10 Relations in Three Phase Balanced
Star and Delta Connected Loads.
To study the cut section of a DC
11
Machine, Single-phase induction
 Faculty of Engineering& Technology
Basic Electrical Engineering (203106101)
B. Tech. 1st Year

Page No Marks
Sr. Date of Date of
Experiment Title (out of Sign
No. Performance Assessment
From To 10)
machine and Three Phase induction
machine.
Find out the Efficiency and Voltage
12 Regulation of Single Phase
Transformer by Direct Load Test
To Perform break test of dc shunt
13
motor.
To verify the working of a 1 – Ф Full
14
Bridge invertors.
 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: To Study in Brief about Various Measuring Equipments Used In Electrical Laboratories

THEORY:

Ammeter

An ammeter (from Ampere Meter) is a measuring instrument used to measure the current in
a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to
measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milli
ammeters or micro ammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments which relied on the
Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were
designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric
power systems.

Fig 1.1 Ammeter

Capacitance Meter

A capacitance meter is a piece of electronic test equipment used to measure capacitance, mainly
of discrete capacitors. Depending on the sophistication of the meter, it may display the
capacitance only, or it may also measure a number of other parameters such as leakage, equivalent
series resistance (ESR), and inductance. For most purposes and in most cases the capacitor must
be disconnected from circuit; ESR can usually be measured in circuit.

Page | 1
 Fig 1.2 Capacitance meter

Current Clamp

In electrical and electronic engineering, a current clamp or current probe is an electrical device
having jaws which open to allow clamping around an electrical conductor. This allows
measurement of the current in a conductor without the need to make physical contact with it, or
to disconnect it for insertion through the probe. Current clamps are typically used to read the
magnitude of alternating current (AC) and, with additional instrumentation, the phase and
waveform can also be measured. Some clamps meters can measure currents of 1000 A and more.
Hall effect and vane type clamps can also measure direct current (DC).

Fig 1.3 Clamp Meter

Page | 2
Electricity Meter

An electricity meter, electric meter, electrical meter, or energy meter is a device that measures
the amount of electric energy consumed by a residence, a business, or an electrically powered
device. Electric utilities use electric meters installed at customers' premises to measure electric
energy delivered to their customers for billing purposes. They are typically calibrated in billing
units, the most common one being the kilowatt hour [kWh]. They are usually read once each
billing period.

Fig 1.4 Electric Meter

LCR METER

An LCR meter is a type of electronic test equipment used to measure the inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and resistance (R) of an electronic component. In the simpler versions of this
instrument the impedance was measured internally and converted for display to the corresponding
capacitance or inductance value. Readings should be reasonably accurate if the capacitor or
inductor device under test does not have a significant resistive component of impedance. More
advanced designs measure true inductance or capacitance, as well as the equivalent series
resistance of capacitors and the Q factor of inductive components.

Page | 3
 Fig1.5 LCR Meter

MULTIMETER

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm-Millimeter), is

an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A
typical multimeter can measure voltage, current, and resistance. Analog multimeters use
a micrometer with a moving pointer to display readings. Digital multimeters (DMM, DVOM)
have a numeric display, and may also show a graphical bar representing the measured value.
Digital multimeters are now far more common due to their cost and precision, but analog
multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example when monitoring a rapidly varying
value.

Fig1.6 Multimeter
Page | 4
OHM METER

An ohmmeter is an electrical instrument that measures electrical resistance, the opposition to an

electric current. Micro-ohmmeters (microhmmeter or microohmmeter) make low resistance
measurements. Megohmmeters (also a trademarked device Megger) measure large values of
resistance. The unit of measurement for resistance is ohms (Ω).

Fig1.7 Ohm meter

WATTMETER

The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical
energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of
utility frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency
measurements.

The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair
of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.

The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in
parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to
indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an
electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current
and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high-value resistor connected in
series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
Page | 5
The result of this arrangement is that on a dc circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional
to both the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation P=VI.

For AC power, current and voltage may not be in phase, owing to the delaying effects of circuit
inductance or capacitance. On an ac circuit the deflection is proportional to the average
instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true power, P=VI cosφ. Here, cosφ
represents the power factor which shows that the power transmitted may be less than the apparent
power obtained by multiplying the readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in the same circuit.

Fig 1.8 Watt meter

VOLTMETER

A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog
to digital converter. A voltmeter in a circuit diagram is represented by the letter V in a circle.

Page | 6
 Fig 1.9 Voltmeter

CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:

Q: 1 If an ammeter have 2 displaying scales of 30A & 100A and you are selecting the range of
___ A, then what will be the value of current when the pointer is showing 70A in 100A
scale?

Q: 2 Why Voltmeter is connected in parallel?.

Q: 3 Why Does an Ammeter Have a Low Resistance?

Q: 4 What is Multiplying Factor in Watt Meter?

Q.5 Is Ammeter connected in series?

Page | 7
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 8
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: To perform and solve electrical networks with series and parallel combinations of resistors
using kirchhoff’ laws.
APPARATUS:
Sr.
Equipment Name Range Quantity
No.

THEORY:

SERIES CONNECTION
R1 R2 R3

V
Fig 2.1 Series Connection of Resistors

SERIES CONNECTION

A circuit in which two or more elements are connected end to end i.e. one after another & same
current flows through all elements is known as series connection of resistance. Figure shows three
resistances connected in series obviously current flowing through each resistance will be same but
voltage drop across each of them will vary as per value of individual resistance. Also the sum of
all voltage drops (V1+V2+V3) is equal to the applied voltage (V).

