Class Pesentation

Lecture
Electronic Devices & Circuits (EE-2233)
*: This complete document is an excerpt/selection from various books and other sources. The author of this document doesn’t claim any rights to
the topics discussed in this document. The topics have been presented in a way to help out the students of DHA Suffa University, Karachi, Pakistan.
EE-2233 Electronic Devices & Circuits – Fall 2019 Engr. Muhammad Owais
A very Important Message!
2
EE-2233 Electronic Devices & Circuits – Fall 2019 https://goo.gl/images/DYALH1 Engr. Muhammad Owais
The PN Junction
• When you take a block of silicon and dope part of it with a trivalent impurity and the other
part with a pentavalent impurity, a boundary called the pn junction is formed between the
resulting p-type and n-type portions.
• The pn junction is the basis for diodes, certain transistors, solar cells, and other devices.
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The PN Junction
• If a piece of intrinsic silicon is doped so that part is n-type and the other part is p-type, a pn
junction forms at the boundary between the two regions and a diode is created.
• The p region has many holes (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few
thermally generated free electrons (minority carriers).
• The n region has many free electrons (majority carriers) from the impurity atoms and only a few
thermally generated holes (minority carriers).
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The PN Junction
• The free electrons in the n region are randomly drifting in all directions.
• At the instant of the pn junction formation, the free electrons near the junction in the n region
begin to diffuse across the junction into the p region where they combine with holes near the
junction
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The PN Junction
• When pn junction is formed, the n region loses free electrons as they diffuse across the junction.
This creates a layer of positive charges near the junction.
• As the electrons move across the junction, the p region loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine. This creates a layer of negative charges near the junction.
• These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region
• The term depletion refers to the fact that the region near the pn junction is depleted of charge
carriers (electrons and holes) due to diffusion across the junction.
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The PN Junction
• As electrons continue to diffuse across the junction, more and more positive and negative
charges are created near the junction as the depletion region is formed.
• A point is reached where the total negative charge in the depletion region repels any further
diffusion of electrons into the p region (like charges repel) and the diffusion stops.
• After the initial surge of free electrons across the pn junction, the depletion region has expanded
to a point where equilibrium is established and there is no further diffusion of electrons across
the junction.
• The depletion region acts as a barrier to the further movement of electrons across the junction.
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Barrier Potential
• External energy must be applied to get the electrons to move across the barrier of the electric
field in the depletion region.
• The potential difference of the electric field across the depletion region is the amount of voltage
required to move electrons through the electric field.
• This potential difference is called the barrier potential and is expressed in volts.
• A certain amount of voltage equal to the barrier potential and with proper polarity must be
applied across a pn junction before electrons will begin to flow across the junction.
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Barrier Potential
• The barrier potential of a pn junction depends on several factors, including the type of
semiconductive material, the amount of doping, and the temperature.
• The typical barrier potential is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium at 25oC
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The Diode
• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material in which half is doped as a p
region and half is doped as an n region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.
• The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal.
• The n region is called the cathode and is connected to a second conductive terminal.
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The Diode
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Forward Biasing
• To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.
• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn junction.
• Figure shows a dc voltage source connected by conductive material (contacts and wire) across a
diode in the direction to produce forward bias.
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Forward Biasing
• This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS.
• The resistor limits the forward current to a value that will not damage the diode.
• The negative side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the positive side is
connected to the p region. This is one requirement for forward bias.
• A second requirement is that the bias voltage, VBIAS , must be greater than the barrier potential.
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Forward Biasing
• Because like charges repel, the negative side of the bias voltage source pushes the free
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, toward the pn junction.
• This flow of free electrons is called electron current.
• The negative side of the source also provides a continuous flow of electrons through the
external connection and into the n region as shown below.
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Forward Biasing
• The bias-voltage source imparts sufficient energy to the free electrons for them to overcome the
barrier potential of the depletion region and move on through into the p region.
• Once in the p region, these conduction electrons have lost enough energy to immediately combine
with holes in the valence band
• Now, the electrons are in the valence band in the p region, simply because they have lost too much
energy overcoming the barrier potential to remain in the conduction band.
• Since unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source attracts the valence
electrons toward the left end of the p region.
• The holes in p region provide the medium for these valence electrons to move through p region.
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Forward Biasing
• The valence electrons move from one hole to the next toward the left.
• The holes, which are the majority carriers in the p region, effectively (not actually) move to
the right toward the junction as shown below.
• This effective flow of holes is the hole current.
• The hole current can be realized as being created by the flow of valence electrons through the
p region, with the holes providing the only means for these electrons to flow.
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The Effect of Forward Bias on the Depletion Region
• As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the number of positive ions is reduced.
• As more holes effectively flow into the depletion region on the other side of the pn junction,
the number of negative ions is reduced.
• This reduction in positive and negative ions during forward bias causes the depletion region to
narrow, as indicated in Figure.
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Reverse Biasing
• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current through the diode.
• The positive side of VBIAS is connected to the n region of the diode and the negative side is connected
to the p region.
• Also note that the depletion region is shown much wider than in forward bias or equilibrium.
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Reverse Biasing
• Because unlike charges attract, the positive side of the bias-voltage source “pulls” the free
electrons, which are the majority carriers in the n region, away from the pn junction.
• As the electrons flow toward the positive side of the voltage source, additional positive ions
are created.
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers.
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Reverse Biasing
• In the p region, electrons from the negative side of the voltage source enter as valence
