HM EF.4 TM G]\ H J\RF.

PP
VG[ TM H 5F; YJFIPPP ;DHIM G[ mm
VF VD[ G.4 VDFZL DC[GT AM,[ K[ NM:TM4 V[SND VG]EJLVM 2FZF
T{IFZ SZFJ[,F D8LZLI,M4 DF+ 5Z H D/X[P
VDFZ]\ D8LZLI, TDMG[ NZ[S 5lZ1F DF\ ZFDAF6 5]ZJFZ YFX[P

SM. BM8F D[;[H S[ ,L\S G.4 DF+ 0F.Z[S8 :5WF”tDS 5ZL1FG]\ D8ZLI,
VG[ DLXG ;ZSFZL HMAPPP TDFZF DMAF., 5Z DFlCTL D[/JJF TDFZ]\ GFD ,BL
WhatsApp D[;[H SZM 7878101034 G\AZ 5ZPP

Join our Telegram Channel - Join Now

0FpG,M0 SZM VG[ JF\RTF ZCMPP TDFZL ;O/TF VF;5F; K[P

Daily20 GK” - Click Here

VDFZF D8LZLI, V\U[GF TDFZF lJRFZM VDG[ H6FXMP

VF D8LZLI, TDFZF lD+M ;FY[ VR}S X[Z SZHMP

VF DlCGFG]\ DCtJG]\ SZ\8 VO”[; JF\RMPP

GLR[GL ,L\S 5Z Sl,S SZMPPP Click Here

Visit daily http://jobscaptain.com/ for crack any competitive exam in Gujarat and

across India. Visit our One of the unique page Daily GK.

જય … જય … …!

www.jobscaptain.com
 START

SF/GF U]HZFTL 5|tIIM

SF/ D]bI 5|tII JWFZFGF 5|tIIM

sVf ! ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ HFI K[ K]\4 KLV[4 KM4
RF,] JT”DFGSF/
Z ;FNM E}TSF/ UIM IF4 sSIFZ[Sf W]\4 WF4 WL4 WM
# 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ UIM K[ G\çD]HA
$ 5}6” E}TSF/ UIM CTM IF CTF
5 5}6” ElJqISF/ UIM CX[ CM>X4 CX]\4 CXM
^ RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ ZCIM K[ G\PçD]HA
& RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ ZCIM CTM G\PçD]HA
* RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ ZCIM CX[ G\PçD]HA
( RF,] E}TSF/ HTM CTM TM4 TL4 T]\4 TF\
!) RF,] ElJqISF/ HTM CX[ TM4 TL4 T]\4 TF\
!! ;FN ElJqISF/ H.X X]\4 XM4 X[

sAf SF/GF SD”l6 5|IMU TYF 5|[ZSGF 5|tIIM HM>V[P

!P SD”l65|IMUGM 5|tII ïVFIð K[P
ST”ZL 5|IMU o ,B]\ K]\P SD”l6 5|IMU ,BFI K[P
ZP 5|[ZS lS|IFGM 5|tII ïVFIð G[ AN,[ ïVFJð K[P
ï,B] K]ð G]\ 5|[ZS~5 ,BFJ]\ K\]

sSf S’NgTGF 5|tIIM HM>V[P

! JT”DFG S’NgTGF 5|tIIM >G[ VYJF TF\ K[P
BF>G[4 ZDLG[4 H>G[ VYJF ZDTF4 C;TF >P
l;\C HM.G[ T[ EFuIMP
T[ AF/SM C;TF\ C;TF\ 3[Z HFI K[P
Z E}TS’NgTGF 5|tIIM
V[,M4 V[,L4 V[,]\
UI[,M4 VFJ[,M
# ;\A\WS E}TS’NgTGF 5|tIIM o >G[
$ Infinitive sWFT]G]\ D}/~5f GM 5|tII J]\
JF\RJ]\4 SZJ]\ o ZF+[ JF\RJ]\ CFlGSFZS K[P
WFT]GF NZ[S D]/~5G[ J]\ 5|tII ,FU[ K[P
5 lJwIY” o HM>V[
 [ 2]

V\U|[_DF\ GLR[ D]HA SF/ K[P

Active Tenses sST"ZL 5|IMUDF\f

Present
1. Simple He writes (a letter) ,B[ K[P
2. Continuous He is writing ðð ðð ,B[ K[P sVtIFZ[f

3. Perfect He has written ðð ðð ,bIM K[P

4. Perfect He has been writing ðð ðð ,BL ZCIM K[P

Continuous
Past
5. Simple He write ðð ðð ,bIM

6. Continuous He was writing ðð ðð ,BTM CTM

7. Perfect He had written ðð ðð ,bIM CTM

8. Perfect He had been ,BL ZCIM CTM

Continuous Writing ðð ðð
Future
9. Simple He will write ðð ðð ,BX[

10. Continuous He will be writing ðð ðð ,BTM CX[

11. Perfect He will have ðð ðð ,bIM CX[

Written
12. Perfect He will have ,BL ZCIM CX[
Continuous Been writing ðð ðð
13. Present conditional He would write ,B[
14. Conditional continuous He would be writing ,BTM CMI
15. Perfect conditional He would have written ,bIM CMI S[ CMT
16. Conditional continuous He would have been writing ,BL ZCIM CMI

CJ[ VF SF/G[ ;DHJF SM9FDF\ (Tabular form) D}SLV[

Passive Tenses sSD"l6 5|IMUDF\f

 [ 3]

1 (A letter) is written ,BFI K[P

2 ðð ðð is being written ,BFI K[P sVtIFZ[f
3 ðð ðð has been written ,BFIM K[P
4 x x x
,BFIM
5 ðð ðð was written ,BFTM CTM
6 ðð ðð was being written ,BFIM CTM
7 ðð ðð had been written
8 x x X

9 ðð ðð will be written ,BFX[

10 x x x
11 ðð ðð will have been written ,BFIM CX[
12 x x x
13 ðð ðð would be written ,BFI
14 x x x
15 ðð ðð would have been written ,BFIM CMI S[ CMT
16 x x x

V\U|[_DF\ SF/
5]P ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ sI + K[f RF,] JT”DFGSF/ sI + K[f
 [ 4]

V[P JP AP JP V[[P JP AP JP
1 I go We go I am going We are going
C]\ HFp\ K]P VD[ H>V[ KLV[ C]\ sVtIFZ[f HFp K]\ VD[ VtIFZ[ H>V[ KLV[
2 You go You go You are going You are going
T] HFI K[P TD[ HFJ K[ T] sVtIFZ[f HFI K[ TD[ sVtIFZ[f HFJ KM
3 He goes They go He is going They are going
T[ HFI K[P T[VM HFI K[P T[ sVtIFZ[fHFI K[P T[VM sVtIFZ[f HFI K[P
;FNM E}TSF/ sIMf RF,] E}TSF/ sTM + CTMf
1 I went We went I was going We were going
C]\ UIM VD[ UIF C]\ HTM CTM VD[ HTF CTF
2 You went You went You were going You were going
T] UIM TD[ UIF T]\ HTM CTM TD[ HTF CTF

3 He went They went He was going They were going

;FNM ElJqISF/ s>Xf RF,] ElJqISF/ sTM + CX[f
1 I shall go We shall go I shall be going We shall be going
C]\ H>X VD[ HX]\ C]\ HTM CM>X VD[ HTF CX]\
2 You will go You will go You will be going You will be going
T]\ H>X TD[ HXM T]\ HTM CM>X TD[ HTF CX[
3 He will go They shall go He will be going They will be going
T[ HX[ T[VM HX[ T]\ HTM CX[ T[VM HTF CX[

TENSES IN ENGLISH

5}6” JT”DFG SF/ sIM + K[f RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ sZCIM K[f
V[P JP AP JP V[[P JP AP JP
 [ 5]

1 I have gone We have gone I have been going We have been going
C]\ UIM K]P VD[ UIF KLV[ C]\ H> ZCIM K]\ VD[ H> ZCIF KLV[
2 You have gone You have gone You have been going You have been going
T] UIM K[P TD[ UIF KM T] H> ZCIM KM TD[ H> ZCIF KM
3 He has gone They have gone He has been going They have been going
T[ UIM K[P T[VM UIF K[P T[ H> ZCIM K[P T[VM H> ZCIF K[P
5}6” E}TSF/ sIM + CTMf RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ sZCIF CTMf

1 I had gone We had gone I had been going We had been going
C]\ UIM CTM VD[ UIF UIF C]\ H. ZCIM CTM VD[ H> ZCIF CTF
2 You had gone You had gone You had been going You had been going
T] UIM CTM TD[ UIF CTF T]\ H> ZCMI CTM TD[ H> ZCIF CTF
3 He had gone They had gone He had been going They had been going
T[ UIM CTM TVM UIF CTF T[ H> ZCMI CTM T[VM H> ZCIF CTF
5}6” ElJqISF/ sIM +CX[f RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ sZCIM CX[f

1 I shall have gone We shall have gone I shall have been going We shall have been going
C]\ UIM CM>X VD[ UIF CX]\ C]\ H> ZCIM CM>X VD[ H> ZCIF CX]\
2 You will have gone You will have gone You will have been going You will have been going
T]\ UM CM>X TD[ UIF CXM T]\ H> ZCIM CX[ TD[ H> ZCIF CXF[
3 He will have gone They will have gone He will have been going They will have been going
T[ UIM CX[ T[VM UIF CX[ T]\ H. ZCIM CX[ T[VM H> ZCIF CX[

V\U|[_DF\ SF/ [REGULAR VERBS]

;FNM JT”DFG SF/ sp + K]\f RF,] JT”DFGSF/ sp + K]\f

V[P JP AP JP V[[P JP AP JP
1 I call We call I am calling We are calling
C]\ AM,FJ]\ K]\ VD[ AM,FJLV[ KLV[ C]\ sVtIFZ[f AM,FJ]\ K]\ VD[ sVPf AM,FJLV[ KLV[
 [ 6]

2 You call You call You are calling You are calling
T] AM,FJ[ K[P TD[ AM,FJM KM T]\ sVPf AM,FJ[ K[P TD[ sVPf AM,FJM KM
3 He calls They calls He is calling They are calling
T[ AM,FJ[ K[P T[VM AM,FJ[ K[P T[ sVPf AM,FJ[ K[P T[VM sVPf AM,FJ[ K[P
;FNM E}TSF/ sIMf RF,] E}TSF/ sTM CTMf
1 I called We called I was calling We were calling
D[\ AM,FjIM VD[ AM,FjIM C]\ AM,FJTM CTM VD[ AM,FJTF CTM
2 You called You called You were calling You were calling
T[ AM,FjIM TD[ AM,FjIM T] AM,FJTM CTM TD[ AM,FJTF CTF
3 He called They called He was calling They were calling
T[6[ AM,FjIM T[VMV[ AM,FjIM T[ AM,FJTM CTM T[VM AM,FJTF CTF
;FNM ElJqISF/ s>Xf RF,] ElJqISF/ sTM CX[f
1 I shall call We shall call I shall be calling We shall be calling
C]\ AM,FJLX VD[ AM,FJLX]\ C]\ AM,FJTM CM>X VD[ AM,FJTF CX]\
2 You will call You will call You will be calling You will be calling
T]\ AM,FJLX TD[ AM,FJXM T] AM,FJTM CM>X TD[ AM,FJTF CXM
3 He will call They will call He will be calling They will be calling
T[ A,FJX[ T[VM AM,FJX[ T[ AM,FJTM CX[ T[VM AM,FJTF CX[

5}6” JT”DFG SF/ sIM + K[\f RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ sZCIM K[P\f
V[P JP AP JP V[[P JP AP JP
1 I have called We have called I have been calling We have been calling
D[\ AM,FjIM K[P VD[ AM,FjIM K[P C]\ AM,FJL ZCIM K]\ VD[ AM,FJL ZCIF KLV[
2 You have called You have called You have been calling You have been calling
T[ AM,FjIM K[P TD[ AM,FjIM K[P T]\ AM,FJL ZCIM K[P TD[ AM,FJL ZCIF KMP
3 He has called They have called He has been calling They have been calling
 [ 7]

T[6[ AM,FjIM K[P T[VMV[ AM,FjIM K[P T[ AM,FJL ZCIM K[P T[VM AM,FJL ZCIF K[P
5}6” E}TSF/ sIM CTMf RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ sZCIM CTMf
1 I had called We had called I had been calling We had been calling
D[\ AM,FjIM CTM VD[ AM,FjIM CTM C]\ AM,FJL ZCIM CTM VD[ AM,FJL ZCIF CTF
2 You had called You had called You had been calling You had been calling
T[ AM,FjIM CTM TD[ AM,FjIM CTM T] AM,FJL ZCIM CTM TD[ AM,FJL ZCIF CTF
3 He had called They had called He had been calling They had been calling
T[6[ AM,FjIM CTM T[VMV[ AM,FjIM CTM T[ AM,FJL ZCIM CTM T[VM AM,FJL ZCIF CTF
5}6” ElJqISF/ sIM CX[f RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ sZCIM CX[f
1 I shall have called We shall have called I shall have been calling We shall have been calling
D[\ AM,FjIM CX[ VD[ AM,FjIM CX[ C]\ AM,FJL ZCIM CM>X çççççççç
2 You will have called You will have called You will have been calling You will have been calling
T[\ AM,FjIM CX[ TD[ AM,FjIM CX[ çççççççç çççççççç
3 He will have called They will have called He will have been calling They will have been calling
T[6[ AM,FjIM CX[ T[VMV[ AM,FjIM CX[ çççççççç çççççççç

SF/GF 5|`GFY”
;FNM JT”DFGSF/ RF,]

V[SJRG AC]JRG V[SJRG

I go We go I am going
Do I go? I do not go Do we go? we not go Am I going? I am not going
You go You go You are going
Do you go? you do not go Do you go? you do not go Are you going? You are not
going
He goes They go He is going
 [ 8]

Does he go? He does not go Do they go? They do not go Is he going? He is not going
;FNM E}TSF/ RF,]
I went We went I was going
Did I go? I did not go Did we go? We did not go Was I going? I was not going
You went You went You were going
Did you go? You did not go Did you go? You did not go Were you going? You were not
going
He went They went He was going
Did he go? He did not go Did they go? They did not go Was he going? He was not
going
;FNM ElJqISF/ RF,]
I shall go We shall go I shall be going
Shall I go? I shall not go Shall we go? we shall not go Shall I be going? I shall not be
going
You will go You will go You will be going
Will you go? you will not go Will you go? You will not go Will you be going? You will not
be going
He will go They will go Will he be going
Will be go? He will not go Will they go? they will not go He will be going
He will not be going

V[H ZLT[ RF,] 5}6” SF/GF ~5M

RFP 5}P JP I have been going – Have I been going? – I have not been going
RFP 5}P E}P I had been going – Had I been going? – I had not be going
RFP 5}P EP I shall have been going – shall I have been going? I shall not have been going

VG[ GSFZ ~5M

JT”DFGSF/ 5}6” JT”DFGSF/
AC]JRG V[SJRG AC]JRG
We are going. Are we going? I have gone We have gone
We are not going Have I gone? Have we gone?
You are going Are you going? I have not gone We have not gone
You are not going You have gone You have gone
They are going Have you gone? Have you gone?
Are they going? You have not gone You have not gone
They are not going He has gone They have gone
E}TSF/ Has he gone Have they gone?
We were going He has not gone They have not gone
Were we going? We were not
You were going 5}6” E}TSF/
Were you going? You were I had gone We had gone
They were going not going Had I gone? Had we gone?
 [ 9]

Were they going ? I had not gone We had not gone

They were not going
ElJqISF/
We shall be going
Shall we be going?
We shall not be going
You will be going
Will you be going?
You will not be going
They will be going
Will they be going?
They will not be going
You had gone
Had you gone?
You had not gone
He had gone
Had he gone?
He had not gone
5}6” ElJqISF/
I shall have gone
Shall I have gone?
I shall not have gone
You will have gone
Will you have gone?
You will not have gone
He will have gone
Will he have gone?
He will not have gone
You had gone
Had you gone?
You had not gone
They had gone
Had they gone
They had not gone
We shall have gone
Shall we have gone?
We shall not have gone
You will have gone
Will you have gone?
You will not have gone
They will have gone
Will they have gone?
They will not have gone

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ [The Present Tense]

~5M o I go - We go Do I go ? - Do we go?
You go - You go Do you go? - Do you go?
He goes - They go Does he go? - Do they go?
I do not go -- We do not go
You do not go -- You do not go
He does not go -- They do not go

VF SF/F ZMlH\NL lS|IFVM sAlways—CD[\XF YTL VtIFZGL GCLP not now) 8[J D]HAGL
lGIlDT lS|IFVM (habitual or routine activities), ;FDFgI ;tIM (general truths) S[ ;GFTG ;tIM4
:YFIL lS|IFVM4 SC[JTM4 plSTVM4 ;}+M TYF lGIDM DF8[ J5ZFI K[P VF SF/ ;FY[ AC]WF
always, daily, everyday, every week, often s36LJFZf4 frequently sJFZ\JFZf rarely sEFuI[H4
HJÿ,[4 SJlRT®f usually, generally s;FDFgITof occasionally s5|;\UM5FTf once a month >ü
XaNM 56 HMJF D/[ K[P
 [ 10]

NFP TP
o I go to school at 10-30
o He generally sits on the first bench. But today he is sitting on the last bench
o The sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
56 VtIFZ[ H pUTM CMI TM
o Look, the sun is rising.
o He usually sDM8[EFU[f catches the 9-30 bus.
o We seldom sEFuI[Hf speak Sanskrit
o He often prepares his own tea.
o I never read novels.

o I eat on apple everyday.

o I don’t buy cheep things.
o He always goes for a walk in the morning.

o Ul6TGF lGIDM : Two and Two make four

o E}lDlTGF 5|D[IM o

The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right angles. l+SM6GF B}6FVMGM
;ZJF/M A[ SF8B}6F AZFAZ YFI K[P If the two sides of a triangle are equal.
The angles opposite to these sides are equal.

o J{7FlGS lGIDM o Heat expands while cold contracts.

