SEMICONDUCTOR:

Semiconductors are materials which have a conductivity between conductors

(generally metals) and nonconductors or insulators (such as most ceramics).
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium, or compounds
such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide.
Conductivity of semiconductors is from 10^-6 to 10^4 ohm^-1

FERMI LEVEL:
The Fermi Level is the energy level which is occupied by the electron orbital at
temperature equals 0 K.
Boltzmann constant =
1.38064852 × 10-23 m2 kg s-2 K-1
A band gap is the distance between the valence band of electrons and the
conduction band. Essentially, the band gap represents the minimum energy that is
required to excite an electron up to a state in the conduction band where it can
participate in conduction.
Si (Silicon) has a band gap of 1.12 eV (electron volt).

Ge(germanium) has a band gap of 0.67 eV.

Effect of temperature on band gap

The band gap energy of semiconductors tends to decrease with increasing
temperature. When temperature increases, the amplitude of atomic vibrations increase,
leading to larger interatomic spacing. The interaction between the lattice phonons and
the free electrons and holes will also affect the band gap a little.

Diode : a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the flow of current in
one direction only.

How to form a diode

A diode is formed by joining two equivalently doped P-Type and N-Type semiconductor. When they
are joined an interesting phenomenon takes place. The P-Type semiconductor has excess holes
and is of positive charge. The N-Type semiconductor has excess electrons. At the point of contact of
the P-Type and N-Type regions, the holes in the P-Type attract electrons in the N-Type material.
Hence the electron diffuses and occupies the holes in the P-Type material. Causing a small region of
the N-type near the junction to lose electrons and behaves like intrinsic semiconductor material, in
the P-type a small region gets filled up by holes and behaves like an intrinsic semiconductor.
This thin intrinsic region is called depletion layer, since its depleted of charge (see diagram
above) and hence offers high resistance. Its this depletion region that prevents the further diffusion
of majority carriers. In physical terms the size of the depletion layer is very thin.

Potential barrier: The potential barrier in the p-n junction is a type of

barrier which does not allow the normal flow of charge across the junction and
this resistance to the flow of charge is known as barrier potential.

Forward bias: In forward bias the P-Region of the diode is connected

with the positive terminal of the battery and N-region is connected with the
negative region. During the forward bias the following process occurs. The
positive of the battery pumps more holes into the P-region of the diode. The
negative terminal pumps electrons into the N-region. The excess of charge in P
and N region will apply pressure on the depletion region and will make it shrink.
As the voltage increases the depletion layer will become thinner and thinner and
hence diode will offer lesser and lesser resistance. Since the resistance
decreases the current will increase (though not proportional) to the voltage.

Reverse bias:
n reverse bias the P-type region is connected to negative voltage and N-type is
connected to positive terminal as shown above. In this condition the holes in P-
type gets filled by electrons from the battery / cell (in other words the holes get
sucked out of the diode). The electrons in N-type material is sucked out of the
diode by the positive terminal of the battery. So the diode gets depleted of
charge. So initially the depletion layer widens (see image above) and it occupies
the entire diode. The resistance offered by the diode is very huge. The current
that flows in reverse bias is only due to minority charge which is in nano
amperes in silicon and micro amperes in high power silicon and germanium
diodes.

Knee voltage: The forward voltage at which the flow of the current
during the PN Junction of the diode begins increasing very quickly is commonly
known as knee voltage. This voltage is also known as cut-in voltage.
Reverse breakdown voltage: Reverse breakdown voltage
is the reverse anode voltage at which the diode conducts a specified amount of
reverse current. Since it's the reverse current across a junction, IR exhibits a knee
shaped rise, increasing rapidly once breakdown occurs. It is constituted by the flow of
minority carriers existing on both sides of the diode.

Reverse saturation current: The reverse saturation

current is the part of the reverse current in a semiconductor diode which is caused
by the diffusion of minority carriers from the neutral regions to the depletion region.

Difference between Zener and Avalanche Breakdown

 The Zener breakdown can be defined as the flow of electrons across
the p kind material barrier of the valence band to the evenly filled n-type
material conduction band.
 The avalanche breakdown is an occurrence of raising the flow of electric
current or electrons in insulating material or semiconductor by giving the
high voltage.
 The depletion region of the Zener is thin whereas the avalanche is thick.
 The connection of the Zener is not-destroyed whereas the avalanche is
destroyed.
 The electric field of the Zener is strong whereas the avalanche is weak.
 The Zener breakdown generates electrons whereas the avalanche
generates holes as well as electrons.