Using ohm’s law: V=IR

V = V1 + V2 + V3
IR = IR1+IR2+IR3

IR = I (R1+R2+R3)

R = R1+R2+R3+…. + Rn
Where R is the equivalent resistance of series combination
Page | 9
PARALLEL CONNECTION

V R1 R2 R3

Fig2.2 Parallel Connection of Resistors

When one lead of resistance is joined together and similarly another leads are also joined together
the connection is parallel connection. Voltage V is applied across there two terminals each resistor
gets voltage V. Total current I taken from the supply am the sum of branch currents I1, I2….
Let the equivalent resistance be R ohm
I = I1+I2+I3

V/R = V/R1 + V/R2+V/R3

V/R = V (1/R1+1/R2+1/R3)

1/R= 1/R1+ 1/R2+ 1/R3

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

Fig.2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

In a network algebraic sum of electric currents at any node is zero.
Currents flowing towards node are considered positive where as currents flowing away from node
is considered negative.
I1+I2-I3-I4-I5-I6 = 0
I1+I2 = I3+I4+I5+I6

KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Page | 10
 Fig 2.4 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
The algebraic sum of product of current and resistance algebraic sum of voltage in a closed loop
is zero.
From the figure consider a closed path ABCDA

(-I1R1)+ (+E2) + (+I3R3) + (-E1) + (-I4R4) = 0

E2 – E1 = I1R1 - I3R3 + I4R4

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

KCL

KVL

Page | 11
PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Page | 12
KCL
Sum of the
Supply Branch Branch
Total Current Currents at
Sr. Voltage Current Current
Node
No.
V I I1 I2 I = I1 + I2
(Volts) (mA) (mA) (mA) (mA)
1
2
3

KVL

Supply Voltage Voltage

Total Current Total Voltage
Sr. Voltage Across R1 Across R2
No. V I V1 V2 V = V1 + V2
(Volts) (mA) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
1
2
3

CONCLUSION:

Page | 13
QUESTIONS:
Q. 1. For a closed loop network ______ is applicable. (KVL/ KCL/Both)
Q. 2. Can We Apply KVL to Parallel Circuit and KCL to Series Circuit?
Q. 3. The Resistance of Two Wires is ____Ω And _____ Ω Joined in Parallel; Find the total
Resistance.
Q. 4. The Resistance of Two Wires is ____Ω And _____ Ω Joined in series; Find the total
Resistance.
Q. 5. The Resistance of Two Wires is ____ Ω When Connected in Series And _____ Ω When
Joined in Parallel. Find the Resistance of Each Wire?

Page | 14
Page | 15
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 16
 EXPERIMENT NO. 3

AIM: To Obtain Inductance, Power and Power Factor Of The Series R-L Circuit With Ac Supply
Using Phasor Diagram

APPARATUS:
Sr.
Equipment Name Range Quantity
No.

THEORY:

Fig 3.1 Series R-L Circuit

Consider a Circuit Consisting of a Resistor of Resistance R ohms and a purely inductive coil of
inductance L in series as in the fig.
Let V = RMS value of applied voltage.
I = RMS value of current through circuit.

VR = I × R which is in phase with current I

VL = I × XL which is leading the current I by 90° as shown in fig
The total voltage V is the vector sum of VR and VL (Kirchhoff’s voltage law).
V = VR + j VL
= IR + j (I XL)

Magnitude of current

I = V/√(R^2+XL^2)
Page | 17
The quantity √(R^2+XL^2) is known as impedance of the circuit and is denoted by Z and
measured in ohms.

Z = √ (R^2+XL^2)

The current I lags the applied voltage by an angle ф given by tan ф = (XL)/R

POWER IN R-L CIRCUIT

V and I are expressed as V= 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
I = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅)

Power P is given by P = VI

P = Vm sin 𝑤𝑡 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅)

= Vm Im sin 𝑤𝑡 . sin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅)
V I
= m2 m [2sin 𝑤𝑡 . sin(𝑤𝑡 − ∅)]
Vm Im
= [cos ∅ . cos(2𝑤𝑡 − ∅)
2

Vm Im Vm Im
= cos ∅- cos(2𝑤𝑡 − ∅)
2 2

By putting various values of wt, we find that the average value of the variable power component
over a complete cycle is zero.
Thus, The average power over one complete cycle

Vm Im
= cos ∅
2
Vm Im
= cos ∅
√2 √2
= VI cos ∅

P = VI cos ∅

ACTIVE POWER/REAL POWER/TRUE POWER (P)

The real power consumed in any circuit. We know that in a purely inductive or capacitive
circuit, there is no power consumed and that power is consumed only in a resistive circuit. The
active power unit is watts.

S=
VI Q = VI Sin

P = VI Cos

Page | 18
The active power is given by
P = VI cos ∅
𝑅
= VI (𝑍 )

𝑉
= (𝑍 ) (I) (R)

P = I2 R

REACTIVE POWER/IMAGINARY POWER (Q)

The power drawn by the circuit due to the reactive components of the current is called reactive
power. The unit of reactive power is VAR (volt ampere reactive).Reactive power is given by
Q = VI sin ∅
X
= VI ( 𝑍L )

𝑉
= (𝑍 ) (I) (XL )

Q = (I2) (XL )

APPARENT POWER /COMPLEX POWER (S)

It is the product of the RMS values of the voltage and current. The apparent power unit is volt-
ampere. Apparent power is given by
S = V I = (IZ) (I)

S = I2 Z

POWER FACTOR (COS∅)

Z XL

Page | 19
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Page | 20
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Supplied Voltage Across R & L

Total Power
Sr. Voltage
Current I W VR VL
No. Vs
(A) (Watt) (Volts) (Volts)
(Volts)
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATION TABLE:

Phase Angle
Sr. R=VR / I XL=VL / I Z=(R2+XL2)1/2 Cos Φ =
Φ
No. (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms) R/Z
(Deg)
1.
2.
3.