UZDLYL 5NFY”G]\ 5|;Z6 YFI K[ HIFZ[ 9\0LYL ;\SMRFI K[P
o jIFSZ6GF lGIDMG[ jIST SZJF ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ BF; SZLG[ T[GF SD”l6~5M jIF5S
ZLT[ J5ZFI K[P NFP TP
NFP TP o The simple present is used sJ5ZFI K[Pf with adverbs such as
always, often…
o VwIFtDXF:+ o

JF;F\l; lH6F”lG IYF lJCFIPPP o sULTF Z o ZZf

 [ 11]

Just as a person give up worn out clothes and puts on other new ones, so does
the embodied self give up discrepit bodies not enter new ones.

G{G\ lKgNlgT X:+Fl6PPP

Weapons do not cut it (the Atman), fire does not burn it, water does not
moisten it and wind does not dry it.

o Geography : Nq8F\TM
How do seasons change ?
We know that the earth revolves round the sun and also rotates on its axis. Days
and nights are caused by the rotation of the earth on its axis. The axis of the
earth makes an angle of 23 1/2 with the vertical. It is this inclination which
causes changes in season.
o About Finland
It is often said that Finland is a small country. A glance at the map, however,
belies this with a total area of 130,128 sq. miles, Finland is larger than Great
Britain, but her population is only 4.7 million. The majority live in central and
southern Finland. The northernmost part, Lapland is sparsely inhabited. Vast
forests of spruce, pine and birch cover most of the land nad the thick
undergrowth is full of flowers and berries. There are about 60,000 lakes of all
sizes connected by narrow channels and short rivers. Tideless seas wash the
coastline. Fish abound in the seas, rivers and lakes. The highest land is in
Lapland the country of scenic fells where reindeer roam.

o ;FlCtIDF\ o
“For the first time Drydon introduces the notion of literature as an organic force
which develops with the development of a nation, expressing the impulses of
each new age in a manner suited to its growth”
 [ 12]

o J/L V\U|[_DF\ 36F lS|IF5NM V[JF K[ H[ RF,] JT”DFG SF/DF\ J5ZFTF GYLP T[GM
5|IMU ;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\ H YFI K[P VFJL lS|IFVM V{lrKS (deliberate) GYL 56
VG{lrKS (involuntary VYJF automatic) CMI K[P

NFP TP o HMJFGL4 ;F\E/JFGL4 lJRFZJFGL lS|IFVM VF5D[/[ YTL CMI K[P VFJF
lS|IF5NMG]\ GLR[ D]HA JUL”SZ6 SZL XSFIP

o Verbs of senses or perception

s>lgŒIUdI lS|IFVMf H[JL S[ o

See, hear, smell, feel >ü

swIFGDF\ ZFBM S[ look, listen, watch, stare, gaze V[ deliberate lS|IFVM K[f

o Verbs of feeling and emotions :

s,FU6L NX”S lS|IFVMf

love, hate slTZ:SFZJ]\f like, dislike, loathe sGOZT SZJLf detest slTZ:SFZJ]\f want,
wish, desire s>rKJ]\f hope, prefer, >ü

o Verbs of thinking : DFGl;S 5|J’lTGM lGN"[X SZTF lS|IF5NMf H[JF S[ o

think, slJRFZJ]\f4 suppose sWFZJ]\f assume sDFGL,J]\f remember sIFN ZFBJ]\f forget
sE],L HJ]\f4 know understand, realize sbIF, VFJJMf consider, agree imagine
sSÿ5GF SZJLf4 mean, mind expect sWFZ6F SZJLf trust >ü

o Verbs of possession : sDFl,SL NXF”JTF lS|IF5NMf H[JF S[ o

Belong to, possess, have (possess GF VY”DF\\f owe, >ü
o ALHF S[8,FS lS|IF5NM o seem, appear, look s,FUJ]\f consist, contain, matter,
concern >ü lS|IF5NM ;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\ H J5ZFI K[P
Nq8F\TM o
 [ 13]

Love : I love you very much. (I am loving GCLf

Hate slTZ:SFZJ]\f : I hate mich !
Like : She likes him but doesn’t love him.
Dislike : I like dogs but dislike cats.
Loathe : Her husband simply loathes her cooking.
 [ 14]

rear : I fear there will be a war.

dosire : We all desire happiness and heatlh.
detest : I detest people complaining.
want : I want your pen.
wish : I wish you good luck.
respeet : I respect my parents.
think : I think you are wrong.
assume : Scientists assume that there is no animal life on mars.
suppose : I suppose you want to borrow money from me again ?
remember : I remember it now.
forget : Forgive and forget.
believs : I don’t believe in ghosts.
expect : England expects everyone to do his duty.
know : I know him very well.y
understand : I understand your point.
trust : I trust in God.
be long : This house beiongs to me.
owe : I owe you five rupees sDFZ[ TDG[ 5F\R ~l5IF VF5JFGF K[Pf
possets : I possess this house.
own : I own this house.
have : I have a nice house.
look : He looks nice.
seem : He seems to be a good man.
appear : It appears that you have made a mistake.
consist : The committee consists of ten members.
contain : This bucket contains a lot of water.

--- p5ZGF AWF JFSIMDF\ RF,] JT”DFGSF/ J5ZFTM GYL ---

 [ 15]

SC[JTM VG[ quotations VJTZ6M

o The true teacher, like Socrates, plays the part of a midwife.
- S. Radhakrishan
o One can prove anything by statistics expect truth. -- G. C.
o False friends are like our shadows, keeping close to us while we walk in
the sunshine, but leaving us the instant we cross into the shadow.
o Socialism is when people work for the government. Democracy is when
the government works for the people.
o A stitch in time seves nine.
JBT;ZGM V[S 8F\SM ALHF GJ 8F\SF ARFJ[ K[P
o Fools rush in where angels fear to tred.
o Patience is bitter, but its fruit is sweet.
WLZHGF\ O/ DL9F\
o Gossip sU5;5f is that which no one claims to like; but everybody
enjoys. - Joseph Conrad
- Love looks through a telescope, envy, through a microscope
- Josh Billings
- There is sufficiency in the world for the man’s need but not for the
man’s greed. - Mahatma Gandhi.
- If you wish to be great, be self-effacing and humble. The tree laden with
fruit always bends low. - Shri Ramkrishan
- Time and tide wait for nobody.

ççç ;FNF JT”DFGSF/ lGA\W ççç

A Postman
Points :- 1. His appearance. 2. Daily duties 3. Hard work. 4. Qualities.
 [ 16]

5. A useful public serant

A postman is a common sight in our cities and villages. He wear a khaki uniform.
He has a khaki canvas bag slung over his shoulder. In this bag he carries letters, post
cards, money orders and parcels.
His work heigns early in the morning. He goes to the Post Office to collect the
mail. He then starts on his round to distribute the letters. He visits each house and
shop and delivers letters them. He collects the letters from different letter-boxes along
the way. He takes them to the post office. He goes home for lunch. He returns to
work. He delivers the mail a second time in the evening. He goes home to rest after
finishing his day’s work.
The postman does a hard job. His work is dull. He does the same work every
day. He has to be on his feet all the time. He has to walk many miles a day. He also has
to go up and down the stairs of many buildings. At the end of the day he is very tired.
He is a useful public servant. People eagerly wait for him. He is a cheerful
worker. He is the bringer of good and bad news. If we had no postman we would have
to go to the post office ourselves to collect our letters.

Difficult Words
Slung – Hanging ; B\E[ l8\UFT] Mail – Letters; 85F,GF SFU/M
Distribute – Give out; JC[\RJ]\ Delivers-Hands;CFYMCFY JC[\R[ K[

;FDF 5’q9 5Z ‘The postman’ lGA\W VF%IM K[P V[ 5|DF6[ NZ[S jIlST lJX[GF
lGA\WM ;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\ H ,BFI K[P The farmer, The nurse, The hawker >ü
VFD jIlST lJQ[GF\ ZM_NF SFI” (daily routine) NXF”JJF ;FNF JT”DFGSF/GM p5IMU
YFI K[P 56 HM jIlST lJX[GL E}TSF/GL l;lwW J6”JJL CMI TM ;FNM E}TSF/ 56
;FY[ J5ZFI K[P NFP TP DFZM l5|I (My favourite sportsman) ZDTJLZ VCL\
 [ 17]

E}TSF/GL 38GFVMGM 56 ;DFJ[X YFI K[P V[8,[ ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ + ;FNM E}TSF/
J5ZFI K[P
WMP XII DF8[ p5IMUL GLR[GM lGA\W H]VMP

My Favourite Sportsman

My favourite sportsman is Sachin Tendulkar. Sachin plays cricket with skill

and aplomb. There is no answer to him.
Sachin Ramesh Tendulkar was born on April 24, 1973. As a school boy of
14, he burst upon the Bombay cricket scene like a bomb-shell, with a string of
massive scores at 276, 159, 156, 123, 123, 97, 150 and 329 not out in the school
and club cricket! During just two seasons, Sachin scored more than 3000 runs!
In 1988, Sachin at 15, became the youngest player in the Ranji Trophy
championship. Gavaskar said, “People come to see only stars and Sachin is
already a star now.”
 [ 18]

He has never looked back since he entered Test arena. His test match
records are splendid. In a one-day match against Pakistan he hit four sixes and a
four in an over from Abdul Kadir, the best spin bowler in the world !
On the Indian tours of New Zealand and England he has played
magnificently, so magnificently that admiring girls in England languished for the
favour of his friendship, while the middle-aged mothers longed to adopt him as
their son. The shy Sachin had to run away for safe shelters.
Back in Bombay he has been a cynosure of all eyes. The shy sophomore of
Kirti College has become the most sought-after celebrity in cultural, industrial,
sports and even the film circles He has the technique and temperament for the
big occasion plus an opulent repertoire of strokes He has the flair, makes
flourishes with his bat at the crease and is fascinating to watch.
He is a dare-devil who can put to the sword the best of bowlers, if the
occasion demands.
To sum up, one can quote from Imran Khan : “Tendulkar’s career will have
its ups and downs.”
But at the moment he stands on the threshold of greatness.

--- excerpts from the ‘sun’ magazine

 [ 19]

o VF l;JFI ;F{YL JWFZ[ TM KF5FVMDF\4 D[U[hLg;DF\ T[ dramatic narration DF8[ J5ZFI

K[P T[ ŒFZF VF SFI” AC]\ ;]\NZ TFNxI (Vivid pen-pictures) XaNlR+M ZH] SZ[ K[P
o H]VM ‘Savvy’ GF D[ ð(! GF V\SD\ ;]zL pDFEFZTL lJQ[G]\ XaN lR+ o s;FNF
JT”DFGSF/DF\f

“It’s her eyes. They pierce right into your eyes, summing you up in one
shrewd flicker. The next instant they twinkle at you, innocent child-like. An
intense aura flows out of her bright saffron robes, as she articulates her
thoughts, clearly, passionately. Even her short hair – frowned upon by other
members of her ill-stands testimony to the rebel she has always been. Uma
Bharti, our savvy woman this month, stands on the lawn of the party office. The
atmosphere is charged with enthusiasm and buoyancy. It is as if the place has
come alive by her mere presence. People mill around her. Not only is she
comfortable, she heartily enjoys the adulation with unpretentious candour. The
crowd hankers for the glimpse of her. A few even touch her feet……. she greets
a few with a smile. Others she dismisses within seconds.
o J/L sports events, commentaries S|lDS 38GFVM4 V{TCFl;S 38GFVM4 GF8SLI
38GFVM >ü G[ TFNxI SZJFDF\ dramatic narrative ;CH J5ZFI K[P
o Bedi comes and bowls to Sobers…
o Shri Ram lifts the bow and breaks it. Sitaji immediately garlands him.
 [ 20]

o ;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\ J5ZFI[,\] zL R\ŒX[BZG]\ XaN lR+ o

He hums a song as he walks along a gravel path, not a care in the world.
He throws his head up and laughs, reads a book, goes for long walks. He talks to
the birds when he is not feeding them or just sits in nature’s midst. No files to
read, no meetings to attend. No speeches to make or secret parleys to worry
about….

“I am taking a holiday now. Go and talk to the people in the new Govt,”
he says, visibly relieved to be away from it all. There is no rancor or regret.

Chandra Shekhar now spends most of his day supervising the construction
on his farmhouse.

“Running the country was easier. You only had to give instructions. Now I
have to get the work done myself,” he smiles wiping out the sweat from his
brow.

--- ‘India To day’ (July 31, 1991)

 [ 21]

o N; modal auxiliaries.
shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must VG[ought to – VF
~5MG[ SIFZ[S ing 5|tII ,FUTM GYL VF56[ SIFZ[I can-ing, could-ing SZTF
GYL !
o Above all ;F{YL JWFZ[ TM jIF5S ZLT[ J5ZFTF primary auxiliaries : to be, to have
sVD]S V5JFNMG[ AFN SZTFf G[ RF,] SF/GF ~5M GYLP
(be lS|IF5NG]\ RF,] JT”DFGSF/G]\ ~5 SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ H J5ZFI K[P
NFP TP He is being informed)
(have lS|IF5N 56 give S[ take GF VY”DF\ H RF,] SF/DF\ J5ZFI K[P We are
having a party. VgI+ GCLP
o GMW o to be GF ~5M –is, are, am, was, were >ü introductory ‘there’ ;FY[
lJX[Q J5ZFI K[ H[GF lJX[ VgI+ RRF” SZL K[P
o RF,] JT”DFGSF/G[ AN,[ VF SF/ SJlRT® here VG[ there GL ;FY[ pN®UFZ
JFSIDF\ 56 J5ZFI K[P
- Here comes the bus! V[ A; VFJ[!
- There she goes ! T[6L V[ HFI!
o SJlRT® SM> IMHGFAŒ4 GSSL 38GF DF8[ ElJqISF/G[ AN,[ ;FNM JT”DFGSF/
J5ZFI K[P
- The school opens on the 17th June
- When does the school reopen? XF/F SIFZ[ B},[ K[Pm
o In clauses of time and condition (type – 1) ElJqISF/G[ AN,[ ;FNM JT”DFGSF/
J5ZFI K[P VCL\ p5JFSIDF\ when, as soon as, while >ü XaNM CMI K[P H[D S[
- If you (will) come, we shall go for a walk.
- I shall go after I (shall) have finished my work
- I shall wait till you (will) finish your lunch. VCL\ shall, will VwIFCFZ ZC[ K[P
VF lGID 36M VUtIGM K[P 36L E},M lGJFZJF DF8[ VF lGID DGG5}6” K[P
o Prof. K. Das says, “In fact, if we try to analyse the sentence patterns in
everyday speech and in works of great English writers, we shall find that it is
the simple present and not the present continuous that we need every now
and then. (Its average ratio is (87/13)
VF VlE5|FI p5ZYL VF SF/GL VUtITF VF\SL XSFI K[P

RF,] JT”DFGSF/ [The present continuous]

I am going We are going

C]\ sVtIFZ[f HFp\ K]\P VD[ sVtIFZ[f H>V[ KLV[P
 [ 22]

You are going You are going

He is going They are going
VF SF/G[ ;DHJM TN®G ;C[,M K[P
o AM,TL JBT[ H[ lS|IF RF,] CMI V[8,[ S[ VtIFZ[ (now) H[ lS|IF RF,] CMI T[
NXF”JJF RF,] JT”DFGSF/ J5ZFI K[P H[D S[ç
- I am reading now. C]\ VtIFZ[ JF\R] K]\P
- Look, the sun is rising HF[VM4 ;]I” pUL ZCIM K[P
- Hurry up, the bell is ringing.
- He often sits on the back benches, but today he is sitting on the front
bench.
o ïVtIFZðGF VY”G[ YM0M lJ:TFZL XSFI
We can take it ‘now’ in a general sense.
V[8,[ S[ SM> jIlST VtIFZ[ 5]:TS E,[ G JF\RTM CMI 56 ïCF,DF\ð JF\RTM CMI
TM VF SF/ JF5ZL XSFI K[P H[D S[ç
He is reading a play by Kalidas
SF,LNF;G]\ GF8S T[ JF\RL ZCIM K[P
VF SF/ B}AH ;C[,M K[4 KTF\ S[8,F\S D]N®FVM wIFGDF\ ZFBJF H~ZL K[P
!P ;FNF JT”DFGSF/GF lXQ"S GLR[ VF56[ HMI] S[ S[8,FS lS|IF5NM CD[XF ;FNF
JT”DFGSF/DF\ H J5ZFI K[4 RF,] JT”DFGSF/DF\ GCLP
H[JF S[ç see, hear, wish, want, remember >ü
ZP 56 SIFZ[S VFJF lS|IF5NM lŒVYL" V[8,[ S[ see GM VY” D/J] YTM CMI TM
tIF\ RF,] JT”DFGSF/ JF5ZL XSFI K[P H[D S[ç
The manager is seeing the clerk tomorrow.
#P VF SF/ ElJqISF/GF VY”DF\ SM> RMSS;4 VFIM_T lS|IF DF8[ 56 J5ZFI
K[P V[ wIFGDF\ ZFBJ]\ 38[ K[P H[D S[ç I am coming tomorrow. SF,[ C]\ VFJ]\
K]\P

sU]P 5|tII o IMf ;FNM E}TSF/ [The simple past]

~5M o I walked We walked
You walked You walked
He walked They walked
 [ 23]

5|`GFY” o Did I walk ? Did we walk ?