Zener BreakDown and Avalanche BreakDown

 The doping of the Zener is heavy whereas the avalanche is low.

 The reverse potential of the Zener is low whereas the avalanche is high.
  The temperature coefficient of the Zener is negative whereas the
avalanche is positive.
 The Ionization of the Zener is due to Electric field whereas the
avalanche is the collision.
 The temperature coefficient of the Zener is negative whereas the
avalanche is positive.
 The breakdown voltage (Vz) of the Zener is inversely proportional to
temperature (ranges from 5v to 8v) whereas the avalanche is directly
proportional to temperature (Vz > 8V).
 After the breakdown of the Zener is voltage remains constant whereas
the avalanche is voltage vary.
 The Zener breakdown V-I characteristics have a sharp curve whereas
the avalanche doesn’t have a sharp curve.
 The breakdown voltage of the Zener decreases when the temperature
increases whereas the avalanche increases when the temperature
increases.

Light emitting diode (LED)

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source that emits light
when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine with
electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy
required for electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor.[5] White light is
obtained by using multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor
on the semiconductor device.[
 OPTICS
Interference: Interference is the phenomenon in which two waves
superpose to form the resultant wave of the lower, higher or same amplitude.

Types of interference:
Constructive interference: So, constructive interference is
defined as the superposition of two waves to get a greater amplitude.

like we use speakers to get the greater amplitude of sounds.

Destructive interference: You can observe the scenario of

destructive interference in cases when two waves in opposite polarity or
direction superimpose on each other in a way that they cancel each other.

Conditions for interference:

(i) In interference the source of light should be monochromatic.
(ii) Here waves should be of the same frequency.
(iii) Direction of waves should also be the same.
(iv) The amplitudes of both the waves should also be the same.

Diffraction: Diffraction is the slight bending of light as

it passes around the edge of an object.
Condition for diffraction:
The amount of bending depends on the relative size of the
wavelength of light to the size of the opening. If the
opening is much larger than the light's wavelength, the
bending will be almost unnoticeable. However, if the two
are closer in size or equal, the amount of bending is
considerable, and easily seen with the naked eye.
Types of diffraction:
The two types of diffraction are Fresnel diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.

 Frensel diffraction: When the light from the point source reaches the
obstacle, the waves produced are spherical and the pattern of the image of the object is a
fringed image.

 Fraunhofer diffraction: When the waves from the light source are in the
form of wavefronts, and they are infinite.

Prism

Procedure to calculate the refractive index of the material of the prism

The angle A and the angle of minimum deviation D of the prism are determined as
explained above. The refractive index of the material of the prism is calculated using the
relation,

N = [sin(A + D)/2] /sin A/2

Procedure to find the angle of the prism (A)

A drawing paper is fixed on a horizontal drawing board. The outline ABC of the prism is
drawn on the paper. The prism is removed. Two parallel lines are drawn at a convenient
distance apart to meet the refracting faces AB and AC of the prism. Two pins P 1 and Q1 are
fixed on the line drawn to the face AB. The prism is placed back to its position. Two other
pins R1 and S1 are fixed so that they are in line with the reflected images of P 1 and Q1 at the
face AB. Similarly two pins P 2 and Q2 are fixed on the other line. The pins R 2 and S2 are fixed
so that they are in line with the reflected images of P2 and Q2 at the face AC. The prism and
the pins are removed. The reflected rays R 1 S1 and R2 S2 are drawn to meet at O. The angle
S1 O S2 is measured. It gives 2A, twice the angle of the prism. From this A, the angle of the
prism is found out. The experiment is repeated and the mean angle A of the prism is
determined.

