PN Junction Diode

A p–n junction is a junction formed by joining p-type and n-type semiconductors together in
very close contact.
The PN junction is not constructed by adding two separate p- type and n- type materials
because this will reduce the contact area between the two surfaces due to imperfections,
grain boundaries etc.

Three Main methods of forming PN

Junction are

➢ Ion implantation
➢ Diffusion of dopants
➢ Epitaxial method.
Formation of the depletion region.
When the n-type semiconductor and p-type semiconductor materials are first joined together,
a very large density gradient exists between both sides of the pn junction.
This results in the free electrons from the donor impurity atoms to migrate across the junction
to fill up the holes in the p-type material producing negative ions and vice versa.
This charge transfer of electrons and holes across the pn junction is known as diffusion.

This will result in positively charged donor ions (ND) on the n-side and negatively charged
acceptor ions (NA) on the p- side.

This process continues until a point is reached where the negative charged accepter ions
repels any further diffusion of electrons and vice versa.
These two layers of positive and negative charges form the depletion region, as the region
near the junction is depleted of charge
The electric field formed in the depletion region acts as a barrier.
The potential difference required to move the electrons through the electric field is called the
barrier potential.

Barrier potential depends on the type of semiconductor material, amount of doping and
temperature. This is approximately 0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium.
The Energy Level Diagram of a PN junction

As diffusion occur, the depletion region forms and the energy level of the n-region conduction
band drops, causing alignment of the Fermi level. At this point the energy bands are at
equilibrium.

There is an energy gradient across the depletion region so that a n-region electron must climb
to get in to the p-region.
Biasing the PN Junction – FORWARD BIAS

P-Side of the diode is connected to a positive supply and the N-Type to a negative supply.

Electrons gains energy to overcome the barrier potential and move into the p-region

Depletion region become narrow

Barrier potential is about 0.7 V for Si, 0.3 V for Ge

Biasing the PN Junction – Reverse Bias

Positive voltage is applied to the n-side and a negative voltage is applied to the p-side of
semiconductor.

Reverse bias potential attracts the majority carriers away from the pn junction, widening the
depletion region

Reverse current can flow through the pn junction due to minority carriers
I-V Characteristics of a PN junction diode
I-V Characteristics of a PN junction diode
Forward bias

Electrons will acquire the energy and cross the pn junction resulting the
current
Forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts
increasing rapidly is called the knee voltage or cut-off voltage

Reverse bias
Majority carriers drift away from the junction hence no current is resulted
due to majority carriers.

A small current is produced due to minority charge carriers.

When reverse bias voltage exceeds certain voltage, a sharp increase in the
reverse current is observed. This voltage is known as breakdown voltage.
Zener breakdown
Occurs in heavily doped p-n junction diode
Heavy doping narrower the depletion layer (about 100 A0).
Results in large electric field (108 Vm-1) even for small reverse voltage.
Electric field breaks the covalent bonds and produces electron hole pairs.
Zener breakdown occurs in the diodes with the breakdown voltage lessthan 6V.
The Zener breakdown voltage decreases with increase in temperature. This is due to
increase in the temperature, increases the energy of valance electrons hence less field is
enough to break the covalent bond.
Avalanche breakdown.
This occurs for high reverse voltages. Due to high reverse voltage, the minority carriers
get high kinetic energy.
They collide with the valence electrons of the atoms and break the covalent bonds creating
new electron hole pairs.
The newly generated electron hole pairs will generate further electron hole pairs. In this way
large electron hole pairs will be created which result in sharp increase in reverse current.
This mechanism occurs to the diodes where the breakdown voltage is more than 6V.

The avalanche breakdown voltage increases with increase in temperature because, the
increase in the temperature increases the collisions of electron with lattice resulting the loss of
electron energy.
PN Junction diode equation:
PN Junction diode equation:

𝒆𝑽
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆𝒙𝒑 −𝟏
𝜷𝑲𝑻

I0 is the reverse saturation current

𝛽 is numerical constant and depends upon the diode material. For Ge 𝛽 = 1 and for Si 𝛽 = 2
ZENER DIODE
It is a heavily doped pn junction diode that is designed to
operate under reverse biasing conditions
It is properties will be same as any other normal diode under the forward bias conditions.
When operated under reverse bias conditions, it will allow the current beyond certain
voltage called as zener voltage

Working of a zener diode.

Due to heavy doping, the depletion layer of the zener diode is narrow. This will result in a
large electric field across the depletion layer even for a small increase in the reverse voltage.

When the applied reverse bias voltage increases slowly, till up to a certain voltage, its
characteristics are same as any normal diode, but when the reverse voltage reaches a
characteristic value (called as zener voltage) electric field in the depletion will increases
rapidly and the valence electrons get sufficient energy to break the covalent bonds and
become free electrons.