Did you walk ? Did you walk ?
Did he walk ? Did they walk ?
GSFZ o I did not walk. We did not walk.
You did not walk. You did not walk.
He did not walk. They did not walk.

;FNM E}TSF/ V[8,[ V[S JBTGL E}TSF/GL 5}6” 38GF

[Simple past expresses a one time completed past event.]

o ;FDFgI ZLT[ E}TSF/GL JFTDF\ SM> RMSS; ;DI lGN[XJF/L VYJF SM> V[S
JBTGL 5}6” 38GFJF/L JFT H VFJTL CMJFYL VFSF/ G]\ O,S AC] lJXF/ K[P
o 5F9I 5]:TSM4 KF5FVM4 D[U[hLGM4 JFTF”VM >ü DF\ VF SF/ ;J”+ KJFI[,M ZC[ K[P
VG[ T[GM jIF5S p5IMU HMJF D/[ K[P AWF SF/GF\ p5IMUDF\ T[G\ :YFG No. 1
K[P
o ;FDFgI ZLT[ lS|IF5NMG[ ,UF0LG[ ;FNM E}TSF/ AGFJJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P H[D S[ç

Walk - Walked, Call - Called, Play - Played

J/L H[ lS|IF5NMG[ ,UF0LG[ E}TSF/G]\ ~5 AGFJJFDF\ VFJ[ T[H 5|tII E}TS’NgTDF\
56 ,FU[ K[ T[YL ;Z/TF 36L ZC[ K[P
,UEU !)4))) V\U|[_ lS|IF5NMDF\ OST !))ç!5) ~5M H V[JF K[ H[GF E}TSF/
VG[ E}TS’NgT VlGIlDT K[P H[JF S[ç
go went gone --- eat ate eaten.
 [ 24]

V[8,[ S[ ;DU| lS|IF5NMDF\ V[SFNçA[ 8SF VlGIlDT lS|IF5NMGM DCFJZM JW] Sl-G
GYL AGTM !
 ;FNF E}TSF/GM p5IMUPPP
1. RF{SS; ;DI lGN"[X CMI tIFZ[PPP
- I saw him yesterday.
- I passed my S. S. C. Exam. In 1960.
- I went to Bombay last year.
- The train left ten minutes ago.
- I met him at 5 p. m.
2. RF{SS; ;DI lGN[[ªX G CMI 56 38GFGF ;\NE” ŒFZF VF56[ ;D_ XSLV[ S[ VD]S
;DI[ T[ 5}ZL Y> U> K[P tIFZ[ ;FNM E}TSF/ J5ZFI K[P
(In such cases the time is implied or indicated by the context)
- I didn’t sleep well (i. e. last night)
- He retained his parliamentary seat (i. e. in the last election)
3. V[S 38GF 5}6” Y> U> CMJFYL T[GM ;DI 5}ZM YIM K[ V[ ;FNF E}TSF/DF\ Ol,T
YFI K[P
NFP TP He worked in the school for 10 years.
sV[GM VY” V[ YFI S[ T[ CJ[ SFD SZTM GYLPf
He worked there for a long time.
sV[GM VY” V[ 56 YFI S[ T[ CJ[ SFD SZTM GYLPf
$P 36LJFZ used to VG[ would GL DFOS V[ past habit DF8[ J5ZFI K[P
- He used to smoke when he was young.
- He would sit there on the river bank for hours.
W]D|5FG SZTM4 A[;TM4 V[JF H VY”DF\ ;FNM E}TSF/ J5ZFI K[P
- When he wasin Bombay he went to Juhu Beach regularly.

5. Conditional type II DF\ ;FNF E}TSF/GM 5|IMU YFI K[P

He would come if you called him.
 [ 25]

HM TD[ AM,FJM TM T[ VFJ[P

T[ H ZLT[\ subjunctive s;\XIFY”f DF when the past tense is unreal
NFP TP as if, if, only, I wish, >ü 5KL
1. ! wish I knew his name.
2. It only I knew earlier, I would have sent you a telegram.
3. It is (high) time you had a hair cut !
_YZF JWL UIF K[4 CHFDT SZFJJFGM ;DI 5FSL UIM K[P

JFTF”DF\ o JFTF”VMDF\ ;FNM E}TSF/ H J5ZFI K[P GLR[GL JFTF” JF\RL E}TSF/GF ~5M
XMWJF 5|ItG SZMP

The Camle’s Revenge

A cunning jackal wanted to enjoy a feast to water melons. But he had to cross a

river to reach the melon field on the other side of the bank. So he went to a camel and

said, “Mr. Camel, there are lovely melons across the river. If you carry me across I shall

show you, where they are. Then we can both feast on melons.”

The camel agreed to carry the jackal across the river. They reached the field.

The jackal ate the melons very fast. The camel was very slow. After the jackal finished

eating, he started howling. “Why do you howl ?” said the camel, “If you howl the

farmer will catch us.” But the jackal replied. “It is my habit to howl after my meal. So, I

shall not stop howling.”

 [ 26]

The howls brought the owner to the field. The jackal ran away. The camel was

left alone He was soundly beaten by the farmer and his men.

The time came for the return journey. The jackal mounted the camel’s back;

The camel started crossing the river. He reached the middle of the stream. Then he

rolled about in the water. The jackel was alarmed. “Why do you roll in the water? ”

said he. The camel replied, “It is my habit to roll after my meal. “The jackal was thrown

off into the river. He got drowned, The camel thus took revenge on the jackal for

betraying him to the farmer. This teaches us that meaness is always punished.
 [ 27]

5}6” JT”DFGSF/ [The present perfect]

sU]P 5|P o sIM ç K[f
~5M o
I have gone. We have gone
C]\ UIM K]\P VD[ UIF KLV[P
You have gone. You have gone.
T] UIM K[ TD[ UIF KMP
He has gone. They have gone.
T[ UIM K[P T[VM UIF K[P

GM\W o AM,RF,GL EFQFDF\ (Spoken English) DF\ VF ~5MGF ;\l1%T ~5M I’ve
gone, We gone H J5ZFI K[P
o VF SF/G]\ GFD 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ K[P 56 JF:TJFDF\ T[ E}TSF/ H K[P lCgNLDF\ T[G[
ïVF;gG E}TSF,ð SC[ K[P VF;gG V[8,[ G_SGM4 TFH[TZGM V[8,[ S[ VnTGo ;C[H[
V[S 5|`G YFI S[ TM 5KL T[G[ JT”DFGSF/ S[D SC[JFDF\ VFJ[ K[m
- ;FNF E}TSF/DF\ HIFZ[ VF56[ ç ïT[ UIMð SCLV[ KLV[ tIFZ[ V[S lS|IF tIF\ 5}6” YFI
K[P HIFZ[ VF56[ ïT[ UIM K[ð SCLV[ KLV[ tIFZ[ ïUIMð 5KL ïK[ð GF 5|tIIYL T[
lS|IFG[ VF56[ JT”DFG ;]WL ,\AFJLV[ KLV[P 8}\SDF\ jIFSZ6GL EFQFDF\ SCLV[ TM VF
E}TSF/G[ JT”DFG ;FY[ ;FS/4 S0L4 ;\A\W S[ V;Z CMJFG[ SFZ6[ T[G[ VF56[ ï5}6”
JT”DFGSF/ð SCLV[ KLV[P
- VF ;F\S/4 S0L4 ;\A\W S[ V;Z V[8,[ X]\m
NFP TP
Babar founded the Moghul Empire on 1526.
AFAZ[ !5Z^DF\ DMU, ;FD|FHI :YF%I]\P
 [ 28]

56 CJ[ T[ ZCI] GYLP V[8,[ V[D G SCL XSFI S[ç

Barbar has founded the Moghul Empire.
T[JL H ZLT[ ç
1. I have never seen a tiger.
D[\ SIFZ[I JF3 HMIM GYLP sV[8,[ S[ CH] ;]WL VFH ;]WLf
2. I have done my work.
D[\ SFD SZL ,LW] K[P sCJ[ AFSL GYLf
3. He has not come yet sT[ CH] VFjIM GYLPf
4. I have just finished my work.
CD6F\H SFD 5}~ SI]”\ K[P
5. Have you ever seen a tiger ?
VF SFZ6[ VF SF/ ;FY[ BF; SZLG[
- Just sCD6F\Hf already sSIFZG]\If ever sSIFZ[If never, for sCH] ;]WLf since VG[
yet H[JF XaNM J5ZFI K[P
VF SF/ ;FNF E}TSF/YL ïK[4 K]\ð GF JWFZFGF 5|tIIMYL :5q8 ZLT[ H]NM TZL VFJ[ K[P
;FNM E}TSF/ 5}6” JT”DFGSF/
C]\ UIM C]\ UIM K]\
T[ UIM T[ UIM K[P
I have seen a picture yesterday.
ç ;FNM E}TSF/ V[S RMSS; 38GF 5}6” Y> K[ V[D ATFJ[ K[P H[G[ JT”DFG ;FY[ SM>
;\A\W GYLP T[DF\ 36LJFZ RMSS; ;DI lGN"[X CMI K[P
5}6” JT”DFG DF\ RMSS; ;DK lGN"[X ;\EJ GYL VF56[ V\U|[_DF\ V[D G SCL XSLV[
K[
I have seen a picture yesterday.
VFS’lTGL DNNYL VF D]N®M JWFZ[ :5q8 Y> XS[P
JT”DFGSF/
;FNM E}TSF/
5}6” JT”DFGS SF/
5}6” JT”DFGSF/DF\ C\D[XF E}TS’NgTGF ~5MH J5ZFTF CMJFYL T[ XLBJFG[ T{IFZ YJ]\
50[ K[P ;FDFgI ZLT[ NZ[S lS|IF5NGF VF56[ +6 ~5M T{IFZ SZLV[ KLV[P
V1 (Verb one) V[8,[ S[ D}/ ~5 HJ]\P
 [ 29]

V2 (Verb two) ðð ðð E}TSF/G]\ ~5 UIMP

V3 (Verb three ) ðð ðð E]TS’NgTG]\ ~5 UI[,M VYJF UIM K[P
V3 G]\ ~5 V[8,[ E}TS’NgTG]\ ~5P 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ l;JFI 5}6” E}TSF/4 5}6”
ElJqISF/ VG[ SD”l65|IMUGF AWF SF/DF\ RF{SS; J5ZFT\] CMJFYL4 V[8,[ S[ GJ
SF/ ST”ZL 5|IMUGF VG[ GJ SF/ SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ S], !* SF/DF\YL !Z SF/DF\
J5ZF\T]\ CMJFYL E}T S’NgTG]\ ~5 XLBJ]\ VlGJFI” AGL HFI K[P

ç HM S[ VF ~5M ;C[,F K[P SFZ6 S[ H[ E}TSF/GF lS|IF5NG[ 5|tII ,FU[ K[P T[H
5|tII E]TS’NgTG[ ,FU[ K[P V[8,[ S[ ((é E}TSF/GF VG[ E]TS’NgTGF 5|tIIM
;ZBF K[P NFP TP
V1 V2 V3
Walk Walked Walked
talk talked talked
admire admired admired
play played played
ç VUFp H6FjI] T[D V[SFNçA[ 8SF H[8,F V[8,[ S[ !))ç!5) ~5MH VlGIlDT K[P
H[GM D]B5F9 SZJM ;C[,M K[P
 5}6” JT”DFGSF/GM p5IMU
s!f CD6F\ H 5]ZL YI[,L lS|IFVM DF8[ o H[D S[P
He has just gone out. T[ CD6F H ACFZ UIM K[P
It has just struck ten. CD6F H NX JFuIF K[P
 [ 30]

sZf E}TSF/DF\ lS|IF X~ Y> CMI VG[ CH] RF,] CMI H[D S[P
- We have lived here for 10 year.
- VD[ N; JQ”YL VCL\ ZCLV[ KLV[ sVG[ CH] ZC[JFG]\ RF,] K[Pf
- He has been ill since last week.
K[ÿ,F V9JF0LIFYL T[ DF\NM K[P sVG[ CH] DF\NUL RF,] K[Pf
- I have worked in this firm for the last 10 years.
D[\ VF 5[-LDF\ K[ÿ,F N; JQ”YL SFD SI]\ K[P sVG[ CH] RF,] K[Pf
- I have worked in this firm since 1980.
!(*) YL SFD SI]”\ K[P sVG[ CH] GMSZL RF,] K[Pf
s#f E]TSF/GL 38GF 56 V;Z RF,] CMI tIFZ[
- I have finished my work sCJ[ C]\ K]8M K]\f
- I have cut my finger (and it is bleeding now)
s$f E]TSF/GL 38GF H[GM ;DI RMSS; GYL VYJF VF%IM GYLP
- I have never known him to he angry
D[\ T[G[ SIFZ[I U]:;[ YTF HMIM GYLP
VF SF/ E]TSF/ VG[ JT”DFGSF/G]\ lDz6 CMJFYL ;FNF E]TSF/GL ;FY[
KF5FVMDF\4 Z[l0IM4 8LPJLP VC[JF,MDF\4 5+MDF\4 ;\JFNDF\ 5}6” JT”DFGSF/
VJFZGJFZ 0MlSIF\ SZTM ZC[ K[P
 [ 31]

5}6” E}TSF/ [The past perfect]

U]P 5|P o sIM CTMf
VF SF/G]\ ;\l1%T ~5 I had gone G[ AN,[ I’d done K[P
I had gone We had gone
C]\ UIM CTMP VD[ UIF CTF
You had gone You had gone
T]\ UIM CTM TD[ UIF CTFP
He had gone They had gone
T[ UIM CTM T[VM UIF CTFP

5}6” E}TSF/G[ 36LJFZ jIFSZ6 XF:+LVM Before-past 56 SC[ K[P

V[8,[ S[ V[S E]TSF/ 5C[,FGM E]TSF/ NFP TP
ç C]\ HIFZ[ lGXF/[ 5CM\rIM tIFZ[ 3\8 JFUL UIM CTMP
When I reached the school, the bell had rung.
VFDF\ E]TSF/GL A[ lS|IFVM Y> K[P V[S lGXF/[ 5CM\RJFGL VG[ AL_ 3\8 JFUJFGL
3\8 JFUJFGL lS|IF 5C[,L VYJF JC[,L Y> K[P T[YL T[ lS|IF DF8[ 5}6”E}TSF/ VG[
5KLGL lS|IF DF8[ ;FNM E}TSF/ J5ZFI K[P H[D S[P
ç 5M,L; VFJL T[ 5C[,F\ RMZ GF;L UIM CTMP
The thief had run away before the police came.
ç 0MS8Z VFjIF T[ 5C[,F NZNL U]HZL UIM CTMP
The patient had died when the doctor came.
ç TD[ VFjIF T[ 5C[,F SFD X~ Y> UI]\ CT]\
The work had begun before you came.
 [ 32]

sZf HIFZ[ E}TSF/GL V[S 38GF H[ AGL K[ T[ lA\N]YL T[ VUFpGF 5|;\U TZO GHZ GFBLV[

(Looking back on earlier action from a certain point in the past) tIFZ[ 5}6”

E}TSF/G VF56[ :JFEFlJS ZLT[ JF5ZLV[ KLV[P

HF]VM DCFG ,[BS Irving Wallace GL best seller, “The Seventh Secret” G]\

VJTZ6

“Her hurt had remained, yet was gradually diminishing Realistically she

knew her pain had not been caused by the loss of love, but by wounded pride.