CONCLUSION:

Page | 21
QUESTIONS:
Q: 1 What is power factor for a series RL circuit if R = ____ & L = _____.
Q: 2 If for an RL circuit Active power = ______ & apparent power is______ then what is the
value of Reactive power?
Q: 3 If for an RL circuit Active power = ______ & apparent power is______ then what is the
value of power factor?
Q: 4 Draw Phasor Diagram of Series R-L Circuit if R = _____ & L = _____.
Q: 5 If frequency increases what will happen to XL?

Page | 22
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 23
 EXPERIMENT NO. 4

AIM: To Obtain Inductance, Power And Power Factor Of The Series R-C Circuit With AC
Supply Using Phasor Diagram.

APPARATUS:

Sr.
Equipment Name Range Quantity
No.

THEORY:

R C

VR VC

Single Phase
AC Supply
Fig 4.1 Series R-C Circuit
The current I lead the applied voltage by .Instantaneous values are given by

V = Vm
I = Im
INSTANTANEOUS POWER IN R-C CIRCUIT
V and I are expressed as V=

I=
Power P is given by
P = Vi

P=
Page | 24
= .

= [2 . ]

= [ -

= -
AVERAGE POWER IN R-C CIRCUIT
By putting various values of wt, we find that the average value of the variable power component
over a complete cycle is zero.
Thus, The average power over one complete cycle

P = VI
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Page | 25
PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Supplied Voltage Across R &C
Total Power
Sr. Voltage
Current I W VR VC
No. Vs
(A) (Watt) (Volts) (Volts)
(Volts)

CALCULATION TABLE:
Phase
Sr. R=VR / I XC=VC / I Z=(R2+Xc2)1/2 CosΦ =
Angle Φ
No. (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms) R/Z
(Deg)

Page | 26
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q: 1. What is power factor for a series RL circuit if R = ____ & C = _____.
Q: 2 What is Inductive Reactance, Capacitive Reactance and Impedance?
Q: 3 If for an RC series circuit Active power = ______ &reactive power is______ then what is
the value of power factor?.
Q:4 Draw Phasor Diagram of Series R-L Circuit if R = _____ & C = _____. .
Q: 5 If frequency increases what will happen to XC?

Page | 27
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE
Page | 28
 EXPERIMENT NO. 5

AIM: To Obtain Inductance, Power And Power Factor Of The Series R-L-C Circuit With Ac
Supply Using Phasor Diagram.

APPARATUS:

Sr.
Equipment Name Range Quantity
No.

THEORY:

R L C

VR VL VC

~
Fig 5.1Series R-L-C Circuit
Consider Circuit Consisting of Resistor of Resistance R ohms and a pure inductance L Henry and
a pure capacitor of capacitance c farads in series as in the fig.

Page | 29
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Page | 30
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Supplied Voltage Across R, L, C
Total Power
Sr. Voltage
Current I W VR VL VC
No. Vs
(A) (Watt) (Volts) (Volts) (Volts)
(Volts)
1.
2.
3.

CALCULATION TABLE:
R=VR / L= C= XL=VL XC=VC Z= Cos Phase P = VI
Sr. /I /I Vs/I Φ= Angle Φ cos Φ
I (mH)
No. (Ohms) (Ohms) (Ohms) R/Z (Deg) (Watts)
(Ohms) (µF)
1.
2.
3.

CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q: 1 Draw Phasor Diagram of Series R-L-C Circuit when R =_____, L = _____ & C = _____.
Q: 2 Explain in Brief the Function of Variac, Voltmeter, Ammeter and Wattmeter?
Q: 3 What is the value of Impedance in R-L-C Series Circuit when R = _____. L = _____ & C
= _____?
Q: 4 What is Power factor in R-L-C Series Circuit when R = _____. L = _____ & C = _____?
Q: 5 Explain Power triangles for R-L-C Series Circuit?

Page | 31
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 32
 EXPERIMENT NO. 6

AIM: Verification of Superposition Theorem

APPARTUS:

Sr Equipment Name Range Quantity

No.

THEORY:

Superposition Theorem The total current in any part of a linear circuit equals the algebraic sum
of the currents produced by each source separately. To evaluate the separate currents to be
combined, replace all other voltage sources by short circuits and all other current sources by open
circuits.

Fig 6.1 Superposition Theorem

Suppose there are two voltage sources V1 and V2 acting simultaneously on the circuit. Because
of these two voltage sources, say current I flows through the resistance R.
Now replace V2 by short circuit, keeping V1 at its position and measure current through the
resistance, R. Say it is I1. Then replace, V1 by short circuit, reconnect V2 to its original position
and measure current through the same resistance R and say it is I2. Now if we add these two
currents, I1 and I2 we will get the current which is equal to the current - was actually flowing
through R, when both voltage sources V1 and V2 were acting on the circuit simultaneously. That
is I1 + I2 = I.

Page | 33
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Page | 34
OBSERVATION TABLE:
R1= R2= R3= R4= R5=

Current Current Current

through R5 through R5 through R5 I’=I1+I2
Sr. in Case 1 in Case 2 in Case 3 %Error
No I I1 I2 (Amp)
(Amp) (Amp) (Amp)

CALCULATIONS:

Page | 35
Page | 36
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q.1 State Superposition Theorem.
Q.2 Explain Importance of Superposition Theorem.
Q.3 Explain Merits and Demerits of Superposition Theorem
Q.4 Give Application of this theorem.

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SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 38
 EXPERIMENT-07

AIM: Verification of Thevenin and Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.