Angle of minimum deviation: The smallest angle

through which light is bent by an optical element or system. In a prism, the angle of
deviation is a minimum if the incident and exiting rays form equal angles with the prism
faces.
Procedure to determine the angle of minimum deviation D

A drawing paper is fixed on a horizontal drawing board. The prism is placed on it and its
outline ABC is traced on the paper. AB and AC are the refracting faces and BC is the base of
the prism. The prism, is removed. At a convenient point on AB a normal NN' is drawn to AB.
o
A line PQ is drawn making an angle i, say, 30 with the normal. Two pins P1 and P2 are
fixed on this line. The prism is placed on the paper at its position. Looking through the face

AC two other pins P1’; and P2’ are fixed in line with images of P 1 and P2. The prism and
pins are removed from the paper. A straight line RS is drawn passing, through the positions
of the pins P1’ and P2’. Then RS is the emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ.
The incident ray PQ and the emergent ray RS are produced to meet at O. The angle of
deviation d is measured. The experiment is repeated for angles of incidence 35°, 40°, ... 60°
and the corresponding angles of deviation are measured. A graph is drawn with i along the
X-axis and d along the Y-axis. The deviation at the lowest point on the graph gives the angle
of minimum deviation D.

Procedure to calculate the refractive index of the material of the prism

The angle A and the angle of minimum deviation D of the prism are determined as
explained above. The refractive index of the material of the prism is calculated using the
relation,

N = [sin(A + D)/2] /sin A/2

Prism spectrometer:
A prism spectrometer is an optical spectrometer which uses a dispersive prism as
its dispersive element. ... The dispersion occurs because the angle of refraction is
dependent on the refractive index of the prism's material, which in turn is slightly
dependent on the wavelength of light that is traveling through it.

Refraction: refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing

from one medium to another or from a gradual change in the medium.

How much does light bend?

The following is a diagrammatic representation:

Snell’s law: Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles
of incidence and refraction is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the
two media, or equivalent to the reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction

De Broglie wavelength: The wavelength (λ) that is associated with an

object in relation to its momentum and mass is known as de Broglie wavelength. A particle’s de
Broglie wavelength is usually inversely proportional to its force.
λ=h/p

The thermal de Broglie wavelength is given by the expression:

λD = h / √ 2 π m kBT

where,

h = Planck constant,

m = mass of a gas particle,

kB = Boltzmann constant,

T = temperature of the gas,

λD = λth = thermal de Broglie wavelength of the gas particles.

Bragg’s law: The law states that when the x-ray

is incident onto a crystal surface, its angle of
incidence, θθ, will reflect back with a same angle of
scattering, θθ. And, when the path difference, dd is
equal to a whole number, nn, of wavelength, a
constructive interference will occur.
Consider a single crystal with aligned planes of
lattice points separated by a distance d.
Monochromatic X-rays A, B, and C are incident upon
the crystal at an angle θ. They reflect off atoms X,
Y, or Z.
 nλ=2dsinθ

where:
 is the wavelength of the x-ray,
λ
 d is the spacing of the crystal layers (path

difference),
 θ is the incident angle (the angle between
incident ray and the scatter plane), and
 n is an integer
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: The
position and the velocity of an object cannot both be measured exactly,
at the same time, even in theory. The very concepts of exact position
and exact velocity together, in fact, have no meaning in nature.

The above formula is used for Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

LASER (Light amplification by stimulated
emission of radiation): A laser is a device that emits a beam
of coherent light through an optical amplification process.

Principles of LASER:

Einstein Coefficient Relation:

Einstein showed the interaction of radiation with matter with the help of three processes called
stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission.
Let N1 be the number of atoms per unit volume in the ground state E1 and these atoms exist in
the radiation field of photons of energy E2-E1 =h v such that the energy density of the field is E.

Einstein Coefficient Relation

Einstein Coefficient Relation derivation and discussion:
Einstein showed the interaction of radiation with matter with the help of three processes
called stimulated absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission. He showed in
1917 that for a proper description of radiation with matter, the process of stimulated
emission is essential. Let us first derive the Einstein coefficient relation on the basis of the
above theory:
Let N1 be the number of atoms per unit volume in the ground state E1 and these atoms exist in
the radiation field of photons of energy E2-E1 =h v such that the energy density of the field is E.
Einstein Coefficient for Stimulated Absorption:
Let R1 be the rate of absorption of light by E1 -> E2 transitions by the process called stimulated
absorption (Refer below figure):

Stimulated Absorption
This rate of absorption R1 is proportional to the number of atoms N1 per unit volume in the
ground state and proportional to the energy density E of radiations.
That is R 1∞ N1 E
Or R1 = B12N1 E (1)
Where B12 is known as the Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated absorption and it represents the
probability of absorption of radiation. Energy density e is defined as the incident energy on an
atom as per unit volume in a state.
Einstein Coefficient for Spontaneous Emission:
Now atoms in the higher energy level E2 can fall to the ground state E1 automatically after 10-8
sec by the process called spontaneous emission (Refer below figure).