Soon, looking back, she had been able to see that what she had really

wanted was not Jeremy and himself but conformity in marriage, a home and

children of her own. The idea of breaking away from lecturing had appealed to

her more than Jeremy had. She had been fond of him, of course. But when the

air cleared, she had been able to see that an alliance with Jeremy would have

been a disaster. After hurt had coagulated into distate, the memory of him had

begun to evaporate into the happier euphoria of good riddance.

Thank God, she had a fallback position. With renewed energy she had

thrown herself into the completion of the Hitler biography. Increasingly by the

book and her father had once more become the most important things in her

life.”

# (a) 5}6” E]TSF/G[ HIFZ[ VUFpGM E]TSF/ TZLS[ J6”JLV[ KLV[ tIFZ[ said Direct speech
5KLGF Indirect speech DF\ O[ZJTF Reported speech DF\ VFJ[,M ;FNM E]TSF/ VF5M
VF5 5}6” E]TSF/ AG[ K[P H[D S[ o
- He said, “I saw you.”
 [ 33]

- He said that he had seen me.

(b) J/L Sequence of tenses GF lGID D]HA D]bI JFSIDF\ E]TSF/ CMI TM
p5JFSIGF JT”DFGSF/ E]TSF/DF\ O[ZJJF 50[ K[P V[ lGID D]HA 5}6” JT”DFG 56
5}6” E}TSF/DF\ 5lZ6D[ K[P H[D S[P
- He said, “ I have done my work.”
- He said that he had done his work.
4. (a) Perfect conditional SF/DF (Type-III) If-clause DF\ 5}6” E]TSF/ J5ZFI K[P
NFP TP
If I had read, ! would have passed
HM D[\ JFrI]\ CMT TM C]\ 5F; YIM CMTP
V,AT VCL\ 5]6” E]TSF/GM VY” ïJF\rI] CT]\ð ZC[TM GYL 56 ïJF\rI]\ CMTð T[D YFI
K[P
T[H ZLT[ Subjunctive s;\XIFY”fDF\
I wish I had not gone there. stIF\ G UIM CMT TM ;F~\ CT]\Pf
If only he had informed me about this. sT[6[ H6FjI]\ CMT TM ;F~\ CT]\f
He behaves as if he had been a millionare. s,B5lT CMI T[D JT”[ K[Pf
 [ 34]

[The Past Comtinuous and the future continuous]

RF,] E}TSF/ VG[ RF,] ElJqISF/
sU]HZFTL 5|tIIM o TM4 CTMf VG[ sU]HZFTL 5|tIIM o TM4 CX[f
ç VF A\G[ SF/ TN®G ;C[,F K[P E}TSF/DF\ SM> lS|IF ðRF,] CTLð S[ ElJqIDF\ SM> lS|IF
RF,] CX[ T[ NXF”JJF VF SF/ J5ZFI K[P
ç J/L ïTM CTMð VG[ ïTM CX[ð VF 5|tIIM YL T[ :5q8 ZLT[ 5FZBL XSFI K[P
~5M
I was going We were going I shall be going We shall be going
C] HTM CTM VD[ HTF CTF C]\ HTM CM>X VD[ HTF CX]\
You were going You were going You will be going You will be going
He was going They were going He will be going They will be going

When I came, he was reading. When I come, he will be reading.

C]\ VFjIM tIFZ[ T[ JF\RTM CTMP C]\ VFJLX tIFZ[ T[ JF\RTM CX[P
Yesterday at six o’clock. I was playing I shall be playing volleyball till six tomorrow
Volleyball.
C]\ U> SF,[ K JFU[ JM,LAM, ZDTM CTMP C]\ VFJTLSF,[ K JFuIF ;]WL JM,LAM, ZDTM CM>X
Birds are singing now. Yesterday at this Birds are singing now. Tomorrow at this
Time, they were singing. time, they will be singing.
51LVM VtIFZ[ UFI K[P U> SF,[ VFH 51LVM VtIFZ[ UFI K[P VFJTL SF,[ VFH ;DI[
;DI[ T[VM UFTF\ CTFP T[VM UFTF CX[P
+6[I RF,] SF/M V[SH JFSIDF\ D}SLV[ TM o
Birds are singing now. They were singing yesterday at this time. They will be singing
tomorrow at this time. 51LVM VtIFZ[ UFI K[P sRFPJPf T[VM U> SF,[ VFH ;DI[ UFTF CTFP
sRFPE}f VG[ sSNFRf VFJTL SF,[ 56 VFH ;DI[ UFTF CX[ sRFP EPf

5}6” ElJqISF/ [The Future Perfect]

I shall have gone We shall have gone.
 [ 35]

C]\ UIM CM>X VD[ UIF CX]\

You will have gone You will have gone
T]\ UIM CM>X TD[ UIF CXMP
He will have gone They will have gone
T[ UIM CX[P T[VM UIF CX[P
o ElJqIDF\ SM> lS|IF 5}ZL Y> U> CX[ T[ NXF”JJF VF SF/ J5ZFI K[P VF SF/DF\
;DI lGN"[X H~ZL K[P SIFZ[ m
ç C]\ VFJLX tIFZ[ T[6[ 5]:TS JF\RL ,LW]\ CX[P
When I come, he will have read the book.

ç VD[ VFJL 5CM\RLX]\ T[ 5C[,F T[ SFD SZL ZC[X[P

He will have finished the work before we arrive.

o ;FDFgI ZLT[ VF SF/ s;]WLDF\f stIF\ ;]WLDF\f > XaNMYL VlEjIST YFI K[P

- By the end of the summer he will have taughtus to speak English.

< By next June he will have written his next novel.
< The meeting will have been finished, by the time we get there.
< It we don’t get there before seven they will have eaten and drunk everything.

o The future of assumption :

C]\ WF~ K]\íDFG]\ K]\P V[ VY”DF\ 56 VF56[ VF SF/GM BF; SZLG[ EFQ64 5|JRG >
DF\ p5IMU SZLV[ KLV[P H[D S[ç
You will have noticed from my speech how desperate our economic condition is :
VF56F N[XGL VFlY”S l:YlT S[8,L BZFA K[P T[ VF5 ;C]V[ DFZF 5|JRGDF\YL HMI]
CX[P
 [ 36]

;FNM ElJqISF/ [The Future Tense]

VF SF/ TN®G ;C[,M K[P ElJqIDF\ SM> lS|IF YX[ T[ NXF”JJF VF SF/ J5ZFI K[P
V[8,[ S[ ï>Xð JF/F lS|IF5NGF ~5M VF SF/DF\ J5ZFI K[P H[D S[ BF>X4 5LX
ZDLX4 H>X]4 ,BLX >
s VF SF/ lJQ[ lJ:T’T RRF” GF lJEFUDF\ SZL K[Pf
wIFGDF\ V[8,F 5}ZT]\ ZFBJFG]\ S[ G[ AN,[ VG[ G[ AN,[ G J5ZFI HFI GCL TM
lS|IF5N 5Z EFZ VFJL HFI K[P NFP TP
C]\ H>X HP TFZ[ HJ]\ H 50X[P
HM S[ VD[lZSG >\u,LXDF\ CJ[ GM p5IMU 5C[,F 5]~QDF\ 56 jIF5S ZLT[ YFI K[
VG[ 3;FT]\ HFI K[P
RF,] 5}6” SF/M
BZ[BZ U]HZFTLDF\ VFJF RF,] 5}6” SF/M GYLP J/L V\U|[®_DF\ 56 VF SF/M VMKF
J5ZFI K[P SFZ6 S[ VF SF/M OST ;FTtI ATFJJFH J5ZFI K[P
J/L RF,] 5}6” JT”DFG G[ AN,[ TD[ DM8[ EFU[ 5}6” JT”DFG JF5ZL XSM KMP
J/L RF,] 5}6” E]TSF/ G[ AN,[ TD[ DM8[ EFU[ 5}6” E]TSF/ JF5ZL XSM KMP
J/L RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ G[ AN,[ TD[ DM8[ EFU[ 5}6” ElJqISF/ JF5ZL XSM KMP
NFP TP C]\ K[(,F NX JQ”YL HF/LIFDF\ ZCL ZCIM K]\P
C]\ K[(,F NX JQ”YL HF/LIFDF\ ZCIM K]\P
s5}P JPf I have lived in Jaliya for the last 10 years.
V[ JFSI JF5ZL XSM VG[ p5ZGF A[ JFSIMDF\ BF; TOFJT 56 ZC[TM GYLP
sGLR[GF WMZ6GF VYJF X~VFTGF lJnFYL”VM VF SF/G]\ OST lJC\UFJ,MSG SZ[ TM
56 RF,[4 8}SDF\ VF SF/YL UEZFJFGL H~Z GYLPf
modal auxiliaries
I shall go We shall go.
You will go. You will go.
He will go They will go.
shall will will Shall I will go You shall go, will shall
I have been living in Jaliya for the last 10 years.
 [ 37]

RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ [The Perfect Continuous]

I have been going We have been going
sC]\ H> ZCIM K]\f
You have been going You have been going
He has been going They have been going.
SM> lS|IF E]TSF/DF\ X~ Y> CMI VG[ ;TT CH] RF,] CMI T[J]\ ;FTtI ATFJJF
V\U|[_DF\ ;FNF JT”DFG S[ RF,] JT”DFG G JF5ZTF VF SF/ J5ZFI K[P NFPTP C]\ K[(,F
N; JQ”YL V\U|[_ XLBJL ZCIM K]\ sVG[ CH] XLBJ]\ K]\f
VYJF
C]\ !(&) YL V\U|[_ XLBJL ZCIM K]\ sVG[ CH] XLBJ]\ K]\f
I have been teaching English for the last 10 years.
VYJF I have been teaching English since 1970.
T[ A[ JZ;YL V\U[|_ XLBL ZCIM K[P
He has been studying English for 2 years.
VFGM VY” V[D YFI S[ T[ A[ JZ; XLbIM K[ VG[ CH] XLBL ZCIM K[P
For 2 years he has studied English and he is still studying
VFDF ;FTtI (continuity) 5Z EFZ K[
wIFG ZFBM S[ RF,] JT”DFGSF/DF\ ;DI lGN"[X H~ZL K[P
GMW o< RF,] 5}6” SF/GM SD”l6 5|IMU YTM GYLP
[ 38]
 [ 39]

RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ [The Perfect Continuous]

RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/DF\ SM> ALHM E]TSF/ E/[ tIFZ[ RF,] 5}6” E]TSF/ AG[ K[P NFPTP D[\
5F\R JFU[ RM50L JF\RJL X~ SZLP I began to read this book at 5 O’clock. TD[ GJ JFU[
VFjIF tIFZ[ 56 C]\ RM50L JF\RTM CTMP You came at 0 O’clock and I was still reading it,

TM VFD SCL XSFI o When you came at 9 O’clock. I had been reading this book
since 5 O’clock.
VYJF
I had been reading this book for 4 hours when you came at 9 O’clock.
VF RF,] 5}6”E}TSF/ YIMP
VF SF/DF\ ;DIlGN"[X H~ZL K[P
8}\SDF\ SM> A[ lS|IF E]TSF/DF\ Y> CMI VG[ T[DF\YL V[S lS|IF 5C[,L X~ Y> CMI VG[
AL_ lS|IF Y> tIFZ[ 56 RF,] CMI TM T[ lS|IF NXF”JJF RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ J5ZFI K[P

RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ [Future Perfect Continuous]

HM SM> A[ lS|IF CJ[ 5KL YJFGL CMI VG[ T[DF\GL V[S lS|IF X~ Y>G[ AL_ lS|IF YTF
;]WL RF,] ZC[ TM T[ lS|IF NXF”JJF RF,] 5}6” ElJqISF/ J5ZFI K[P NFP TP TD[ A[ JFU[
SFU/ ,BJFG]\ X~ SI]”P VtIFZ[ RFZ JFuIF K[P HM TD[ K JFuIF ;]WL 5+ ,BJFG]\ RF,]
ZFBM TM K JFuIF ;]WLDF\ TD[ RFZ S,FS SFU/M ,bIF SIF” CX[P

By six O’clock you will have been writing letters for four hours.

As he started work in July, by December he will have been working for six months
T[6[ H],F>DF\ SFD X~ SI]”P TM 0L;[dAZGF V\T ;]WLDF\ T[ K DF; ;]WL SFD SZL ZCIM CX[P
VF SF/ ElJqIDF\ VD]S ;DI ;]WL SFD SZL ZCIM CX[ T[JF ;FTtI 5Z EFZ VF5[ K[P

sRF,] 5]6” ElJqISF/GF ~5Mf

sC]\ H> ZCIM CM>Xf

 [ 40]

VF SF/DF\ A[ ;DIlGN”[X H~ZL K[P

VF SF/GM EFuI[H p5IMU YFI K[P
RF,] 5]6” SF/M VMKF J5ZFI K[P SFZ6 S[ VF SF/G[ AN,[ TD[ 36[ 9[SF6[ 5]6” SF/M JF5ZL
XSM KMP VG[ J/L T[ ;FTtI ATFJJF SJF”RT® H J5ZFTF SF/M K[P

SF/GF TOFJTM
H]NF H]NF SF/GM TOFJT ;DHJFYL SF/ p5ZGL 5S0 DHA]T AG[ K[ T[ C[T]YL SF/GF TOFJT
GLR[ VF%IF K[P

;FNM JT”DFG SF/ RF,] JT”DFGSF/

!P ZMHGL lS|IF ATFJ[ K[P T[DF\ CD[XF\
(always) GM EFJ K[P NFPTP C]\ ZMH V\U|[_
5F9 JF\R] K]\
I read English lessons everyday.
ZP ;CFISFZS lS|IF5N to be G]\ ~5 K[P H[
OST 5|zFY"<GSFZDF\ H ,FU[ K[P lJWFG
JFSIDF\ GCL\P
I go. Do I go? I do not go.
#P 5\R[lg2IGF XaNM4 ,FU6LGF XaNM OST
;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\ H J5ZFI K[P H[JF S[ç
see, her, smeil, hope, think.
$P ElJqISF/GF VY”DF\ 56 J5ZFI K[P
The school closes on the 15th October
XF/F 5\NZDL VMS8MAZ[ A\W YX[P
5P A[ ElJqISF/GF ;FY[ p5IMUDF\ if
;FY[GM ElJqISF/ ;FNF JT”DFGSF/DF\
5lZ6D[ K[P
It he comes, I shall meet him.
HM T[ VFJX[ TM C]\ T[G[ D/LXP
!P VtIFZGL H RF,] lS|IF ATFJ[ K[P now GM
EFJ K[P
C]\ VtIFZ[ +LHM 5F9 JF\R] K]\P
I am reading the third lesson now.
ZP ;CFISFZS to be GF ~5M is are ,FU[ K[P
lS|IF5NG[ ing 5|tII ,FU[ K[P
I am going. Am I going?
I am not going.
#P 5\R[lg2IGF XaNM RFP JP DF\ J5ZFTF GYL
I am hearing G[ AN,[ I hear H AM,FI K[P
$P T[ H 5|DF6[ The school is closing on
the 15th Oct. sA\W YJFGL K[Pf
5P
 [ 41]