APPARATUS:

SR EQUIPMENT NAME RANGE QUANTITY

NO

THEORY:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:

Thevenin’s theorem can be stated as;“An active bilateral linear network containing energy
sources (generators) and impedances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a voltage
source (ETh or VTh) in series with an impedance (ZTh), where the ETh or VThis the open circuit
voltage between terminals of the network and ZThis the impedance measured between the
terminals of this network with all energy sources eliminated”. In other words, “when a particular
branch is removed from a circuit, the open circuit voltage appears across the terminals of the
circuit, is Thevenin’s equivalent voltage and the equivalent resistance of the circuit network
looking back into the terminal is Thevenin’s equivalent resistance”. If we replace the rest of the
circuit network by a single voltage source, then the voltage of the source would be Thevenin’s
equivalent voltage and internal resistance of the voltage source would be Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance which would be connected in series with the source as shown in the figure.

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:

The maximum power transfer theorem states that in a linear, bilateral DC network,
maximum power is delivered to the load when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance
of a source.

Page | 39
 Figure 7.1: Diagram for both thevenin and maximum power transfer theorem

The original two terminal circuits are replaced with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across the
variable load resistance. The current through the load for any value of load resistance is

Form the above expression the power delivered depends on the values of RTH and RL. However,
the Thevenin’s equivalent is constant; the power delivered from this equivalent source to the load
entirely depends on the load resistance RL. To find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation
to PL with respect to RL and equating it to zero as

Therefore, this is the condition of matching the load where the maximum power transfer occurs
when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s resistance of the circuit. By substituting the
RTH = RL we get,
The maximum power delivered to the load is,

Page | 40
Hence, the maximum power transfer theorem expresses the state at which maximum power is
delivered to the load, that is, when the load resistance is equal to the Thevenin’s equivalent
resistance of the circuit.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Page | 41
OBSERVATION TABLE:

R1= R2= R3= RL=

Supply Voltage Thevenin’s Voltage Thevenin’s
Sr.
V Vth Resistance
No.
(Volts) (Volts) Rth (ohm)

Supply Voltage Thevenin’s Voltage Thevenin’s Power

Sr.
V Vth Resistance W
No.
(Volts) (Volts) Rth (ohm) (Watts)

CALCULATIONS:

Page | 42
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q.1 State Thevenin’s Theorem.
Q.2 State Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Q.3 What are Vth and Rth?
Q.4 For the circuit given find Rth when R1 = ____, R2 = ____ & R3 = ____.
Q.5 What will be the value of Rth when maximum power is delivered to the load given that RL
= _____

Page | 43
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 44
 EXPERIMENT-08
AIM: Verification of Norton’s Theorem.

APPARTUS:

SR.
EQUIPMET NAME RANGE QUANTITY
NO.

THEORY:
NORTON’S THEOREM:

In Norton theorem, the network with different active sources is reduced to single current
source that's internal resistance is nothing but the looking back resistance, connected in parallel
to the derived source.

The looking back resistance of a network is the equivalent electrical resistance of the
network when someone looks back into the network from the terminals where said branch is
connected. During calculating this equivalent resistance, all sources are removed leaving their
internal resistances in the network. In Norton’s theorem, the branch of the network through which
we must find out the current, is removed from the network. After removing the branch, we short
circuit the terminals where the said branch was connected. Then we calculate the short circuit
current that flows between the terminals. This current is nothing but Norton equivalent current IN
of the source. The equivalent resistance between the said terminals with all sources removed
leaving their internal resistances in the circuit is calculated and said it is RN. Now we will form a
current source that's current is INA and internal shunt resistance is RNΩ.

Page | 45
 IL

Two
terminal RL IN RN RL
Network

Norton Equivalent Circuit

Fig 8.1 Diagram of Norton’s Theorem

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Page | 46
OBSERVATION TABLE:
R1= R2= R3= RL =
Supply Norton’s Norton’s Load Current
Sr. Voltage Current Resistance IL
No V IN RN (Amp)
(Volts) (Amp) (ohm)

CALCULATIONS:

CONCLUSION:

Page | 47
QUESTIONS:
Q.1 State Norton’s Theorem.
Q.2 State its necessity.
Q.3 Define Norton’s current and Norton’s Resistance.
Q.4 Give application of this theorem.
Q.5 Find RN for the given circuit when R1 = ____, R2 = ____ & R3 = ____..

Page | 48
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 49
 EXPERIMENT NO. 9

AIM: Verification of Transient RL Circuit and Obtain Time Constant.

APPARATUS:

SR.
EQUIPMENT NAME RANGE QUANTITY
NO.

THEORY:
RL SERIES CIRCUIT:

A RL Series Circuit consists basically of an inductor of inductance L connected in series

with a resistor of resistance R. The resistance R is the DC resistive value of the wire turns or loops
that goes into making up the inductors coil. Consider the LR series circuit below:

Switch
S
Voltage L
Source

Fig 9.1: Series RL Circuit

The above LR series circuit is connected across a constant voltage source, (the battery)
and a switch. Assume that the switch, S is open until it is closed at a time t = 0, and then remains
permanently closed producing a “step response” type voltage input. The current, i begins to flow
through the circuit but does not rise rapidly to its maximum value of Imax as determined by the
ratio of V / R (Ohms Law).

Page | 50
We can use Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL), to define the individual voltage drops that exist
around the circuit and then hopefully use it to give us an expression for the flow of current.

Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) gives us:

V(t) = V(r)+V(L)
The voltage drop across the resistor, R is IR (Ohm’s Law).
V(r) = I * R
The voltage drop across the inductor, L is by now our familiar expression
L = di/dt
V(L) = L*di/dt
Then the final expression for the individual voltage drops around the LR series circuit can be
given as:
V(t) = I * R + L*di/dt
We can see that the voltage drop across the resistor depends upon the current, i, while the voltage
drop across the inductor depends upon the rate of change of the current, di/dt. When the current
is equal to zero, ( i = 0 ) at time t = 0 the above expression, which is also a first order differential
equation, can be rewritten to give the value of the current at any instant of time as:

𝑅
𝑉
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑅 (1 − 𝑒 − 𝐿 𝑡 )A

When the supply is given, i.e. the switch in ON, the inductor starts charging as:

Current

Time
Fig 9.2: Charging of Inductor in Series RL Circuit

When the supply is not given, i.e. the switch in OFF, the inductor starts discharging as:

Page | 51
 Current

Time
Fig 9.3: Discharging of Inductor in Series RL Circuit.

The current through the inductor when supply is withdrawn is given by:

𝑉 − 𝑅𝑡
𝑖(𝑡) = (𝑒 𝐿 ) 𝐴
𝑅

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Page | 52
PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Supply Value of Value of Voltage Voltage

Sr. Voltage Resistor Inductor across R across L
No. V R L VR VL
(Volt) (Ohm) (H) (Volt) (Volt)

CALCULATIONS:

Page | 53
CONCLUSION:

Page | 54
Page | 55
QUESTIONS:
Q.1 Define series RL circuit.
Q.2 State Time Domain Specification Of Transient RL Circuit.
Q.3 Give application of series RL circuit.
Q.4 Explain transients in series RL circuit.
Q.5 For a series RL circuit find the time constant if R = _____ & L = _____.

Page | 56
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 57
 EXPERIMENT NO. 10

AIM: Verification of Current and Voltage Relations In Three Phase Balanced Star And Delta
Connected Loads.

APPARATUS:

Sr. No Equipment Name Range Quantity

THEORY:
Star Connection

Fig 10.1 Star Connection

VOLTAGES RELATIONSHIP IN STAR CONNECTION
Emf induced in each phase is called phase voltage available between the line and neutral terminals
denoted by ER, EY, EB In general it is expressed as EP the phase voltage. The voltage between
any two terminals is called the line voltage and denoted by ERY, EBR, ERB

Line voltage EL = VRY=OC = 2OB = 2 OA COS (30) = 2EP X √3/2

EL =√3EP
Hence in star connection Line Voltage =√𝟑 Phase voltage
Currents Relationship in Star Connection
Observing the star connection, it is seen that the current which passes through the phase the
same current pass through the line. Hence in star connection,

Line Current = Phase current

IL=IP

Page | 58
DELTA CONNECTION

Fig10.2 Delta Connection

VOLTAGES RELATIONSHIP IN DELTA CONNECTION
It can b seen that the line voltage and the phase voltage are same as the two line wires come out
from the phase terminal
Line voltage = Phase voltage
EL=EP
CURRENTS RELATIONSHIP IN STAR CONNECTION
In delta connection
Line Current = √3 Phase Current

PROCEDURE:
Star Connection

Page | 59
Delta Connection

OBSERVATION TABLE:

STAR CONNECTION
Line Phase Line Phase
Sr. Voltage Voltage Current Current
IL/IP VL/VP
No. VL VP IL IP
(Volts) (Volts) (A) (A)
1
2
3

DELTA CONNECTION
Line Phase Line Phase
Sr. Voltage Voltage Current Current
IL/IP VL/VP
No. VL VP IL IP
(Volts) (Volts) (A) (A)
1
2
3

Page | 60
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q: 1 For a 3-phase star network find the value of line voltage if VRN = _____
Q: 2 Distinguish the Configurations of Star And Delta Connections.
Q: 3 What is Phase Sequence?
Q: 4 For a 3-phase delta network find the value of phase current if _____A is flowing through
each line.
Q: 5What is the Phase difference?

Page | 61
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE
Page | 62
 EXPERIMENT NO. 11

AIM: To Study The Cut-Section of a DC Machine, Single Phase Induction Machine and Three
Phase Induction Machine.

THEORY:

PRACTICAL GENERATOR:

DC Machine:

The simple loop generator has been considered in detail merely to bring out the basic principle
underlying construction and working of an actual generator illustrated in Fig. 1 which consists of
the following essential parts:

1. Magnetic Frame or Yoke 2. Pole-Cores and Pole-Shoes

3. Pole Coils or Field Coils 4. Armature Core

5. Armature Windings or Conductors 6. Commutator

7. Brushes and Bearings

Of these, the yoke, the pole cores, the armature core and air gaps between the poles and the
Armature core or the magnetic circuit whereas the rest form the electrical circuit.

Fig. 11.1: Components of D.C. machine

Page | 63
1. Yoke

The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose:

(i) It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole
machine and

(ii)It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes are made
of cast iron. But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed. The modern
process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical mandrel and then
welding it at the bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc. are welded to the frame afterwards.
Such yokes possess sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.

Fig11.2 Yoke

2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes.

(i) They spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the
reluctance of the magnetic path. (ii)They support the exciting coils (or field coils).

There are two main types of pole construction.

(a)The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either cast iron or cast steel but the pole
shoe is laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of counter sunk screws as shown in
Fig. 3.

Page | 64
(b)In modem design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations of
annealed steel which are riveted together under hydraulic pressure (Fig. 4). The thickness of
laminations varies from 1mmto 0.25 mm. The laminated poles may be secured to the yoke in any
of the following two ways:

(i)Either the pole is secured to the yoke by means of screws bolted through the yoke and into the
pole body or

(ii)The holding screws are bolted into a steel bar which passes through the pole across the plane
of laminations (Fig. 5).