Spontaneous Emission

The rate R2 of spontaneous emission E2-> E1 is independent of energy density E of the radiation
field.
R2 is proportional to number of atoms N2 in the excited state E2 thus
R2∞ N2
R2=A21 N2 (2)
Where A21 is known as Einstein’s coefficient for spontaneous emission and it represents the
probability of spontaneous emission.
Einstein Coefficient for Stimulated Emission:
Atoms can also fall back to the ground state E1 under the influence of the electromagnetic field
of an incident photon of energy E2-E1 =hv by the process called stimulated emission (Refer below
Figure):
Stimulated Emission

Rate R3 for stimulated emission E2-> E1 is proportional to energy density E of the radiation field
and proportional to the number of atoms N2 in the excited state,thus
R3α N2 E
Or R3=B21N2 E (3)
Where B21 is known as the Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission and it represents the
probability of stimulated emission.
Einstein Coefficient Relation Derivation:
In steady-state (at thermal equilibrium), the two emission rates (spontaneous and stimulated)
must balance the rate of absorption.
Thus R1=R2+R3
Using equations (1,2, and 3) ,we get
N1B12E=N2A21+N2B21E
Or N1B12E –N2B21E=N2A21
Or (N1B12-N2B21) E =N2A21
Or E= N2A21/N1B12-N2B21
= N2A21/N2B21[N1B12/N2B21 -1]
[by taking out common N2B21from the denominator]
Or E=A21/B21 {1/N1/N2(B12/B21-1)) (4)
Einstein proved thermodynamically, that the probability of stimulated absorption is equal to
the probability of stimulated emission. Thus
B12=B21
Then equation (4) becomes
E=A21/B21(1/N1/N2-1) (5)
From Boltzmann's distribution law, the ratio of populations of two levels at temperature T is
expressed as
N1/N2=e(E2–E1)/KT
N1/N2=ehv/KT
Where K is the Boltzmann's constant and h is the Planck’s constant.
Substituting value of N1/N2in equation (5) we get
E= A21/B21(1/ehv/KT-1) (6)
Now according to Planck’s radiation law, the energy density of the black body radiation of
frequency v at temperature T is given as
E = 8πhv3/c3(1/ehv/KT) (7)
By comparing equations (6 and 7), we get
A21/B21=8πhv3/c3
This is the relation between Einstein’s coefficients in laser.

Significance of Einstein coefficient: This shows

that the ratio of Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission to the Einstein’s
coefficient of stimulated absorption is proportional to the cube of frequency v. It means
that at thermal equilibrium, the probability of spontaneous emission increases rapidly
with the energy difference between two states.

Spontaneous and Stimulated emission:

Spontaneous emission takes place without interaction with other photons, and the
direction and phase are random. Stimulated emission takes place when the excited
electron interacts with another photon.

Helium-neon LASER: A helium–neon laser or He-Ne laser, is a type of

gas laser whose gain medium consists of a mixture of 10:1 ratio of helium and neon at a total
pressure of about 1 torr inside of a small electrical discharge. The best-known and most widely used
He-Ne laser operates at a wavelength of 632.8 nm, in the red part of the visible spectrum.
Ruby LASER: A ruby laser is a solid-state laser that uses a synthetic ruby
crystal as its gain medium. The first working laser was a ruby laser made by Theodore
H. "Ted" Maiman at Hughes Research Laboratories on May 16, 1960.[1][2]
Ruby lasers produce pulses of coherent visible light at a wavelength of 694.3 nm, which
is a deep red color. Typical ruby laser pulse lengths are on the order of a millisecond.

Semiconductor LASER: Semiconductor lasers are solid-state

lasers based on semiconductor gain media, where optical amplification is usually
achieved by stimulated emission at an interband transition under conditions of a
high carrier density in the conduction band. Semiconductor lasers range in wavelength
from 0.4–1.8 μm.
The material which often used in semiconductor laser is the gallium Arsenide.