;FNM E}TSF/ 5}6” E}TSF/

E}TSF/GL V[S JBTGL SM> RMSS; 38GF E]TSF/GL A[ 38GFVMDF\ H[ 38GF JC[,L
DF8[ J5ZFI K[P V[8,[S[ 5C[,L Y > CMI T[G[ DF8[ J5ZFI K[P
The thief had run away before the police
I saw 3 pictuer yesterday.
came.
D[\ U> SF,[ 5LSRZ HMI]\
5M,L; VFJL T[ 5C[,F RMZ GF;L UIM CTMP
I left home when the telegram arrived By 2 O’clock, I had finished my work.
TFZ VFjIM tIFZ[ C]\ 3Z[YL GLS?IM CTMP sA\G[
lS|IFVM ,UEU ;FY[ Y> K[P VYJF G_JM A[ JFuIF ;]WLDF\ D[\ DF~ SFD 5]~ SZL ,LW]
;DI UF/M CM> XS[Pf CT]\P
s38GF ,UEU ;FY[ç;FY[ AGL K[Pf I had left home when the telegram arrived
TFZ VFjIM T[ 5C[,F C]\ 3[ZYL GLS/L UIM
CTMP s38GF VFU/ 5FK/ K[Pf
;FNM E}TSF/ 5}6” JT”DFGSF/
V[S JBTGL E}TSF/GL RMSS; 38GF ATFJ[ E}TSF/GL 38GF 56 JT”DFG ;FY[ ;\Sl,T
K[P ;\A\WJF/L4 V;ZJF/LP
I saw a picture yesterday. I Have seen the picture
D[\ U>SF,[ 5LSRZ HMI] D[\ 5LSRZ HMI]\ K[P sCJ[ HMJFGL H~Z GYLf
The teacher has tried several methods of
The teacher tried several methods of
teaching English.
teaching English. lX1S[ V\U|[_ XLBJFGL S[8,LI 5wWlTVM
lX1S[ V\U|[_ lXBJJFGL S[8,LS 5wWlT VHDFJL K[P
VHDFJLP Ol,TFY” o CH] VHDFJJFG]\ RF,] K[P
sOl,TFY” o CJ[ JWFZ[ VHDFJJL GYLP Z ;DIG]\ RMSS;56]\ CMT]\ GYLP
Z ;DIG]\ RMSS; 56] CMI K[P He has been to Bombay since. January
He went to Bombay last year. ð80.T[ HFgI]VFZL *) YL D]\A>DF\ K[P
5}P JP T[ UIM K[P
T[ UIF JQ”[ D]\A> UIM
ïK[ð4 ïK]ð KL V,U 50[ K[P
# ;FNM E}TSF/ ç T[ UIMP He went.

p5Z HMIF D]HA 5]6” JT”DFGSF/DF\4 E]TSF/GL AGL UI[,L 38GFG]\ DCtJ UF{6 K[P
VtIFZGF V[8,[ S[ JT”DFGGF ;DI 5Z T[GL V;Z DCtJGL K[P V[ SFZ6[ E}TSF/GM RMSS;
;DI H[JM S[ (Yesterday, 2 days, ago, in 1950) SIFZ[I 5}6” JT”DFGDF\ J5ZFTM GYLP T[
;FNF E}TSF/DF\ H J5ZFI K[P

Time expressions are not essential in present perfect. Those used with simple present
perfect indicate duration sUF/Mf or unspecified sVRMSS;f past time. Specific past
times are never sfated in present perfect.
 [ 42]

5}6” JT”DFG RF,] 5}6” JT”DFGSF/

5]GZFJlT”T 5}6” lS|IF NXF”J[ K[P ;TT RF,] ZC[,L 38GF NXF”J[ K[P
(repreated completed activity) (uninterrupted activity)
It has rained every day this week. It has been raining all morning.
VF V9JFl0I[ ZMH JZ;FN 50IM K[P ;JFZYL ;TT JZ;FN 50L ZCIM K[P
I have lived in Babapur for the last 10 I have been living in Babapur since
years. 1970!(&) YL AFAF5]ZDF\ ZCL ZCIM K]\ sCH]
K[(,F !) JQ”YL AFAF5]ZDF\ ZCIM K]P sCH] RF,] K[Pf VCL\ ;FTtI 5Z EFZ K[P
RF,] K[Pf sVCL\ 5]GZFJlT”T 5}6” lS|IF 5Z
EFZ K[Pf

There is really not a great deal of difference in meaning between these 2 tenses.
The continuous present sRFP 5}P JPf emphasizes duration, whereas the present
perfect focuses on repetition and/or completion. Many of the statements could be
expressed in either tense without anyone noticing the difference sVFJM H TOFJT
5}6” E}TSF/ VG[ RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ JrR[ K[Pf

SD”l6 5|IMU
V\U|[_GF SD”l6 5|IMU VG[ U]HZFTLGF SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ V[S 5FIFGM TOFJT ;DHJF H[JM K[P U]HZFTLDF\
;SD”S lS|IF5NJF/F JFSIMGM SD”l6 5|IMU YFI K[P H[D S[ç

C]\ O/ BFp\ K]\P DFZF J0[ O/ BJFI K[P

56 ;FY[ ;FY[ ç

VSD”S lS|IF5NGM 56 SD”l6 5|IMU H[JM H4 EFJ[ 5|IMU YFI K[P H[D S[ç

C]\ 50]\ K]\P DFZFYL 50FI K[P

BZ[BZ VF SD”l6 5|IMU GYL 56 ;\:S’TGM EFJ[ 5|IMU K[P 56 V\U|[_DF\ TM OST ;SD”S lS|IF5NGM
H SD”l6 5|IMU YFI K[P VSD”S lS|IF5NGM SNFl5 GCLP

lS|IF5N ;SD”S K[ S[ VSD”S K[ T[ S[D HF6J]\ m X]\ 5]KJFYLP

C]\ BFp\ K]\P X]\ BFp K]\ O/ BFp K]\ DF8[ ïBFJ]ð V[ ;SD”S lS|IF5N K[P
56 C]\ 50] K]\P X]\ 50]\ K]P\ HJFA GYL DF8[ ï50J]\ð V[ VSD”S lS|IF5N K[P

DF8[ V\U|[_DF\ I fall from a tree. C]\ hF0 5ZYL 50]\ K]\ VFJF JFSIMGM SD”l6 5|IMU G YFIP
 [ 43]

V\U|[_ XLBJF DF8[ SD”l6 5|IMU H~ZL GCL\ A(S[ VlGJFI” K[P

o lGIDM o

!P STF” SD” YFI K[P

ZP SD” STF” YFI K[P
#P lS|IF5NG]\ E}TS’NgTG]\ ~5 D}SFI K[P
$P to be GF T[ H SF/G]\ ~5 E}TS’NgT VFU/ D]SFI K[P
T[ GLR[GL VFS’lT D]HA NXF”JL XSFIP

wIFG ZFBM S[ H[D 5}6”SF/MDF\ lS|IF5NG]\ E}TS’NgTG]\ H ~5 J5ZFI K[P T[D SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ 56 OST
E}TS’NgTG]\ H ~5 J5ZFI K[P VF ZLT[ lS\|IF5N GF E}TS’NgTGF\ ~5M XLBJF VtI\T H~ZL K[P

lS|IF5NMGF E}TS’NgT S[JL ZLT[ AG[ K[m

lS|IF5NGF E}TSF/GL DFOS H 5|tII ,UF0LG[

NFP TP D}/~5 E}TSF/ E}TS’NgT

wash washed washed

call called called
play played played

STF” lS|IF5N SD”

STF” to be G]\E}T SD” T[H SF/G]\ S’NgT ~5

 [ 44]

DM8F EFUGF s((éf ~5M VFJF 5|SFZGF K[P KTF\ S[8,FS ~5M s;MçNM-;M ~5Mf VlGIlDT 56 K[P
H[JF S[ ç

D}/ ~5 E]TSF/ E]TS’NgT

go went gone
break broke broken
give gave given
take took taken
do did done
drive drove driven

VFJF ~5MGL IFNL K[(,F 5’q9 5Z VFJL K[P VFJF ~5M ;Z/TFYL 5FSF SZL XSFI K[P HM E]TSF/GF
~5M VG[ E]T S’NgTGF ~5M ;ZBF K[P TM 5}6”SF/ VG[ SD”l6 5|IMUGF E]T S’NgTGF ~5M VG[
E]TSF/GF ;ZBF ~5MGM TOFJT S[D ;D_ XSFI m
HJFA V[ K[ S[ç

!P 5}6”SF/DF\ have GF ;CFIS lS|IF5NGF p5IMUYL T[ SF/ H]NM 50L HFI K[P
ZP SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ E]T S’NgT 5C[,F to be GF ~5M is, was, is being, was being, besn JU[Z[ :5q8
ZLT[ H]NF 50L HFI K[P
#P JWFZ[ 5|[S8L;YL

SD”6L 5|IMU XLBTL JBT[ GLR[GL lJElSTVM p5IMUL Y> 50[ K[P

STF” lJElST SD” lJElST

C]\ I VD[ We DG[ Me VDG[ Us

T]\ You TD[ You TG[ You TDG[ You

T[ He T[VM They T[G[ Him T[VMG[ Them

T[6L She T[6LG[ Her

T[ It T[G[ It

GM\W o SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ I G]\ me, we G]\ us, he G]\ him, she G]\ her YFI K[P 8}\SDF\ V\U|[_DF\ VF8,]
HFcIF 5KL4 YM0LS 5|[S8L; 5KL4 SD”l6 5|IMU VtI\T ;C[,M AGL HFI K[P

ST”ZL 5|IMU
 [ 45]

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ 1 I write a letter C]\ 5+ ,B]\ K]\P

;FNM E]TSF/ 2 I Wrote a letter D[\ 5+ ,Bimp

;FNM ElJqI 3 I shall write a letter C]\ 5+ ,BLXP

RF,] JT”DFG 4 I am writing a letter C\] sVtIFZ[f 5+ ,B]\ K]\

RF,] E}TSF/ 5 I was writing a letter C]\ 5+ ,BTM CTMP

RF,] ElJqI 6 I shall be writing a letter C]\ 5+ ,BTM CM>XP

5}6” JT”DFG 7 I have written a letter D[\ 5+ ,bIM K[P

5}6” E}TSF/ 8 I had written a letter D[\ 5+ ,bIM CTMP

5}6” ElJqI 9 I shall have written a letter D[\ 5+ ,bIM CX[P

RF,] 5}6” JT”DFG 10 I have been writing a letter C]\ 5+ ,BL ZCIM K]\P

RF,] 5}6” E]TSF/ 11 I had been writing a letter C]\ 5+ ,BL ZCIM CTMP

RF,] 5}6” ElJqI 12 I shall have been writing a letter C]\ 5+ ,BL ZCIM CM>XP

SD”l6 5|IMU

1 A letter is written by me. To be

5+ DFZFYL ,BFI K[P
 [ 46]

2 A letter was written by me Is was

5+ DFZFYL ,BFIMP
3 A letter will be written by me are , were
5+ DFZFYL ,BFX[P
4 A letter is being written by me to be
5+ sVtIFZ[f DFZFYL ,BFI K[P
5 A letter was being written by me. is being
5+ DFZFYL ,BFTM CTMP
6 GYL YT]\ Was being
7 A letter has been written by me are being
5+ DFZFYL ,BFIM K[P
8 A letter had been written by me were being
5+ DFZFYL ,BFIM CTMP
9 A letter will have been written by me been
5+ DFZFYL ,BFIM CX[P
10 GYL YT]\
11 GYL YT]\
12 GYL YT]\

GM\W o VF SM9F GL JFZ\JFZ 5|[S8L; SZJFYL SD”l6 5|IMU ;Z/ Y> HX[P
GPç# G]\ ~5 ;F{YL VUtIG]\ K[P SFZ6S[ AWF GF ~5M G\P # 5|DF6[ H YFI
K[P

ST”ZL 5|IMU
Shall I Shall write a lette C]\ 5+ ,BLX

Should I should write a letter DFZ[ 5+ ,BJM HM>V[

 [ 47]

Will I will write a letter C]\ 5+ ,BLXP

Would I would write a letter C\] 5+ ,B]\ K]\

Can I can write a letter C]\ 5+ ,BL XS] K]]\

Could I could write a letter C] 5+ ,BL XSIM

May I may write a letter C]\ 5+ SNFR ,B]\

Might I might write a letter C]\ 5+ SNFR ,B]\

Must I must write a letter DFZ[ 5+ ,BJM H HM>V[

Ought to I ought to write a letter DFZ[ 5+ ,BJM HM>V[

Infinitive I want you to write a letter C]\ >rK] K] S[ T] 5+ ,B

be+infinitive I am to write a letter C]\ 5+ ,BJFGM K]\

have+infinitive He has to write a letter T[6[ 5+ ,BJFGM K[P

Shall A letter will be written by me.

5+ DFZFYL ,BFX[P
Should A letter should be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ ,BFJM HM>V[P
Will A letter will be written by me
5+ DFZFYL ,BFX[P
Would A letter would be written by me
 [ 48]

DFZFYL 5+ ,BFIP
Can A letter can be written by me.
DFZFYL 5+ ,BL XSFI
Could A letter could be written by me.
DFZFYL 5+ ,BL XSFIM
May A letter may be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ SNFR ,BFIP
Might A letter might be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ SNFR ,BFIP
Must A letter must be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ ,BFJM H HM>V[P
Ought to A letter ought to be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ ,BFJM HM>V[P
Infinitive I want a letter to be written by you
C]\ >rK] K] S[ TDFZFYL 5+ ,BFI
Is to A letter is to be written by me
DFZFYL 5+ ,BFJFGM K[P
has to A letter has to be written by me
T[GF J0[ 5+ ,BFJFGM K[P

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ Who, writes a letter?

;FNM E]TSF/ Who wrote a letter ?

;FNM ElJqI Who will write a letter ?

RF,] JT”DFG Who is writing a letter ?

RF,] E}TSF/ Who was writing a letter ?

RF,] ElJqI Who will be writing a letter ?

 [ 49]

5}6” JT”DFG Who has written a letter ?

5}6” E}TSF/ Who had written a letter ?

5}6” ElJqI Who will have written a letter ?

ALHF 5|SFZGF 5|`GFY” JFSIM

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ What do you write ?

;FNM E}TSF/ How did you write a letter ?

;FNM ElJqISF/ Will you write a letter ?

RF,] JT”DFGSF/ When are you writing a letter ?

RF,] E}TSF/ Which letter were you writing ?

5}6” JT”DFGSF/ What have you written ?

GM\W o p5ZGF JFSIMGM VeIF; SZTF H6FX[ S[ 5|`GFY” JFSIMGM SD”l6 5|IMU HMS[
p5ZYL V858M VG[ U}\RJ6EIF”[ ,FU[ K[P 56 JF:TJDF\ lJWFG JFSIM H[JM H
K[P
;FNF JT”DFGDF\ YT]\ CT]\ T[GF AN,[ CJ[ G[ K]\8] 5F0LG[ JrR[ XaN D}SFIM K[P
V[8,[ 5C[,F HM SF/ SIM K[ T[ GSSL SZL VFU/ JWJFDF\ VFJ[ TM SD”l6
5|IMU ;C[,M AG[ K[P
 [ 50]

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ By whom is a letter written ?

;FNM E]TSF/ By whom was a letter written ?

;FNM ElJqI By will a letter be written ?

RF,] JT”DFG By whom is a letter being written ?

RF,] E}TSF/ By whom was a letter being written ?

RF,] ElJqI ~5 GYL YT]\

5}6” JT”DFG By whom has a letter been written ?

5}6” E}TSF/ By whom had a letter been written ?

5}6” ElJqI By whom will a letter have been written ?

;FNM JT”DFGSF/ What is written by you ?

;FNM E}TSF/ How was a letter written by you ?

;FNM ElJqISF/ Will a letter be written by you ?

RF,] JT”DFGSF/ When is a letter being written by you ?

RF,] E}TSF/ Which letter was being written by you ?

5}6” JT”DFGSF/ What has been written by you ?

GM\W o l2SD”S lS|IF5NMG]\ SD”l6 5|IMU SZTL JBT[ A[DF\YL SM> 56 V[S SD” ,> XSFI K[P
1. He gave me a pen. A pen was given to me by him VYJF I was given a pen by
him
2. lS|IF5N 5KL GFDIMUL VjIJ (preposition) CMI TM T[G[ ;FY[ ZFBJM H~ZL K[P I look
after him. He is looked after by me.
3. VF7FY” DF\ Let VG[ be pD[ZFI K[P
Open the window. Let the window be opened.
4. VF7FY” DF VSD”S lS|IF5NGM SD”l6 5|IMU You are requested XaN pD[ZJFYL YFI
K[P keep to the left – you are requested to keep to the left

Active Voice
 [ 51]

1 I shall have written a letter

2 I should have written a letter

3 I can have written a letter

4 I could have written a letter

5 I will have written a letter

6 I would have written a letter

7 I may have written a letter

8 I might have written a letter

9 I ought to have written a letter

10 I ought to have written a letter

Having done the work he went for a walk

 [ 52]

Perfect Infinitives

1 A letter will have been written by him

2 A letter should have been written by him

3 A letter can have been written by him

4 A letter could have been written by him

5 A letter will have been written by him

6 A letter would have been written by him

7 A letter may have been written by him

8 A letter might have been written by him

9 A letter must have been written by him

10 A letter ought to have been written by him

The work having been done by him, he went for a walk.