Fig.-11.3 Fig.-11.4

Page | 65
 Fig. - 11.5 Fig.-11.6

3. Pole Coils

The field coils or pole coils, which consist of copper wire or strip, are former-wound for the
correct dimension (Fig. 6). Then, the former is removed and wound coil is put into place ver the
core as shown in Fig. 7. When current is passed through these coils, they electro magnetize the
poles which produce the necessary flux that is cut by revolving armature conductors.

4. Armature Core

It houses the armature conductors or coils and causes them to rotate and hence cut the magnetic
flux of the field magnets. In addition to this, its most important function is to provide a path of
very low reluctance to the flux through the armature from an N-pole to as-pole. It is cylindrical
or drum-shaped and is built up of usually circular sheet steel discs or laminations
approximately0.5 mm thick (Fig. 8). It is keyed to the shaft. The slots are either die-cut or punched
on the outer periphery of the disc and the keyway is located on the inner diameter as shown. In
small machines, the armature stampings are keyed directly to the shaft. Usually, these laminations
are perforated for air ducts which permit axial flow of air through the armature for cooling
purposes. Such ventilating channels are clearly visible in the laminations shown in Fig. 9 and Fig.
10.
Page | 66
Up to armature diameters of about one meter, the circular stampings are cut out in one piece as
shown in Fig.9. But above this size, these circles, especially of such thin sections, are difficult to
handle because they tend to distort and become wavy when assembled together. Hence, the
circular laminations, instead of being cut out in one piece, are cut in a number of suitable sections
or segment switch form part of a complete ring (Fig. 10).

Fig.-11.7 Fig.-11.8

Fig.-11.9 Fig.-11.10

A complete circular lamination is made up of four or six or even eight segmental laminations.
Usually, two keyways are notched in each segment and are dove-tailed or wedge-shaped to make
the laminations self-locking in position. The purpose of using laminations is to reduce the loss
due to eddy currents. Thinner the laminations, greater is the resistance offered to the induced
E.M.F., smaller the current and hence lesser the I2R loss in the core.

Page | 67
 Fig.-11.11

5. Armature Windings

The armature windings are usually former-wound. Fig.10.These are first wound in the form of
flat rectangular coils and are then pulled into their proper shape in a coil puller. Various
conductors of the coils are insulated from each other. The conductors are placed in the armature
slots which are lined with tough insulating material. This slot insulation is folded over above the
armature conductors placed in the slot and is secured in place by special hard wooden or fiber
wedges.

6. Commutator

The function of the commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors.
It rectified i.e. converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into
unidirectional current in the external load circuit. It is of cylindrical structure and is built up of
wedge-shaped segments of high-conductivity hard-drawn or drop forged copper. These segments
are insulated from each other by thin layers of mica. The number of segments is equal to the
number of armature coils. Each commutator segment is connected to the armature conductor by
means of a copper lug or strip (or riser). To prevent them from flying out under the action of
centrifugal forces, the segments have V-grooves, these grooves being insulated by conical rings.
A sectional view of commutator is shown in Fig. 11 whose general appearance when completed
is shown in Fig. 12.

7. Brushes and Bearings

Page | 68
The brushes, whose function is to collect current from commutator, are usually made of carbon
or graphite and are in the shape of a rectangular block. These brushes are housed in

Fig.-11.12 Fig.-11.13

Brush-holders usually of the box-type variety. As shown in Fig. 13, the brush-holder is mounted
on a spindle and the brushes can slide in the rectangular box open at both ends. The brushes are
made to bear down on the commutator by a spring whose tension can be adjusted by changing the
position of lever in the notches. A flexible copper pigtail mounted at the top of the brush conveys
current from the brushes to the holder. The number of brushes per spindle depends on the
magnitude of the current to be collected from the commutator.

Because of their reliability, ball-bearings are frequently employed, though for heavy duties, roller
bearings are preferable. The ball and rollers are generally packed in hard oil for quieter operation
and for reduced bearing wear, sleeve bearings are used which are lubricated by ring oilers fed
from oil reservoir in the bearing bracket.

Page | 69
 Fig.-11.14

Single Phase Induction Motor:

An induction motor is a type of electric motor that converts electric power into rotary motion. An
induction motor uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to cause the rotor to turn. The
induction motor was created and patented by Nikola Tesla in 1888. Electric current is supplied to
the stator, which induces a magnetic field that rotates. The rotating magnetic field interacts with
the rotor, inducing current in the rotor. The interaction of the two magnetic fields results in a
torque, turning the rotor within the motor casing. Because the induction motor does not use
brushes like DC motors, there is less wear of the internal parts.

The main components of the Single Phase induction motor are stator and rotor. Stator is known
to be the stationary part. Usually, the single phase alternating supply is given to the stator winding.
Rotor is the rotating part of the motor. Rotor is connected to the mechanical load with the help of
a shaft. A squirrel cage rotor is used here. It has a laminated iron core with many slots. Rotor
slots are closed or semi-closed type. The rotor windings are symmetrical and at the same type it
Page | 70
is short circuited. An air gap is there between the rotor and the stator. The most practical
applications of this motor are in refrigerators, clocks, drills, pumps, washing machines etc. The
stator winding in the 1Ø induction motor has two parts: Main Winding and Auxiliary Winding.
Usually, the Auxiliary winding is perpendicular to the main winding. In 1Ø induction motor the
winding with more turns is known as main winding; while the other wire is called as auxiliary
winding.

Induction Motor Parts:

1. Stator
i) Outer frame: It is the outer body of the Motor.
ii) Stator Core: Built Up of high grade silicon steel. Carries the alternating magnetic
field
iii) Stator winding

2. Rotor : In case of three phase rotor have two parts

i) Squirrel cage
ii) Slip ring

Fig-11.15

STATOR:

The stator is the stationary portion of the motor and delivers a rotating magnetic field to interact
with the rotor. One or more copper windings make up a "pole" within the stator, and there is
always an even number of poles within a motor. The electric current alternates through the poles,
resulting in a rotating magnetic field

Page | 71
 .