APPLICATIONS OF ZENER DIODE

1) Used to regulate the voltage.
2) Helps in over-voltage protection
3) Used in clipping circuits
Radiative and Non-Radiative recombination
Radiative and Non-Radiative recombination
Depending upon the crystal momentum of conduction band and valance
band, the semiconductors can be classified into two categories.
➢ Direct Band Semiconductors
➢ Indirect Bandgap type of semiconductor

Direct band gap Semiconductor

In these semiconductors, the maximum of the valence band and minimum
of the conduction band will have the same value of crystal momentum.
This will result in direct recombination of electron and hole and the
energy is liberated in the form of photon.
This kind of transition is called radiative transition
Ex: GaAs, InP, CdS etc.
Indirect band gap Semiconductor
In these semiconductors, the maximum of valence band and minimum of
conduction band occur for different values of crystal momentum (k)
In these semiconductors the energy is liberated in the form of heat.
This kind of transition is called non radiative transition
Ex: Si, Ge etc.
Light emitting diode:

Spontaneous Emission
Principle:
Emits radiation in ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions.
Construction
➢ An n-type material is grown on a substrate and p-type is deposited on it by
diffusion.
➢ As recombination takes in p-type, it is kept uppermost.
➢ The metal anode connection is made on outer edge of p-layer to allow more
central surface area for light to escape
➢ Domed lenses are used to reduce the reduction process

Working
➢ When forward bias voltage is applied, the electrons cross the junction and
recombine with the holes
➢ The energy of electron is liberated in the form of photon.
➢ The colour of emitted radiation depend upon the energy gap of semiconductor
➢ The energy gap can be varied by varying doping elements and doping levels..

Requirements of LEDs for visible light

➢ They must have the energy gap in the visible region i.e. from 1.75eV to 3.15 eV.
Most of the visible LEDs will have the band gap of 2 eV.
➢ Both the n-type and p-type materials should be of direct bandgap type.
➢ Efficient radiative path must be provided.
Reasons for reduce in quantity of photons
➢ Absorption with in the materials.
➢ Reflection loss when light passes from the semiconductor to air due to difference in
refractive indices
➢ Total internal reflection at the angles greater than critical angle.
Advantages of LEDs
➢High reliability ➢Monochromatic
➢Fast response time ➢High stability
➢Low cost ➢Longer life time compared to ordinary lamps
➢Low power consumption ➢Small size and width
➢Low voltage DC operation. ➢Availability in variety of colours.

Applications of LEDs
➢ For solid state displays which are replacing the conventional lighting rapidly.
➢ For entering information in to optical computer memories.
➢ For arrays of different displays.
➢ Infrared LEDs are used in burglar alarm systems.
➢ In LED Televisions.
Photodetectors
A photodetector is a device which absorbs light and converts the optical energy to
measurable electric current.
When a beam of photons impinges on these devices, they absorbs these photons
and generate electron–hole pairs in the depletion region.
They are also known as O/E convertor.
Photodetectors used in optical communication systems because of their small size,
fast detection speed, and high detection efficiency.
The important Semiconductor photo detectors are
➢ Basic photo diode
➢ Positive intrinsic negative (PIN) photodiode
➢ Avalanche photodiode (APD)

The figure shows the symbolic

representation of a Photodiode
Photo diode
Photo diode is a pn junction diode operated under reverse bias condition
Principle
Separation of electrons and holes when optical energy is incident on the junction of a diode.
These electrons and holes produce photo current under reverse bias
Construction
It consist two layers, heavily doped n-side &
heavily doped p-side
The diffusion of electrons from n-side to p-side
and holes from p-side to n-side will create a
depletion layer there by a built in potential.
As the photons incident on p-layer, it is kept thick
to allow the photons to enter into depletion layer

Working
➢ When the photon enters in to depletion layer, it separates the electron and holes i.e.
generate the charge carriers.
➢ The number of charge carriers generated is proportional to intensity of incident light.
These charge carriers results in the photo current in the external circuit.
➢ The dark current is the current which exist even with no photons incident.
➢ From the graph we can observe the reverse current and luminous flux are linearly
proportional.
Applications of photo diode:
➢ In alarm systems
➢ Counting the number of items on the conveyer belt
➢ In infrared remote control such as televisions to air conditioners.
➢ Light operated switches (optical switches)
➢ Systems for detecting light
➢ Sound tracks in films.
The quantum efficiency of the photo diode is defined as number of electron hole pairs
created per photon.
IP is photo generated current and
𝐼𝑃 ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝜐
𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜂 = =𝑅 P0 is incident optical power at a
𝑃0 𝑞 𝑞 particular wavelength.