GM\W o Pefect participles G]\ passive voice perfect infinitives GL DFOS H been
pD[ZLG[ SZJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P
 [ 53]

5]~Q ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ RF,]

1 I am called We are called I am being called
sDG[ AM,FJ[ K[Pf sDG[ VtIFZ[ AM,FJ[ K[P
2 You are called You are called You are being called
3 He is called They are called He is being called
;FNM E}TSF/ RF,]
1 I was called We were called I was being called
sDG[ AM,FJFIM K[Pf sDG[ AM,FJFTM CTMPf
2 You were called We were called You were being called
3 He wasx called They were called He was being called
;FNM ElJqISF/ RF,]

1 I shall be called We shall be called sVF SF/GF\

sDG[ AM,FJFX[Pf
2 You will be called You will be called
3 He will be called. They will be called
GMW o RF,] 5}6” SF/GM SD”l6 5|IMU YTM
GYL GLR[ D]HA 56 SZL XSFIP
1 I call I am called
2 You call You are called
3 He calls He is called
1 I called I was called.
2 You called You were called
3 He called He was called
1 I shall call I shall be called.
2 You will call You will be called.
3 He will call He will be called

~5FbIFG
 [ 54]

JT”DFGSF/ 5}6” JT”DFGSF/

We are being called
You are being called
They are being called
E}TSF/
We were being called
You were being called
They were being called
ElJqISF/
I have been called We have been called
sDG[ AM,FjIM K[Pf
You have been called. You have been called
He has been called They have been called
5}6” E}TSF/
I had been called We had been called.
sDG[ AM,FjIM CTMPf
You had been called. You had been called
He had been called They had been called
5}6” ElJqISF/
I shall have been called We shall have been called
sDG[ AM,FjIM CX[Pf
You will have been called You will have been called
He will have been called They will have been called.

Active Passive sSM9FDF\f

SF/ ;FNM RF,] 5}6” RF,] 5}6”

JT”DFG ST”ZL I love I am loving I have loved I have been
loving
SF/ o SD”l6 I am loved I am being loved I have been loved X
E}TSF/ ST”ZL I loved I was loving I had loved I had been
loving
SD”l6 I was loved I was being loved I had been loved X
ElJqI o ST”ZL I shall love I shall be loving I shall have loved I shall have
been loving
SF/ o SD”l6 I shall be loved X I shall have been X
loved
 [ 55]

The causative s5|[ZS ~5f

U]HZFTLDF\ H[D SZJ]\çSZFJJ]\4 BFJ]\4 BJ0FJJ]\4 TYF lCgNLDF\ H[D BFGF lB,FGF lB,JFGF H[JF 5|[ZS
~5M K[P T[JF ~5M V\U|[_DF\ GYL T[YL +6 lS|IF5NMP

To make, to have to get GL DNNYL V\U|[_DF\ 5|[ZS~5M AGFJFI K[P VF56[ VUFp HMI]\ S[
U]HZFTLDF\ SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ ïVFIð 5|tII ,UF0L SD”l6 5|IMUGF ~5M T{IFZ YFI K[ H[D S[ ,B[ K[P4
,BFI K[P T[JL ZLT[ 5|[ZS ~5DF\ D]bI ïVFJð ,UF0L 5|[ZS ~5M T{IFZ YFI K[ H[D S[ ,BJ]\4 ,BFJJ]\4
JF\RJ]\4 J\RFJJ]\ > V\U|[_DF\ o +6 ~5MDF\ make DF\ NAF6 K[P HIFZ[ have VG[ get DF\ SM>G[ SFD
SZJF ZMSLG[ VYJF VFU|C SZLG[ SFD SZFJJFGM C[T]\ K[P have VG[ get DF\ BF; SM> TOFJT GYLP
have GM p5IMU VD[ZLSFDF\ JWFZ[ K[ HIFZ[ get GM p5IMU >u,[g0DF\ lJX[Q K[P

makeG]\ ~5 have VG[ get YL TN®G HF]\N] 50L HFI K[P

1. Make suggests the use of force either physical or psychological make 5|IMUDF\ DFGl;S
VYJF VgI NAF6 CMI K[Pf

5|[ZS ~5GL ZRGF o make

VF ~5 DCN V\X[ ST”ZL 5|IMUDF\ H CMI K[P T[DF\ 5|[ZS~5 make + SD”P (object + lS|IF5NG]\
D}/~5f sto VwIFCFZ ZFBLG[ AGFJFI K[Pf
NFPTP I made him work D[\ T[GL 5F;[ SFD SZFjI]\P
SD”l6 5|IMUDF\ EFuI[H J5ZFTF make GF 5|IMUDF\ D}/~5 to ;FY[ J5ZFI K[ H[D S[4 He was
made to work T[GL 5F;[ SFD SZFJJFDF\ VFjI]\P
HIFZ[ have VG[ get GF ~5M DF8[ EFU[ SD”l6 5|IMUDF\H HMJF D/[ K[P SD”l6 5|IMUGL ZRGFDF\
have + object + past participle
s5|[ZS ~5f + sSD"f + E}TS’NgT H[D S[
- I got my hair cut (by a barber) D[\ JF/ S5FJZFjIFP
- I had my hair cut (by a barber)
HIFZ[ ST”ZL 5|IMU HZF S-\UM ,FU[ K[ H[D S[P

- I got a barber to cut my hair.

- I had a barber cut my hair.

ALHF JFSIDF\ V[8,[ S[ have GF 5|[ZS ST”ZLDF\ to VwIFCFZ ZC[ K[P 8}|\SDF\ VF56[ 5F\R GD}GFVM IFN
ZFBJF HM>V[P
 [ 56]

1. make : He make me work

2. have sSD"l65|IMUDF\f I had my shoes repaired.
3. get sSD"l65|IMUDF\f I got my shoes repaired.
4. have sST"ZL5|IMUDF\f I had a cobbler repair my shoes.
5. get sST"ZL5|IMUDF\f I got a cobbler to repair my shoes.

GM\W o 5|[ZSZRGFDF\ bIF, ZFBJF H[JL J:T] V[ K[ S[

! 5|[ZS~5 5KL SD” VFJJ]\ H HM>V[ H[D S[
- He had his hair cut JF/ S5FJZFjIF i.e. He employed someone to do it 56 HM SD” G VFJ[ TMP
- He had cut his hair V[GM VY” V[D YFI S[ 5MT[H 5MTFGF JF/ SF%IF CTF
Z AM,TL JBT[ make, have VG[ get p5Z :JZEFZ (stress) VFJJM HM>V[P

 Have VG[ get GF 5|[ZS~5GF N®q8F\TMP

1. Get this room cleaned. VF ~D ;FO SZFJL (IMP

2. At present I am busy having my house repaired.
CF, C]\ SFDDF\ K]\ DFZ]\ 3Z ZL5[Z SZFJL ZCIM K]\
3. And what greater harm could you do her than to have her accused.
T[GF 5Z VFZM5 D}SFJLG[ TD[ T[G[ T[YL JWFZ[ G]SXFG X]\ SZL XSM m
4. I would have some one to examine your head
TDFZF DUHGL SM> 2FZF T5F; SZFJJL 50X[P
5. Could you have her arrested ? TD[ T[6LGL WZ5S0 SZFJL XSM m
6. I have a flight to Bomday booked on Monday. D[\ ;MDJFZ[ D]\A>GL OF,F>8 A]S SZFJL K[P
7. I helped him finish his job. T[G]\ SFD 5}~ SZFJJFDF\ D[ DNN SZLP
GM\W o help G]\ lS|IF5N 56 SJlRT modal GF VgJI[ J5ZFI K[P tIFZ[ help 5KL lS|IF5N G]\ D}/~5
D]SFI K[P VG[ bare infiniteive GM p5IMU YFI K[P
 [ 57]

Make GF p5IMUGF YM0F N®q8F\TM o

1. Money makes the mare go.
2. You can take a horse to the water but you cannot make it drink.
3. The way he talked to his sister made me want to puke.
4. Any tough cop could make him sing like a canary.
5. What makes you think that I am waiting for an escort ?
6. I made her do what she did.
7. Can we make the murder look like an accident?
8. How would you like to be made to sit near a roasting fire in this hot weather ?
9. The student had made a speling mistake. So the teacher made him write the same word ten
times.
10. I won’t go and you can’t make me go.

Clauses sp5JFSIMf
jIFSZXF:+LVMGM V[S ;J”;\DT DT K[ S[ V\\U|[_ XLBJF DF8[ XLBJF Clauses VFJxIS K[P
Clauses XLBJF DF8[ JFSIGF 5|SFZ HF6JF 56 H~ZL K[P
JFSIGF +6 5|SFZ K[P : ;FN]\4 ;\I]ST4 VG] ;\S], VYJF lDzP
1. A sentence that has only one verb in it is called a simple sentence.
NFP TP The sun rises in the east in the west
2. A sentence that is made of two or more simple sentences joined by a conjunction
or conjunctions is called a Compound sentence. The sun rises in the east and sets in
the west.
s36LJFZ compound sentences G[ JWFZ[compact SZJF VF56[ OF,T] (redundant)
;J”GFD S[ G[ 50TF D}SLV[ KLV[P H[D S[ç
- We bought a house, and we sold it and we made a profit.
- We bought a house, sold it and made a profit.
;\I]ST JFSIGL V\NZ VFJ[, 5|tI[S JFSI :JT\+ ZLT[ pEF ZCL XS[ K[ VG[ and but or
>ü pEIFgJIL VjIJYL HM0FI[, CMI K[P

3. Complex sentence slDz JFSIf

 [ 58]

VFJF 5|SFZGF JFSIMDF\ V[S D]bI JFSI CMI K[P VG[ AFSLGF V[S S[ V[SYL JWFZ[ U{6
JFSIM CMI K[P
UF{6 JFSI V[8,[ V[J]\ JFSI S[ H[ ;\5}6” VY” GYL NFBJT]\ T[G[ ;\5}6” VY” DF8[ ALHF
JFSI p5Z VFWFZ ZFBJM 50[ K[P V[ ZLT[ UF{6 JFSIG[ ï,\U0]ð SCL XSFI H[ D]bI
JFSIGF BEF p5Z A[;LG[ H RF,L XS[ K[P V[8,[

A clause is a sentence that does not make complete sense by itself.

It depends on another sentence for its full meaning.
NFPTP If you read, you will pass.
HM TD[ JF\RXM4 TM 5F; YXMP
VF JFSIDF\ V[ UF{6 JFSI K[P OST V[ 5}6” VY” ATFJT]\ GYLP 56 HIFZ[ T[G[ V[ D]bI
JFSIGL ;FY[ HM0JFDF\ VFJ[ tIFZ[ H T[GM ;\5}6” VY” ;DHFI K[P
8}\SDF\ ;FNF JFSIMG[ Z[(J[ GF ïV[lgHGð GL p5DF\ VF5L XSFI H[ 5MTFGL D[/[ :JT\+
ZLT[ RF,L XS[ K[P
;\I]ST JFSIG[ ïA[ V[lgHGð GL p5DF\ VF5L XSFI VCL\ A\gG[ JFSIM :JT\+ K[ VG[
;\5}6” VY” ATFJL :JTo RF,L XS[ K[P HIFZ[ lDz JFSIG[ V[S V[lgHG JTF UF{6 JFSIM
H[JF ï0aAFVMð ;\,uG CMI K[P VF 0aAFVM :JT\+ ZLT[ RF,L XSTF GYLP T[G[
D]bIJFSI ~5L ïV[lgHGðGL H~Z 50[ K[
clauses +6 5|SFZGF K[P
1. Noun clauses. sGFD p5JFSIMf
2. Adjective clauses. slJX[Q6 p5JFSIMf TYF
3. Adverb caluses. slS|IFlJX[Q6 p5JFSIMf

Noun clauses. sGFD p5JFSIMf

A clause that does the work of a noun in a sentence is a Noun Clause
H[ JFSI GFDG]\ SFI” SZ[ K[ T[ GFDçp5JFSI SC[JFI K[P T[ D]bItJ[ STF” S[ SD” TZLS[ SFI” SZ[ K[P
 [ 59]

1. What you say is true. sSTF" TZLS[f 2 Tell me who he is sSD" TZLS[f
T[ preposition object sSD"f TZLS[ 56 VFJ[ K[P I don’t believe in what you say, Noun
clauses GL lJlXq8TF V[ K[ S[ DM8[ EFU[ T[ that sS[f YL X~ YFI K[ V[8,[ T[G[ ‘that –
clauses’ 56 SC[ K[P
We know that the earth is round VF56[ HF6LV[ KLV[ S[ 5’yJL UM/ K[P lJXF/ ;\bIFDF\
lS|IF5NM 5KL that clauses VFJTF CMJFYL Noun-clauses VM/BJF ;C[,F 50[ K[P VFJF
lS|IF5NMDF\YL S[8,F\S lS|IF5NM GLR[ D]HA K[P
say, tell, state, think, hope, imagine, inform, see, observe, fear, advise, assure, admit,
understand, realize, expect, doubt, believe, ask, agree, i.e.,
Noun-c-auses wh that
I don’t know how he finished his work.
He asked me where I was going.
2. Adjective Clauses slJX[Q6 p5JFSIMf
VF 5|SFZGF D]bItJ[ ;\AWL ;J”GFDM YL HM0FI[,F CMI K[P
NFPTP who, whom, whose, which, what, that (who-which) VG[ GF VY”DF\
H[D S[ o That is the boy who (that) works hard.
That is the boy whom (that) I me yesterday.
V+[ Who works hard VG[ whom I met V[ lJX[Q6 p5JFSIM K[ HIFZ[ This is The boy
V[ D]bI JFSI K[P
;\A\WL ;J”GFDM WMç!Z DF\ 5}KFTF CMJFYL T[GL lJ:T’T DFlCTL ;FY[GF SM9FDF\ VF5L K[P
 [ 60]

Relative Pronouns ;\A\WL ;J”GFD

lJElST lJ ;\P ;P VY” ;\P ;P G]\ ALH] ~5
DF+ DG]qI DF8[ 1 STF” who H[ that
:+Lç5]P V[PJP APJPDF\ 2 SD” whom H[G[ that
V[S H ~5 6 ;\A\W whose H[G]\ X

5|F6Lç5NFY” DF8[ 1 STF” which H[ that

V[PJPçAPJP4 STF” SD”G]\ 2 SD” which H[G[ That
V[S H ~5 6 ;\A\W of which H[G]\ X

OST 5NFY” DF8[ 1 STF” what T[ H[ X

V[PJPG]\ H ~5 o 2 SD” what T[ H[ X
sAPJP GYLf STF” S[ 6 ;\A\W X X X
SD”G]\ 56 V[SH ~5
5|`GFY”S ;J”GFD
DF+ DG]qI DF8[ H 1 STF” who SM6 X
:+L,L\U ç 5]\(,L\U 2 SD” whom SMG[ X
V[PJPAPJP V[SH ~5 6 ;\A\W whose SMG]\ X

DG]qI 1 STF” which SI]\ X

5|F6L 2 SD” which SI]\ X
5NFY” DF8[ 6 ;\A\W which of DF\YL SI]\ X

OST 1 STF” what X]\ X

5NFY” 2 SD” what X]\ X
DF8[ 6 ;\A\W X X X
 [ 61]

This is the boy/girl who (that) works hard.

These are the boys/ girls who (that) work hard.
This is the boy/girl whom (that) all praise.
These are the boys/girls whom (that) all praise.
This is the boy/girl whose exercise is well-done.
These are the boys/girls whose excercises are will-done.

This is the dog which (that) bit me.

These are the dogs which (that) bit me.
This is the dog which (that) I beat.
These are the dogs which (that) I beat.
This is the lock the key of which is lost

What you say is true.

Take what you like.
(Take the thing which you like.

Who are you ?

Whom do you want ?
Whose is this book ?

Which is your house/brother ?

Which do you like tea or coffee ?
Which of these books is yours ?

What is this ?
What do you want ?