Fig-11.16

ROTOR:
The rotor is the central component of the motor, and is fixed to the shaft. The rotor is generally
constructed of copper or aluminum strips attached at each end to a circular fixture. This
configuration is called a "squirrel cage rotor" because of its appearance. The magnetic field
generated by the stator induces a current in the rotor, which then creates its own magnetic field.
The interaction of the magnetic fields in the stator and rotor results in a mechanical torque of the
rotor. In some induction motors, the copper bars are replaced with slip rings and copper windings
that behave in the same way.
Squirrel Cage rotor: A squirrel-cage rotor is the rotating part of the common squirrel-
cage induction motor. It consists of a cylinder of steel laminations, with aluminium or copper
conductors embedded in its surface. In operation, the non-rotating stator winding is connected to
an alternating current power source; the alternating current in the stator produces a rotating
magnetic field. The rotor winding has current induced in it by the stator field, and produces its
own magnetic field. The interaction of the two sources of magnetic field produce torque on the
rotor.

Fig 11.17

Slip Ring rotor: A wound-rotor motor is a type of induction motor where the rotor windings are
connected through slip rings to external resistance. Adjusting the resistance allows control of the
speed/torque characteristic of the motor.
Page | 72
 Fig 11.18

CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q.1 What is working principle of induction motor?
Q.2 What is working principle of DC motor?
Q.3 Explain squirrel cage rotor.
Q.4 Explain slip ring rotor.
Q.5 Explain function of yoke.

Page | 73
Page | 74
 SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

EXPERIMENT NO. 12

AIM: Find out The Efficiency and Voltage Regulation of Single Phase Transformer by Direct
Load Test.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

TRANSFORMER
Phase
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
Capacity in KVA

APPARATUS:

SR NO EQUIPMENT NAME RANGE QUANTITY

THEORY:

A transformer is a static piece of apparatus by means of which electric power in one circuit is
transform into electric power of same frequency in another circuit. The physical basic of a
transformer is a mutual induction between two circuit links by a common magnetic flux.
Transformer on No Load:
When an actual transformer is put on no load their iron loss in core and copper loss in windings
occurs and these losses are entirely negligible. The primary input current under no load condition
has to supply; iron losses in the core.
a) Hysteresis loss.
b) Eddy current loss.
And there is very small amount of copper loss in primary.Hence no load input current (I1) lags
behind voltage (V1) by an angle 0<90.
Therefore, W0=V1I1 cos0
Where, cos0 is primary power factor under no load conditions.
Transformer on Load:
When a secondary load is setup, secondary current I2 is setup in secondary. Magnitude and phase
of I2 with respect to V2 is determine by the characteristics of the load Current I2 which is in phase
with V2, if load is purely resistive whereas it lags if load is inductive and it leads, if load is
capacitive. Secondary current sets its own MMF = (N2*I2) and hence its own flux 2 which

Page | 75
opposes main flux 0 momentarily. Hence back EMF (E) tends to be reduced. Let additional
Current I2’ (Load component of current) which is in anti-phase with I2 is flowing in the primary.
The additional MMF=N1*I2’ sets up its own flux 2’ which is in opposition to 2and is equal to it
in magnitude so 2’ and 2 are neutralized. It is deduce that the net flux through the core is appear
same as at no-load.
If 2= 2’;
N2*I2=N1*I2'
I2'= (N2/Nl)*I2
= KI2

Voltage Regulation:
With the increase in load on the transformer, there is a change in its terminal voltage. The voltage
falls if the load power factor is lagging. It increases if the power factor is leading. The change in
secondary terminal voltage from full-load to no load, expressed as a percentage of full-load
voltage is called the percentage voltage regulation of the transformer. ((VNL-VL)/VNL)* 100

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Page | 76
PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

Primary Primary Primary Secondary Secondary Secondary

Sr.
Voltage Current Power Loss Voltage Current Power Loss
No.
(V1)Volt (I1)amp (W1) watt (V2)Volt (I2) amp (W2) watt
1
2
3
4
5

RESULT TABLE:

Primary Primary Secondary Secondary 𝑾 % Voltage

Sr. %η = 𝑾𝟐 × Regulation =
Voltage Power Loss Voltage Power Loss 𝟏
No. 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝑽𝑵𝑳 −𝑽𝑳
(V1)Volt (W1) watt (V2)Volt (W2) watt × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑽𝑳
1
2
3
4
5

Page | 77
CONCLUSION:

QUESTIONS:
Q.1 Describe the significance of all the items mentioned on the name plate of single phase
transformer.
Q.2 What current flows in the transformer when it’s secondary is open?
Q.3 Find the regulation of transformer if the difference of no load to full load voltage is 20V
where VFL = _____
Q.4 State different types of losses occur in transformer.
Q5. What will be the efficiency for a primary power loss of ____ Watt when W2 is doubled?

Page | 78
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 79
 EXPERIMENT NO. 13

AIM: Perform Break Test of DC Shunt Motor.

NAME PLATE DETAILS:

DC MOTOR
Power
Rated Voltage
Armature Current
Field voltage
Field current
Speed
Wound

APPARATUS:

SR NO EQUIPMENT NAME RANGE QUANTITY

THEORY:
The speed of any DC motor depends directly on its armature voltage and the strength of its
magnetic field. The field winding in a shunt motor is in parallel with the armature winding and
the DC supply. If the DC line voltage is constant, the armature voltage will be constant and thus
the magnetic field strength will be constant. This consistency leads to a reasonably constant speed
of operation.
The speed does tend to drop with increasing load on the motor. This drop in speed is a result of
resistive losses in the armature winding. Shunt motors with low armature winding resistance tend
to have nearly constant speed of operation.
As with any energy conversion device, the DC shunt motor is not 100% efficient. Not all of the
electric energy supplied to the motor is converted into useful work (mechanical power). The
difference between electrical power supplied and mechanical power available at the shaft is lost
in the form of heat inside the motor. Losses occur in the DC resistance of the field and armature
windings, in the magnetic circuit that couples field and armature windings, in the friction and
windage of the rotating armature and in the resistance of the brush contacts on the commutator.