𝐼𝑃
𝑅= 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑃0
Positive-Intrinsic-Negative (pin) photodiode
Principle
➢ The device converts the optical energy to current.
➢ When photonic energy impinges on the intrinsic region, it create electron hole pairs.
➢ These electron hole pairs result in current in the circuit under reverse bias.

Construction
➢ Consist of three layers, positive region, an
intrinsic region and negative region.
➢ Width of positive region< Width of negative
region < intrinsic region
➢ Works under reverse bias.
➢ Both the P and N regions are heavily doped

Working
➢ The beam of photons of suitable intensity is made to incident on the device
➢ These photons create electron and hole pairs in the intrinsic region
➢ Under reverse bias voltage, these electrons constitute current
➢ It is a linear device i.e. the current produced will be proportional to the optical power
➢ The increased depletion region due to the intrinsic layer improves the performance by
increasing the volume in which light conversion occurs
PIN diode as variable resistor under forward bias
➢ The high electric field developed across the junction under forward bias.
➢ This will speeds up the transport of charge carriers from the P region to the N region.
➢ The amount of current will depends upon the applied forward bias voltage hence it acts
as variable resistor.
PIN diode as a capacitor under forward bias voltage
➢ Under reverse bias, the depletion layer becomes fully depleted.
➢ Hence the device acts as the capacitor.
➢ The capacitance of the pin diode becomes independent of the level of bias once
the depletion layer is fully depleted
Applications
RF and microwave switches due to their low capacitance.
Used in Photo detectors
The PIN photodiode is also used to detect X-rays and gamma rays photons.
 Avalanche Photo Diode
Principle
➢ The device converts the optical energy to electrical energy.
➢ The reverse bias voltage applied is very high (avalanche region)

Construction
➢ Consist of three layers, highly doped p region,
an intrinsic region, one lightly doped p region
and highly doped n region.
➢ Width of lightly doped n- region < width of
lightly doped p- region < width of heavily
doped n- region < intrinsic region
➢ Works under high reverse bias (avalanche
region).
Working
➢ The beam of photons of suitable intensity is made to incident on the device
➢ These photons create electron and hole pairs in the intrinsic region.
➢ These electrons accelerated under the high electric field (due to large reverse voltage) and
collides with bound (neutral) atoms and generate few more electrons
➢ The newly generated electrons also accelerated under high electric field and create few
more electrons (avalanche effect.)
➢ The avalanche action enables the gain of the diode to be increased many times, providing a
much greater level of sensitivity.
The advantages
➢ High sensitivity
➢ High Gain.
➢ Quick response time.
➢ It detects low-intensity light.
➢ A single-photon generates multiple
charge carriers.

The disadvantages
➢ High operating voltage
➢ non linear output current
➢ High range of noise
➢ Low reliability

Applications
➢ Bar code readers
➢ Burglar alarm systems
➢ As receiver in optical fiber communication
➢ In light detecting sensors
 Comparison between PIN Photo diode and Avalanche diode

S.No Avalanche diode PIN Photo Diode

1 Includes four layers like P+, I, P & includes four layers like P+, I & N+.
N+.

2 Internal gain is produced No gain is produced

3 More response time
4 More Sensitivity
5 More reverse bias voltage required
6 More output current
7 No amplifiers required
Less response time
Less sensitivity
Less reverse bias voltage required
Output current is small
Amplifiers are required due to low gain

8 More Noise Less Noise

9 Poor Temperature stability Good Temperature stability
Comparison between LED & Photo diode
Solar Cells
A solar cell is a device that directly converts the optical energy to electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect
Principle
➢ When solar energy made to fall on the junction, it create electron and hole pairs

Construction
➢ Most of the solar cells are made form
crystalline silicon
➢ It consist a pn junction diode
➢ P-layer is made extremely thin so that
incident light photons may easily reach
the pn junction.
➢ Antireflection coating minimizes the
loss of solar energy due to reflection
➢ The finger collector on p layer acts as
the positive output terminal (anode) and
the metal contact at the bottom acts as a
cathode.
Working
➢ When the solar energy is incident on the top surface, the photons enters in to depletion
region
➢ These photons generate the electron hole pairs in the depletion layer.
➢ These electrons and holes produce the current.
➢ The current is directly proportional to the illumination power (mW/cm2) and also
depends on the size of the surface area being illuminated.
➢ Silicon and germanium are the most widely used semiconductors materials for solar
cells although gallium arsenide, indium arsenide and cadmium arsenide are also being
used nowadays.