GM\W o Whom do you want to see ? formal English DF\ ‘who’ 56 J5ZFI K[P
Who do you want to see ?
 [ 62]

But GM lJlXq8 p5IMU

WMP XII GF AM0”GF 5|`G 5[5ZDF\ But GF\ ;\A\WL ;J”GFDGF VY”DF\ 5|`G 5}KFI K[P T[YL
SZLG[ VF lJX[ HF6J]\ H~ZL K[P
But GF XaN 5|SFZ (Part of speech) +6 K[P
1. Conjunction TZLS[
(a) ï56ð GF VY”DF\
He went to the party, but his brother didn’t.
(b) However sKTF\If GF VY”DF\
She cut her finger, but didn’t cry.
2. Preposition sGFDIMUL VjIIf TZLS[except sl;JFIf GF VY”DF\
(a) No body but you could be so selfish.
TDFZL l;JFI ALHM SM> VF8,M :JFYL” G CM> XS[P
(b) But fer your help, I would not have passed.
TDFZL DNN l;JFI C]\ 5F; G Y> XSIM CMTP
3. Relative pronoun s;\A\WL ;J”GFDf TZLS[P
Who not S[ which not GF VY”DF\ Every rose has a thorn NZ[S U],FAG[ SF\8F CMI
K[P
There is no rose which has not a thorn
V[J]\ SM> U],FA GYL CMT] S[ H[G[ SF8F G CMIP
There is no rose but has thorn V+[ CSFZ JFSIGM 5|IMU every YL X~ YFI K[P
HIFZ[ GSFZJFSIGM 5|IMU YL X~ YFI K[P HIFZ[ GSFZJFSIGM 5|IMU there YL X~
YFI K[P
WMP XII GF 5|`G 5[5ZDF\ +LHF 5|SFZGF\ GM p5IMU YFI K[P
March 87 : There was none in the audience hall …. Laughed (but, who, all)
Oct 87 : There was none ….. wept at the death of mahatmaji (who but, when)
March 88 : There is no student in our class… has contributed in the relief fund. (as
when, since)
Oct. 86 : There is no country … has problems (which, but, that)
p5ZGF AWF JFSIMDF\ OST but G\]\ ;\A\WL ;J”GFD H VFJL XS[

Adverb Clauses slS|IFlJX[Q6 p5JFSIMf

 [ 63]

H[ clauses lS|IFlJX[Q6G]\ SFI” SZ[ K[P T[ adverb clause SC[JFI K[P T[GF 5|SFZ GLR[ D]HA
K[P

1 Adverb clause of place s:YFGSJFRS lS|P pPf

2 Adverb clause of time s;DIJFRS ðð f
3 Adverb clause of purpose sC[T]JFRS ðð f

4 Adverb clause of reason sSFZ6JFRS ðð f

5 Adverb clause of result s5lZ6FDJFRS ðð f
6 Adverb clause of comparision sT],GFJFRS ðð f

7 Adverb clause of condition sXZTJFRS ðð f

8 Adverb clause of contrast slJZMWJFRS ðð f
9 Adverb clause of manner sZLlTJFRS ðð f

CJ[ S|DJFZ HM>V[P

1. Adverb clause of place : s:YFGSJFRS pP lS|Pf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
where – wherever
1. I don’t know where he lives.
2. His dog follows him wehraver he goes.
3. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
2. Adverb clause of time. s;DIJFRS pP lS|Pf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
when, whenever, while, before, after, till, until, as, as soon as, since. (and the
compound forms) no sooner… than, hardly…. When, scarcely…. when.
1. Look before you leap.
2. After the patient had died, the doctor came.
3. Wait till I come.
4. As soon as I have finished, I will call you.
5. When he came, I was reading.
Hardly, Scarcely = ïEFuI[Hð4 ïDF\0ð YFI K[P no sooner 5KL than VFJ[ K[P HIFZ[
Hardly S[ scarcely 5KL when VFJ[ K[P

Hardly had I opened my umbrella when the rain started.

CH] TM EFuI[H sDF\0f K+L p3F0LP tIF\ TM JZ;FN T}8L 50IMP
VF 5|SFZGF clauses WMP XII GF AM0”GF 5[5ZDF\ 5|`G # (C) DF\ 5}KFI K[P N®q8F\TM
 [ 64]

Oct. – 86 : The film had hardly started … a loud bang was heard inside.
(as, when, since)
March-87 : Hardly had he opened his umbrella… it turned up in wind.
(as soon as, when, then)
Oct. – 87 : Scarcely had he opened the cage… the bird flew away.
(when, and, then)
March-88 : The police had hardly left the ground… the bomb exploded.
(when, then, that)
March-89 : The plan had hardly taken off… it began to roll violently.
(when, then, than)
Oct. – 89 : The stage programme had hardly begun… the audience started
shouting. (as, when, since)
VF AWL BF,L HuIFVMDF\ OST when H VFJL XS[
3. Adverb clause of purpose sC[T]JFRS lS|P pPf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
that, in order that, so (that) lest, in case etc.,
1. Ramu is working hard so (that) sH[YL SZLG[f he may pass his examination)
2. Make a note of it lest you should forget.
GM\W 85SFJL ,M4 GCL TM ZB[G[ TD[ E},L HXMP
4. Adverb clause of reason. sSFZ6JFRS lS|P pPf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
because, since, as, for =
1. He passed his examination because he worked hard.
2. Since you say so, I must believe it.
TD[ SCM KM V[8,[ DFZ[ DFGJ]\ H HM>V[P
3. As it was raining heavily, we postponed our programme.
JZ;FN HMZNFZ JZ;TM CTM V[8,[ VD[ VDFZM SFI”S|D D],tJL ZFbIMP
5. Adverb clause of result : s5lZ6FDJFRS lS|P pPf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
that, so (that), so (such) … that
1. He spoke in such a low voice that few could hear him.
T[ V[8,]\ WLD[ AM(IM S[ AC] VMKF T[G[ ;F\E/L XSIFP
2. The lion was so fierce that no one tried to go near it.
 [ 65]

3. So terrible was the cyclone that whole roofs were ripped off.
J\\8M/LIM V[8,M HMZNFZ CTM S[ VFBF KF5ZFG[ KF5ZF p0L UIFP
6. Adverb clause of comparision : sT],GFJFRS lS|P pPf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
as, as…as, not so…as, than, the…the etc.,
1. I am taller than you (are)
2. He is as clever as Ramesh.
3. The more he gets, the more he demands.
sGM\W o ;DF\TZ JWFZM S[ 38F0M NXF”JJF G\P # GM 5|IMU K[Pf
T[ H[D H[D JWFZ[ D[/J[ K[4 T[D T[D JWFZ[ DF\U[ K[P
7. Adverb clause of condition : sXZTJFRS lS|P pPf
chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
( If, Unless, )
1. If you work, you will pass. HM SFD SZXM TM 5F; YXMP
2. Unless you work, you will fail. HM SFD GCL\ SZM TM GF5F; YXMP
If VG[ Unless
If ç HM VG[Unless = HM GCL
VF A\G[ lJZMWL XaNM CMJFYL JFSI ~5F\TZ SZTL JBT[ GLR[GF lGIDM ;DHJF H~ZL
K[P
1. If-clause DF\ HIFZ[ GSFZFtDS JFSI CMI tIFZ[ SM> 5lZJT"G YT]\ GYLP H[D S[ o
If you don’t read, you will fail.
Unless you read, you will fail.
2. 56 HM If – clause DF\ CSFZFtDS JFSI CMI TM lJZMWL VY” D}SJM 50[ K[P H[D S[4
If you read, you will pass.
Unless you read, you will fail VYJF you will not pass.
;FNF JT”DFGSF/GM GSFZ SZJF\ do, does GF ;CFISFZS lS|IF5N J5ZFI K[P H[D S[4
He goes – He does not go.
I go – I do not go.
Unless CSFZFtDS JFSI CMJFYL T[G[ VFJF ;CFISFZS lS|IF5NGL H~Z ZC[TL GYLP
V[8,[ Unless JF/F JFSI CSFZFtDS CMI VG[ if-clause DF\ O[ZJJFG]\ CMI tIFZ[ do-
does VJxI D}SJF\ HM>V[ o H[D S[P
Unless he reads, he will fail.
 [ 66]

If he does not read, he will fail.

Unless you read, you will fail.
If you do not read, you will fail.

V\\U|[_DF\ lGID K[ S[ No future after temporal. Temporals V[8,[ denoting time.

;DINX”S pEIFgJIL VjII 5KL ElJqISF/ J5ZFTM GYLP T[G[ AN,[ ;FNM
JT”DFGSF/ H J5ZFI K[P H[D S[P

We shall go for a walk when you (will) come.

VCL\ When you will come G[ AN,[ when you come VFJ[ K[P
V[H ZLT[ If-clause G]\ K[P V[8,[ If you will come G[ AN,[ If you come VFJ[ K[P VF
36M VUtIGM lGID K[P VF lGIDGL HF6 GF VEFJ[ 36L E},M YJF ;\\EJ K[P
8. Adverb clause of contrast : slJZMWJFRS lS|P pPf
Chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
Though, if, however, although, even if.
1. Though he is poor, he is happy.
2. However poor, he is, he is happy.
3. Poor as he is, he is happy.
HM S[ T[ UZLA K[ í UT[ T[8,M T[ UZLA K[P í E,[G[ T[ UZLA K[ KTF\ T[ ;]BL K[P
G\P Z DF\ However 5KL TZT H lJX[Q6 VFJ[ K[ HIFZ[4
G\P # DF\ lJX[Q6 JFSIGL X~VFTDF\ VFJ[ K[P
WMP XII GF AM0”GF\ 5[5;”DF\ VF V\U[ 5|`G 5}KFI K[P H[ VF 5KL VF%IF K[P

9. Adverb clause of manner : sZLlTJFRS lS|P pPf

Chief conjunction sD]bI ;\IMHSMfo
As, how, in that,
1. He did as I told him.
2. You may finish it how, you like.
3. We were at a disadvantage in that they outnumbered us two to one.
4. At Rome we must do as the Romans(do)
Clauses that tell ‘how’ an action is done are Adverb Clauses of manner.
[ 67]
 [ 68]

The Sequence of Tenses sSF/S|Df

V\U|[_DF\ SF/S|DGM lGID AC]H 8}SMçV[SH ,L8LGM K[P 56 lJnFYL”VM S[ JF\RSJU” DF8[ T[
;[\S0M D];LATM pEL SZ[ K[P
VF lGID 5FIFGM K[P 5FIFGF R6TZ lJGF V\U|[_ EFQFGL .DFZT R6JL D]xS[, K[P VF
lGIDGL lJlXq8TFV[ K[ S[4
s!f T[ JT”DFGSF/ S[ ElJqISF/G[ ,FU] 50TM GYLP
sZf OST E}TSF/G[ H ,FU] 50[ K[P s#f J/L VF lGID lDzJFSIMG[ H ,FU] 50[ K[P S[
EFJFY” ;DHTF 5FZFJFZ D]xS[,LVM 50[ K[P
s5f DF\ VF lGID lJX[Q ,FU] 50[ K[P
VUFp HMI]\ T[ D]HA JFSIGF +6 5|SFZ HMIFP
s!f ;FN]\ JFSI sZf ;\I]STJFSI VG[ s#f lDzJFSI V[8,[ DF\ V[S D]bI JFSI VG[ V[S
T[YL JWFZ[ UF{6 JFSIM CMI K[P VF lGID VF UF{6 JFSIMG[ ,FU] 50[ K[P
lGID o HM D]bI JFSIDF\ VFJ[,\] lS|IF5N E}TSF/DF\ CMI TM UF{6 JFSI S[ p5JFSIG]\
lS|IF5N 56 E}|TSF/DF\ O[ZJFI]\ K[P
VF lGID 5|DF6[ OST 5F\R SF/DF\ 5lZJT”G YFI K[ VG[ DM0, VMShL,LIZLhGF ~5DF\
56 5lZJT”G YFI K[P
s!f ;FNF JT”DFG ;FNM E}TSF/ YFI K[P sZf RF,] JT”DFG RF,] E}TSF/ YFI K[P
s#f 5}6” JT”DFG 5}6” E}TSF/ YFI K[P s$f 5}6” E}TSF/ ;FNM E}TSF/ YFI K[P
VG[ s5f RF,] E}TSF/ RF,] 5}6” E}TSF/ YFI K[P
GF\ ~5MDF\ G]\ G]\ G]\ VG[ G]\ ~5 YFI K[P CJ[4 U]RJF0M SIF\ pEM YFI K[P
NFPTP T[6[ SCI] ïïC]\ HFp\ K]\Pðð
T[G\] lGID D]HA VF JFSIGM XaNXo VG]JFN SZLV[ TM T[6[ SCI] S[ T[ HTM CTM 56
U]HZFTLDF\ TM VF56[ T[DH SCLV[ S[ T[6[ SCI] S[ T[ HFI K[P
V\U|[_GF SF/S|DGF VFWFZ[ H V[ E}TSF/G]\ ~5 AgI] K[P U]HZFTL VY” TM D}/ K[ T[ H ZC[
K[P VG[ VCL\H VG]JFNDF\ VYJF ;DHJFDF\ lJnFYL”VMG[ TS,LO 50[ K[P
U]HZFTLGM D}/ VY” ;FRJL ZFBJM HM>V[ VG[ T[ DF8[ B}A DCFJZFGL H~Z ZC[ K[P
VUFp D]bI JFSIG[ ïV[lgHGðGL p5DF VF5[,LP V[lgHG pW]\ 50[ V[8,[ UF{6JFSIMGF 0aAF
VF5M VF5 p\WF 50[ T[JM VF lGID V\U|[_DF\ K[P U]HZFTLDF\ GYL V[ JFT VF56[
SF/_5}J”S IFN ZFBJFGL K[P SF/S|DGF lGIDM ;FY[GF SM9FDF\ VF%IF K[P
VF lGID 0FIZ[S8ç>G0FIZ[S8 5}ZTF H l;lDT GYL4 NZ[S lDz JFSIG[ ,FU]\ 50[ K[P NFPTP
I can sing well C]\ ;F~ UF> XS]\ K]\
I thought that I could sing well. DFZM bIF, K[ S[ C]\ ;F~ UF> XS]\ K]\

The Sequence of Tenses

SF/S|DGF lGIDYL SF/DF\ YTF\ O[ZOFZ
VF SF/DF\YL
 [ 69]

1. ;FNM JT”DFGSF/ o He said “Ram goes.”

2. RF,] JT”DFGSF/ o He said “Ram is going.”
3. 5}6” JT”DFGSF/ o He said “Ram has gone.”
4. ;FNM E]TSF/ o He said “Ram went.”
5. RF,] E]TSF/ o He said “Ram was going.”
6. 5}6” E]TSF/ o He said “Ram had gone.”

Modal auxiliaries

7. He said “Ram will go.”

8. He said “Ram will be going.”
9. He said “Ram will have gone.”

T[JL H ZLT[

10. He said “Ram can go.”

11. He said “Ram may go.”
12. He said “Ram shall go.”
13. He said “Ram has been going.”
14. He said “Ram is to go.”

15. He said “Ram has to go.”

16. He said “Ram will have to go.”

GM\W o SF/S|DDF\ infinitive VG[ gerund GF ~5M AN,TF GYLP

 [ 70]

VF SF/DF\ O[ZOFZ YFI K[P

1 He said that Ram went ;FNM E}TSF/

2 He said that Ram was going. RF,] E]TSF/
3 He said that Ram had gone. 5}6” E]TSF/
4 He said that Ram had gone. 5}6” E}TSF/
5 He said that Ram had been going. RF,] 5}6” E]TSF/
6 No change çççç

7 He said that Ram would go. will G]\ would

8 He said that Ram would be going ðð ðð
9 He said that Ram would have gone. ðð ðð

10 He said that Ram could go. can G]\ could

11 He said that Ram might go. may G]\ might
12 He said that Ram should go. shall G]\ should
13 He said that Ram had been going RFP 5}P JP G]\P RFP 5}P E}P
14 He said that Ram was to go. I G]\ was

15 He said that Ram had to go. has G]\ had

16 He said that Ram would have to go. will G]\ would
 [ 71]

Direct – Indirect s5|tI1 SYG VG[ 5ZM1 SYGf

WFZM S[ TDFZF lD+[ S[ SM>V[ TDG[ SM> JFT SCL K[P V[ JFT TDM ALHFG[ A[ ZLT[ SCL XSFIP
s!f 5|tI1 SYGYL s direct speech JF5ZLG[f
sZf 5ZM1 SYGYL s indirect speech JF5ZLG[f

NFPTP (1) He said : “I am going.” VYJF

(2) He said that he was going.

wIFGDF\ ZFBM S[ direct speech DF\

s!f SM>GF AM,FI[,F XaNM ïH[JF G[ T[JFð D}SJFDF\ VFJ[ K[P

sZf VJTZ6 lRÐM CMI K[P
s#f VJTZ6 lRÐM 5C[,FGM V(5lJZFD CMI K[P
s$f VJTZ6 lRÐM 5KL Capital Letter CMI K[P

HIFZ[ indirect speech DF\

s!f VJTZ6 lRÐM p0L HFI K[P
sZf VJTZ6 lRÐM 5C[,F\GF V(5lJZFD p0L HFI K[P
s#f Capital Letter GFGM AG[ K[ SFZ6 S[ JFSI HM0FI HFI K[P
s$f SM>GF AM,FI[,F XaNMçH[JFG[ T[JF GCL 56 CJ[ T[G[ TDFZL 5MTFGL EFQFDF\ D}SM KMP

NFPTP (1) He says “I go.” VYJF

(2) He says that he goes.