Page | 80
Losses increase as the load on the motor increases, resulting in significant heating of the motor at
full load.
To determine directly the efficiency of comparatively small motors, the motor is loaded directly
by means of a mechanical load. Arrangement for measuring motor output is by the use of drum
brake as shown in figure1.
A rope is wound round the pulley and its two ends are attached to two spring balances S1 and S2.
The tension of the rope can be adjusted with the help of swivels.The force acting tangentially on
the pulley is equal to the difference between the readings of the two spring balances.
If R is the pulley radius, the torque at the pulley is
Tsh = 9.81 × (S1 - S2) × R N - m
If ω (=2πN) is the angular velocity of the pulley, then
Motor output = Tsh ×ω =9.81×2πN (S1 - S2) ×R watt.
= 61.68 ×N × (S1 - S2) ×R watt.
The motor input = V I
Efficiency found by using the relation output/input.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Page | 81
PROCEDURE:

OBSERVATIONTABLE:

Armature current = Ia = IL - If

Rated Line Field Armature Spring Balance

Sr. Speed
Voltage(V) Current(IL) Current Current Reading
No. (N) rpm
Volt Amp (If) Amp (Ia) Amp S1 kg S2 kg
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Page | 82
Observation for Armature Resistance Ra:

𝑽
Sr. Voltmeter Reading Armature Resistance = Average
No. (V) Reading (I) 𝑰 Resistance (Ra)
ohm
1
2
3
4
5

Calculation (Sample calculation for one reading):

R = Radius of the drum = ______________ meter

Tsh = 9.81 × (S1 - S2) × R = ________________ N - m
Motor output = Tsh ×ω = 61.68 ×N × (S1 - S2) ×R = _____________________ watt
Motor input = VIL = _______________ watt
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = × 100 = __________ %
𝑀𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
RESULT TABLE:

Rated Line Shaft Output

Sr. Input Power Efficiency
Voltage (V) Current (IL) Torque Power (Po)
No. (Pin) watt %
Volt Amp Tsh N-m watt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

CONCLUSION:

Page | 83
QUESTIONS:

Q.1 What is purpose of performing Brake test?

Q.2 List out advantages & disadvantages of Brake test?

Q.3 Can brake test be performed on DC series motor? Justify your answer.

Q.4 Find the efficiency of a motor rated _____ HP whose input power is _____ Watt.

Q.5 What will be the motor output when S1 =______ & S2 = ______ for the above specified
data.

Page | 84
SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

Page | 85
 EXPERIMENT NO: 14

AIM: Perform A 1 – Ф Full Bridge Inverter.

APPARATUS:

SR NO EQUIPMENT NAME RANGE QUANTITY

THEORY:

Fig.1 1-Ø single phase full bridge

Single-phase full bridge consists of four SCRs & four diodes as shown in the figure. The output
of voltage amplitude is doubled whereas output power is four times in this inverter. Here when
T1, T2 conducts, load voltage is Vs & when T3, T4 conduct it is –Vs. Frequency can be controlled
by turned-off. As the energy is fed back to the dc source. When these diodes conduct, these are
called feedback diodes.
STEADY STATE ANALYSIS OF SINGLE PHASE INVERTER:
From the waveforms, we can reveal that voltage does not depend on the nature of load. The load
voltage is given by,

Vo = Vs/2 -------------------------- 0 < t < T/2

= -Vs/2 --------------------------T/2 < t < T [half bridge]
Vo = Vs --------------------------- 0 < t < T/2
= -Vs --------------------------- T/2 < t < T [full bridge]
The load current is dependent on the load. Let the load be RLC as shown in the diagram. In such
circuits, the load current would finally settle down to steady state conditions & would vary
periodically shown in the diagram.
io = +/- Io ---------------- at t = 0, T, 2T, 3T………..
Page | 86
 io = +/- Io --------------- at t = T/2, 3T/2, 5T/2 ………….
The voltage equation for circuit model for half bridge inverter & for 0 < t < T/2 is given by,
Vs/2 = Rio + L dio/dt + 1/C  io dt + Vc1 (1)
For full bridge replace Vs/2 with Vs.
Vc1 = initial voltage across capacitor at t = 0.
For T/2 < t < T or 0 < t’ < T/2, the voltage equation is
-Vs/2 = Rio + L dio/dt + 1/ C  i dt’ + Vc2 (2)
For full bridge inverter, -Vs/2 is replaced by –Vs. Vc2 = initial voltage across capacitor at t = 0.
Differentiating equation (1) & (2),
d^2io/dt^2 + R/L dio/dt + 1/LC io = 0
d^2io/dt’^2 + R/L dio/dt’ + 1/LC io = 0
The nature of current waveforms is: R- load: io waveform is identical with load voltage Vo &
diodes D1 – D4 do not come into conduction.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

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CONCLUSION:

QUESTION:
Q.1 What is the output of full bridge inverter if input is vs?
Q.2 In case of Resistive load output voltage and current is same?
Q.3 What is the voltage across resistive load in full bridge inverter?
Q.4 Which commutation is used for full bridge inverter?
Q.5 How many switches are used for full bridge inverter?

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SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE

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