Advantages of Solar cells

➢ No pollution
➢ Consumes no fuel.
➢ No greenhouse gases
➢ Sunlight is plentiful & inexhaustible
➢ Little or no maintenance
➢ Considerably cheaper than electricity from coal.
Efficiency of Solar cell

𝑰𝑺𝑪 - Short-circuit Current - The maximum current produced by solar cell

(occurs at zero voltage)

𝑽 𝑶𝑪 - Open-circuit voltage - The maximum voltage produced by solar cell

(occurs at zero current).

𝑛𝐾𝑇 𝐼𝑃 𝐼�0 –Reverse saturation current (dark current)

𝑉𝑂𝐶 = 𝐿𝑛 −1
𝑞 𝐼0 𝐼�𝑃 – Photocurrent
Some important Equations

𝑒𝑉 β is numerical constant and depends upon the

𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝐼 = 𝐼0 exp −1
𝛽𝐾𝑇 diode material. For Ge β=1 and for Si β=2

𝐾𝑇 𝑁𝐷 𝑁𝐴
The Junction potential is given by 𝑉𝐵 = 𝑞
𝑙𝑛 𝑛2𝑖

2𝜖 𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐷
The Width of junction is 𝑊 = 𝑞 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐷
𝑉𝐵

𝑁𝐴 𝑊 𝑁𝐷 𝑊
Width of n-side 𝑊𝑛 = 𝑁 width of p-side 𝑊𝑛 = 𝑁
𝐴 +𝑁𝐷 𝐴 +𝑁𝐷

1.24 𝐼𝑃 ℎ𝜐
Wavelength of photon, 𝜆= 𝜇𝑚 𝑄𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝜂 =
𝐸𝑔(𝑒𝑉) 𝑃0 𝑞

𝐼𝑃 𝜂𝑞 𝜂𝑞𝜆
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑅 = = =
𝑃0 ℎ𝜐 ℎ𝑐
PROBLEMS
1. Calculate the wavelength of light emitted by an LED with band gap of energy
1.8 eV.
2. Calculate the band gap energy of GaAsP semiconductor whose output
wavelength is 6715 A0.
3. The band gap of a specimen of gallium arsenide phosphide is 1.98 eV.
Determine the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation that is emitted upon
direct recombination of electron and hole in the sample. What is the colour of
emitted radiation?
4. The reverse saturation current at 300 K of a PN Junction diode is 5 μA. Find the
voltage be applied across the junction to obtain a forward bias current of 50
mA.
5. The current in a p-n junction at 270C is 0.18 µA when a large reverse bias
voltage is applied. Calculate the current when a forward bias of 0.38 V is
applied.
6. Calculate the ratio of current for a forward bias of 0.06 V to the current of same
value of reverse bias applied to a pn junction diode at 27 ℃
7. Consider a uniformly doped thin n-type semiconductor with light shining
uniformly across the entire region. If the optical generation rate is 1012 cm-3s-1,
and the carrier lifetime is 6 nanoseconds, what is the number of carriers
generated at equilibrium?
8. Calculate the depletion width of n-side of a Silicon P-N junction if ND=1015 cm-3 and NA =
1019 cm-3 and total depletion width is 1.04 x 10-4 cm at 300K.

9. A photodiode is made with p-type Ge doped with 1023Ga atoms/ m-3 and n-type Ge with
1022 As atoms/ m-3. The dielectric constant for Ge is 16. The intrinsic carrier concentration
of Ge is 1010 cm-3 at 300 K. Calculate the width of the depletion layers.

10. A photodiode has a responsivity of 0.5 A/W at 850 nm. Find the efficiency of the detector.

11. An APD has a quantum efficiency of 50% at a wavelength of 500 nm in the absence of
multiplication. If the device is operated with a reverse bias to give a multiplication factor
of 8, calculate the responsivity.
12. A potential barrier of 0.7 V exists across a p−n junction. A constant electric field of
magnitude 2×106 Vm-1 exists in the depletion region. Calculate the width of depletion
region.
13. The width of the depletion region in a p–n junction diode is 600 nm and an intense electric
field of 6×105 V/m is also found to exist. The height of the potential barrier is

14. If the depletion width of a p-n junction is 500 nm and electric field across the depletion
region is 5×105 Vm-1, calculate the minimum kinetic energy electron to diffuse from the
n-side to the p-side ?
15. A single Solar cell (12cm x 12 cm) voltage of 0.55 V and a current of 2.4 A. If the
insolation is 850 W/m2 calculate it’s efficiency.

16. Solar insolation on a rectangular solar cell module (20 cm x 15 cm) is 600 Wm2. If the
efficiency of the cells is 12%, evaluate the power out put of the module.

17. A single solar cell, on illumination by insolation of about 800 W/m2 produces a voltage of
0.5 V and a current up to 2.0 A. The efficiency of the solar cell is 12.5%. Calculate the area
of solar cell.