U]HZFTL EFQFDF\ indirect G\F lGIDMG[ VF56[ RF{SS; ZLT[ J/UL ZC[TF GYLP
NFPTP T[6[ SCI] o ïC]\ HFp\ K]\ð VF JFSIG]\ indirect VF56[ +6 ZLT[ SZLV[ KLV[P
s!f T[6[ SCI] S[ T[ HFI K[P s;FR]f
sZf T[6[ SCI] S[ C]\ HFp K]\ sBM8]f
s#f T[6[ SCI] C] HFp K]\ sBM8]f
VF ZLT[ SIFZ[I VF56[ ;\IMHS that sS[f D}STF GYL VYJF T[ G[ AN,[ C]\ 56 D}SL N>V[ KLV[
 [ 72]

56 V\U|[_DF\ VF V\U[GF lGIDM AC] H S0S K[P tIF\ HZF 56 O[ZOFZG[ VJSFX GYLP p,8] O[ZOFZ
YTF\ 36M VGY” YFI T[JF JFSIMGL ZRGF Y> HFI K[P

NFPTP He says, “I am a fool “

G]\
He says that he is a fool. H YFI

56 HM TD[ He says that I am a fool V[D U]HZFTLGL DFOS AM,M TM V[GM VY” V[D YFI S[ TD[
5MT[ H D}B” KM V[8,[ direct-indirect XLBTL JBT[ U]HZFTL V\U|[_ EFQFGF VF 5|IMUGM TOFJT
;D_ ,[JM H~ZL K[P H[YL U]HZFTL EFQF 5|IMUDF\YL VFJTL E},M lGJFZL XSFIP

Sequence of tenses sSF/S|Df

0FIZ[S8ç>G0FIZ[S8 XLBTL JBT[ V\U|[_GM SF/S|D (Sequence of tenses) GM 5|bIFT lGID HF6JM
56 H~ZL K[4 H[ GLR[ D]HA K[P
s!f HM D]bI JFSI JT”DFGSF/ K[ UF{6JFSIDF\ UD[ T[ SF/ VFJL XS[P
ElJqISF/DF\ CMI TM

H[D S[ o I know that the train is late.

I know that the train was late.
I know that the train will be late.
I know that the train has often been late
He will say that you are hapy.
He will say that you were be happy.
He will say that you will be happy.
He will say that you had been happy.
56 sZf HM D]bI JFSIDF\ VFJ[,]\ lS|IF5N E}TSF/DF\ CMI TM p5JFSIG]\ lS|IF5N 56 E}TSF/DF\ H
J5ZFI K[P
H[D S[ o I knew that the train was late
I said that you were happy.

Direct – Indirect
lGIDM
 [ 73]

lGID ! o HM JT”DFGSF/ S[ ElJqISF/DF\ CMI TM GF lS|IF5NGF SF/DF\ O[ZOFZ YTM GYL

GM\W o V[8,[ S[ SFZ6 S[ T[ JFT ZH] SZ[ K[P V[8,[ lRgCMDF\ VFJ[, S[ AM,FI[,L CSLSTP
lGID Z o HM E]TSF/DF\ CMI TM DF\GF lS|IF5NG]\ VG]~5 E}TSF/G]\ ~5 AG[ K[P
;FNM JT”DFG çç ;FNM E]TSF/ AG[ K[P
;FNM JT”DFG çç RF,] E]TSF/ AG[ K[P
5}6” JT”DFG çç 5}6” E]TSF/ AG[ K[P

lGID # o HM E]TSF/DF\ CMI VG[ DF\ 56 E]TSF/ CMI TMP

;FNM E]TSF/ çç 5}6” E]TSF/ AG[ K[P
RF,] E]TSF/ çç RF,] 5}6” E]TSF/ AG[ K[P

ç N®q8F\TM ç

1. He says, “It is a fine day.”

2. He says, that it is a fine day.
3. He says, “Sita was clever.”
4. He says that Sita was clever.
5. He says, “Ram will pass.”
6. He says that Ram will pass.
7. He will say “Ram is ready.”
8. He will say that Ram is ready.
9. People say, “Gandhiji was great”
10. People say that Gandhiji was great.

1. He said, “Kanti goes.”

2. He said that Kanti went.
3. He said “Shanti is going.”
4. He said that Shanti was going.
5. He said, “Priti has gone.”
6. He said that Priti had gone.

1. He said, “The train arrived very late.”

2. He said that the train had arrived very late.
3. He said, “The boys were playing.”
4. He said that the boys had been playing.

5FK/GF +6[I lGIDM 5FIFGF VG[ B}AH VUtIGF K[P T[G[ TD[ GLR[ D]HA ;FNL EFQFDF\ 56
UM9JL XSMP
!P HM JFSIGL ACFZ JT”DFG S[ ElJqISF/ CMI TM V\NZGF SF/DF\ O[ZOFZ YTM GYLP
ZP HM JFSIGL ACFZ E]TSF/ CMI TM V\NZ JT”DFGGM E]TSF/ YFI K[P
#P HM JFSIGL ACFZ E]TSF/ CMI VG[ V\NZ 56 E]TSF/ CMI TM V\NZ 5}6” E]TSF/ YFI K[P
 [ 74]

VF +6[I lGIDMGF ;FNF 2q8F\T 56 ;FD[ D]HA VF5L XSMP

lGID $ o HM E]TSF/DF\ CMI 56 DF\ lS|IF ;GFTG ;tI S[ J{7FlGS CSLST ATFJJL CMI TM
lS|IF5NGF SF/DF\ O[ZOFZ YTM GYLP

GM\W o VF lGID p5ZGF A\G[ lGIDMGM V5JFN K[P V[ J:T] :JFEFlJS K[ S[ ï5’yJL UM/ K[Pð G[
AN,[ VF56[ ï5'YJL UM/ CTLð V[D SNF5L SCL G XSFV[P
 [ 75]

1. He saya. “Kanti goes.”

2. He says that Kanti goes.
3. He said. “Kanti goes.”
4. He said that Kanti went.
5. He said. “Kanti went.”
6. He said that Kanti had gone.

1 The teacher said. “The earth is round.”

2 The teacher said that earth is round.
3 The trader said. “Honesty is the best policy.”
4 The trader said that honesty is the best policy.
5 The poet said. “Nature is beautiful.”
6 The poet said that nature is beautiful.”
7 He said “Two and two make four.”
8 He said that two and two make four.
9 The scientist said. “Water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.”
10 The scientlst said that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

Direct Indirect

1 I say. “I go.” Isay that I go. -

2 I say. “You go.” I say that you go. -

3 I say. “He goes.” I say that he goes. -

4 You say. “I go.” You say that you go.

5 You say. “You go.” You say that I go.

6 You say. “He goes.” You say that he goes. -

7 He says. “I go.” He says that he goes.

8 He says. “You go.” He says that you go. -

9 He says. “He goes.” He says that he goes. -

1 He said to me “I want your book”

 [ 76]

2 He told me that he wanted my book.

3 He said to you. “I want your book.”
4 He told you that he wanted your book.
5 He said to him. “ I want your book.”
6 He told him that he wanted his book.
7 I said to you. “you want my book.”
8 I told you that I wanted his book.
9 you said to him. “I want your book”
10 You told him that you wanted his books”
11 You said to me. I want your book.”
12 you talk that you

24 - auxiliaries

The best way to master the use of modals is to observe how they are used

in situations and to practice making sentences like the ones you hear , always

making sure of what you are saying.

…One way to acquaint yourself with the appropriate forms is to memorize a

group of typical sentence and use them as patters.”

1 am

2 is

3 are

4 was

5 were

6 has

7 had

8 have
 [ 77]

9 do

10 did

11 does

Modal auxiliaries

12 shall

13 should

14 will

15 would

16 can

17 could

18 may

19 might

20 must

21 ought to

22 need

23 dare

24 used to

(Primary auxiliaries)

I am a teacher.

I am going.

I have a pen.
 [ 78]

I have gone.

I do my work.

I do not go.

I am going.

He is going.

They are going.

He was going.

They were going.

I have gone.

I had gone.

I shall have gone.

Do I go ? I do not go.

Does he go ? He does not go.

Did he go ? He did not go.

( modal auxiliaries)

Modals showing difference moods.

1 The modal auxiliaries are used to express not statements of facts

but actions or events that exist only as conceptions of the mind
e.g. possibilities, potentialities necessities, wishes .
2 shall-will (pure future) color future
3 promise, willingness, determination, command and intention
(PWDIC)
 [ 79]

4 should, ought to, must, have to, … … obligation

5 should, probability, reproach, advice
6 if-clause to express a supposition that may not be
true.
7 would-will ……..
8 can, (possibility) , (ability) , (permission)
9 could can could perfect infinitive negation deducation
10 may (possibility) (permission)
11 might , may, possibility, permission, might be
12 may-might , can-could,(synonymous)
13 must obligation (logical conclusion )
14 ought obligation should…
15 need dare auxiliary double role…
16 used to….
17 used to ought to infinitive modals to infinitive bare infinitive
bare to…
18 modals participles

can - ing not possible

must –ing not possible

19 should, would, could, should- ing , would-ing

, could-ing , not possible
20 EG… play-plays can be possible
21 can-cans not possible
22 may- mays not possible
23 EG… he can speak English
24 he can English not possible
25 can you lift this box ? yes, I can. yes I can= yes, I can lift can
be possible.

(modals)

1 shall ( simple) (continuous)

2 should 1 I shall go 1 I shall be going
 [ 80]

3 will 2 I should go 2 I should be going

4 would 3 he will go 3 he will be going

5 can 4 he would go 4 he would be going

6 could 5 he can go 5 he can be going

7 may 6 he could go 6 he could be going

8 might 7 he may go 7 he may be going

9 must 8 he might go 8 he might be going

10 ought to 9 he must go 9 he must be going

10 he ought to go 10 he ought to be going

( Auxiliaries)
(perfect) (perfect continuous)
I shall have gone I shall have been going
I should have gone I should have been going
he will have gone he will have been going
he would have gone he would have been going
he can have gone he can have been going
he could have gone he could have been going
he may have gone he may have been going
he might have gone he might have been going
he must have gone he must have been going
he ought to have gone he ought to have been going
 [ 81]

1 I shall go, he will go

2 I shall be going
3 I shall have gone
4 I shall have been going
5 the school opens on the 17th of June
6 I am to your place tomorrow
7 be + infinitive
I am to go to the station
8 be about to go
I am about to start
9 be going to
I am going to learn English

I shall go we shall go
you will go you will go
he will go they will go

1 thou shalt (you shall) not steal

2 you shall have your money back
3 if you agree, I will check this letter
4 I won’t pay the bill. it seems to be inflated.
 [ 82]

5 I will do or die in this attempt.

p=promise, w=willingness, d=determination,
I=intention, c=command.

(colorless future)
1 if today is Monday, tomorrow will be
Tuesday.
2 colored future
All right, I’II come.
I won’t do it again.

3 will you please come in.

4 (insistence) (inevitability)
He will have his own way
Accidents will occur
Boys will be boys
5 (probiability) and likelyhood
This will be the book you are looking
for, I think.
 [ 83]

will I do ?
(Am I likely to be suitable ?)

how shall should be use

1 (to express futurity)
I shall soon be ready.
shall we reach there in time ?
2 (color future)
He says he won’t go but I say
he shall.
you shall not catch me so
easily next time.
if you work well, you shall
have higher wages.
you shall not have it, it is
mine
 [ 84]

3 In question tags :
let us go, shall we ?
4 suggestions : shall we go by car ?
offers : shall I help you ?
advice : which pen shall I
buy?
order : how shall I go ? by
bus or train ?

shall will
1 simple futurity 1 simple futurity
I shall come tomorrow he will come tomorrow
2 colored future 2 colored future
promise, willingness, determination

intention, command I will come (promise)

- PWDIC 3 in question tags

YOU SHALL HAVE REWARD IF YOU WORK efficiently. sit down, will you?
 [ 85]

4 habits : An Indian will

3 In question tags : always like to talk and talk

let us go, shall we ? 5 insistence :

4 requests for : he will have his own way

suggestions : shall we go by car ? 6 inevitability

offers : shall I help you ? Boys will be boys.

accidents will

advice : which book shall I buy ? occur.

order : how shall I go ? by bus or train ? 7 probability

will I do ?

8 requests

will you please sit

down ?
 [ 86]

the future continuous THE FUTURE PERFECT

will+ be+ work - ing. (will + have)

he will be reading when he will have finished his

I go there. work by six o’clock tomorrow/by

the end of December/by then

(be + infinitive)

he is to come the future perfect continuous

will + have + been +

(be+ going to) work-ing

he is going to learn English

(be+ about to) by the end of December I shall have been

he is about to go working in the office for 10 months.

(for a definite arrangement )

ram and shyam are meeting tonight by the end of December I shall have been

working for six months.

the school opens on 17th June. this tense emphasizes the duration of

(LESS DEFINITE AND MORE CASUAL) . a future event for a present situation which

I WILL BE SEENING YOU TOMORROW . reaches into the future. two time expressions

are essential with the tense . 1) specific future

time or event, and 2) the duration.

 [ 87]

why have we both ‘shall’ and ‘will’ ?

(AND SIMILARY ‘SHOULD AND WOULD’)

W. STANNARD ALLEN

(stock phrases)
the train leave at 6:0’clock
(habitual present)
(command compulsion obligation)
(want or wish)
colorless future
Shall I ? (is this your command ?) will you ?
(do you wish ?)
(unformity) shall-should will-would (I will, I
would) shall-should will-would
colored future volition be going to, be +
infinitive (am to go), have + inf (have to go)
 [ 88]

(1) be going to
(intention) (prediction)
intend means what (to have a particular
or plane in mind)

intention that which one propose or plans

to do plan, aim, intent,

objective, design, purpose, goal, target.

be going to colored future intention

feeling of certainity in mind of the
speaker .

1 I am going to learn English.

2 we are going to work harder next year.
3 he is going to sell the house.
 [ 89]

4 we are going to spend our holidays in

Kashmir this year.
5 we are going to by a house when we
saved enough money.
6 when are you going to pay my bills ?

(2) for prediction

1 there are clouds in the sky and it
is going to rain.
2 now that there is recession,
things are going to get much dearer.

Hadley chase
Myra’s eyes glittered. “I’m going to tell
you what you’re going to do .
 [ 90]

you’re going to “yes” that guy until you

get the run of the his of his game, then
you’re going to turn him in . you’re going
to have a gun, and you’re going to shoot
better than he shoot. you’re going to do
everything better than he does. then he
goes.”

automatic see, hear, think, understand it

go come I am going to go I am going to
come
shall - will be going to
shall-will

1 if you come at 5 0’clock, we shall go for

a walk.
2 you’ll be in time if you hurry.
3 I’ll be at your service whenever you call.
4 he going to sell his house.
 [ 91]

be + infinitive
1 to convey orders or instructions
2 to convey a plan
no one is to go without the permission of
the head mistress
you are to stay her, Rita
to convey a plan :
the marriage is to take place next week.

I am to go: we are to go
you are to go you are to go
he is to go they are to go

I was to go we were to go
you were to go you were to go
he was to go they were to go
 [ 92]

obligations
MUST, OUGHT TO SHOULD.
SHOULD
you should respect your parents
OUGHT TO

you ought to visit your friend.

he is in hospital.
should and ought to
MUST
you must read.
must (semi-auxiliary) have to must have to
read to you have to read I have to do my
home work.
have to…

have + infinitive
obligation must have to
 [ 93]

a) you must read regularly

b) you have to read regularly

a) he must stay here :

b) he has to stay here :

a) he must do his work himself.

b) he has to do his work himself

be + infinitive and have + infinitive

I am to go = I have to go = BI HI

I am to go we are to go
you are to go you are to go
he is to go they are to go
I was to go we were to go
 [ 94]

you were to go you were to go

he was to go they were to go

I have to go we have to go
you have to go you have to go
he have to go they has to go
I had to go we had to go
you had to go you had to go
he had to go they has to go
I shall have has to go we shall have have to
go
you will have to go you will have to
go
he will have to go they will have to
go
 [ 95]

be + infinitive - be + going to
I am to write we are to write
you are to write you are to write
he is to write they are to write

I was to write we were to write

you were to write you were to write
he was to write they were to write

I am going to write
we are to write
you are going to write
you are to write
he is to write
they are going to write
 [ 96]

I was going to write

we were going to write
you were going to write
you were going to write
he was going to write
they were going to write

obligation no obligation
present must have to don’t/doesn’t have to
have (got)to
future must shall/will shall not/ won’t
have to have to
past, had to didn’t have to
hadn’t (got)to
[ 97]