electrons and move from hole to hole toward the depletion region where they create additional
negative ions.
• This results in a widening of the depletion region and a depletion of majority carriers. The
flow of valence electrons can be viewed as holes being “pulled” toward the positive side.
• As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases.
• As more of the n and p regions become depleted of majority carriers, the electric field
between the positive and negative ions increases in strength until the potential across the
depletion region equals the bias voltage, VBIAS.
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Reverse Current ( Negligible )
• A very small current flows in reverse direction due to the thermally generated electron hole
pairs in the two regions.
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Reverse Current
• The small number of free minority electrons in the p region are pushed toward the pn junction
by the negative bias voltage.
• When these electrons reach the wide depletion region, they “fall down the energy hill” and
combine with the minority holes in the n region as valence electrons and flow toward the
positive bias voltage, creating a small hole current.
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Reverse Breakdown
• However, if the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a value called the breakdown
voltage, the reverse current will drastically increase.
• An effect called avalanche effect is noted at higher reverse voltage in which the
multiplication of conduction electrons occur.
• A very high current then flows through the device in reverse direction . This condition is
prevented for normal diodes.
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Bias Connection – Conventional Current Flow
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Diode V-I Characteristics
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Temperature Effect
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The Ideal Diode – Current Voltage Characteristics
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The Ideal Diode – Current Voltage Characteristics
An ideal diode has zero current when operated in the reverse direction and is said to be cut
off, or simply off.
The ideal diode behaves as a short circuit in the forward direction, it passes
any current with zero voltage drop.
A forward-biased diode is said to be turned on, or simply on.
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A Simple Application: The Rectifier
A fundamental application of the diode, one that makes use of its severely nonlinear i–v
curve, is the rectifier circuit
Let the input voltage vI be the sinusoid shown below
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During the positive half-cycles of the input sinusoid, the positive vI will cause current to
flow through the diode in its forward direction. It follows that the diode voltage vD will be
very small—ideally zero.
Thus the circuit will have the equivalent shown below:
The output voltage vO will be equal to the input voltage vI.
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During the negative half-cycles of vI , the diode will not conduct. Thus the circuit
will have the equivalent shown below and vO will be zero
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Note that while vI alternates in polarity and has a zero average value, vO is unidirectional
and has a finite average value or a dc component
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Exercises
Home Task
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Another Application: Diode Logic Gates
Diodes together with resistors can be used to implement digital logic functions
To see how these circuits function, consider a positive-logic system in which voltage
values close to 0 V correspond to logic 0 (or low) and voltage values close to +5 V
correspond to logic 1 (or high).
Home Task
35
Simple Diode Circuits
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Home Task
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Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
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Terminal Characteristics of Junction Diodes
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The Forward-Bias Region
In the forward region the i–v relationship is closely approximated by
IS is usually called the saturation current
Another name for IS is the scale current. It is directly proportional to the cross-
sectional area of the diode.
Thus doubling of the junction area results in a diode with double the value of IS and, as
per the above equation, double the value of current i for a given forward voltage v.
IS is on the order of 10−15 A. The value of IS is, however, a very strong function of
temperature.
As a rule of thumb, IS doubles in value for every 5°C rise in temperature
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The voltage VT is a constant called the thermal voltage
The voltage VT will be taken as 25 mV under normal conditions.
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For appreciable current i in the forward direction, specifically for i >> IS
This equation simply states that for a decade (factor of 10) change in current, the diode
voltage drop changes by 2.3VT , which is approximately 60 mV.
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Since both IS and VT are functions of temperature, the forward i–v characteristic varies
with temperature
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The Reverse-Bias Region
That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to IS. This constancy
is the reason behind the term saturation current.
A rule of thumb for the temperature dependence of the reverse current is that it
doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
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The Breakdown Region
• The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage
exceeds a threshold value that is specific to the particular diode, called the
breakdown voltage.
• This is the voltage at the “knee” of the i–v curve and is denoted VZK
• In the breakdown region the reverse current increases rapidly, with the associated
increase in voltage drop being very small.
• Diode breakdown is normally not destructive, provided the power dissipated in the
diode is limited by external circuitry to a “safe” level.
• This safe value is normally specified on the device data sheets.
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Modelling the Diode Forward Characteristics
Reading Assignment
(7th Edition)
• 4.3.1
• 4.3.2
• 4.3.3
• 4.3.4
• 4.3.5
• 4.3.6
• 4.3.7
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References
[1] Sedra/Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 7th Edition, Oxford University Press
[2] Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 9th Edition, Prentice Hall
[3] http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode-clipping-circuits.html
*: This complete document is an excerpt/selection from the books referred above. The author of this document doesn’t claim any rights to the
topics discussed in this document. The topics have been presented in a way to help out the students of DHA Suffa University, Karachi, Pakistan.
52

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Lecture

Electronic Devices & Circuits (EE-2233)

• The p region is called the anode and is connected to a conductive terminal.

• To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.

• This external bias voltage is designated as VBIAS.

• This flow of free electrons is called electron current.

• This effective flow of holes is the hole current.

• As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority carriers decreases.

A forward-biased diode is said to be turned on, or simply on.

Let the input voltage vI be the sinusoid shown below

Thus the circuit will have the equivalent shown below:

The output voltage vO will be equal to the input voltage vI.

IS is usually called the saturation current

As a rule of thumb, IS doubles in value for every 5°C rise in temperature

The voltage VT will be taken as 25 mV under normal conditions.

• This safe value is normally specified on the device data sheets.

[1] Sedra/Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 7th Edition, Oxford University Press

[2] Thomas L. Floyd Electronic Devices, 9th Edition, Prentice Hall

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