Module of Fundamental Mathematics

Fundamental Concepts of Algebra |1
CHAPTER 1:
FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF ALGEBRA
1.1 Real Numbers
Set
Before we describe the set of real numbers, let’s be sure you are
familiar with some basic ideas about sets. For example, the set of
digits consist of the collection of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and
9. If we use the symbol A to denote the set of digits, then we can
write
A = {0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}
the braces { } are used to enclose the objects, or elements.
In listing the elements of set, we do not list an element more
than once because the elements of a set are distinct. Also, the order in
which the elements are listed is not relevant. Thus, for example {2,3}
and {3,2} both represent the same set.
If every element of a set A is also element of set B, then we
say that A is subset of B or represent as A ⊂ B . For example {1,2}
subset of {1,2,3,4}. If two set A and B have the same elements, then
we say that A is equal to B or represent as A = B. For example, {1, 2,
3} is equal to {3, 1, 2}.
1.1.1 Natural numbers

Natural numbers is denoted by N and can be written as N = {1,2,3,...}
which is the number from 1 until infinity. Natural numbers include
prime numbers and non prime numbers.
In mathematics, a prime number (or a prime) is a natural

number that has exactly two distinct natural number divisors: 1 and
itself. The first twenty-five prime numbers are:
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71,
73, 79, 83, 89, 97.
2|Fundamental Concepts of Algebra
For example
2 is a prime number because can only be divided by 2 and 1.
6 is not a prime number because 6 can be divided by 2 and 3.
1.1.2 Whole numbers

The set of whole numbers is a set W = {0} ∪ N = {0, 1, 2, 3,…}
which is the number from 0 until infinity.
1.1.3 Integers
The combination of whole numbers and their negatives are known as
integers. The set of all integers is denoted by Z.
Z= {..., –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}
Set of positive integers is denoted by Z+= {1, 2, 3,…}
Set of negative integers is denoted by Z-= {…, –3, –2, –1}. Hence
Z = Z − ∪ {0} ∪ Z + .
The elements in Z can be classified as even and odd numbers, where
The set of even numbers = {2k, with k ∈ Z }
The set of odd numbers = {2k + 1, with k ∈ Z }
1.1.4 Rational numbers

The number system can be expended further to set of all rational
numbers denoted by Q. Where
a 
Q =  ; a, b ∈ Z , b ≠ 0
b 
3 3
For example 5, and − . Rational numbers can be expressed as
2 2
2
terminating or repeating decimals. For example, = 0.6666... = 0.6 .
3
1.1.5 Irrational numbers

Irrational numbers is denoted by Q . This is the set of all numbers
whose decimal representations are neither terminating nor repeating.
Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as a quotient of integers. For

π
example, 2 ,− 3 , π and .
2
We can show that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R in figure 1.1 below which is

the Venn diagram of Number Sets.
R
Q
Z W N
Figure 1.1 Venn diagram of Number Sets
Q Q
Figure 1.2 Q ∪ Q = R
Figure 1.2 shows that Q ∪ Q = R .

Figure 1.3 below shows the relationship of various types of numbers.
Real Numbers
Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

{−
2 1
, , 2,...}
{−3 5 , 2 , π ,..}
3 2
Integers Fractions
{...,−1,0,1,2,...} 2 1
{− , ,...}
3 2
Whole Numbers Negative Integers

{0,1,2,3,...} {...,−2,−1}
Natural Numbers Zero

{1,2,3,...} {0}
Figure 1.3 The relationship of various types of numbers
Example 1.1
State 4 natural numbers and determine whether it is prime
number or not a prime number.
Solution
4 = not a prime number; 5 = prime number
17 = prime number; 25 = not a prime number
Example 1.2
For the set {-5, -3, -1, 0, 3, 8}, identify the set of
(a) Natural numbers
(b) Whole numbers
(c) Prime numbers
(d) Even numbers
(e) Negative integers

(f) Odd numbers
Solution
(a) { 3, 8 }
(b) { 0, 3, 8}
(c) { 3 }
(d) { 0, 8 }
(e) { -5, -3, -1 }
(f) { -5, -3, 3 }
Example 1.3
 1 
Given S = − 9, 7 , , π 2 ,0,4,5.125125, identify the set of
 3 
(a) natural numbers
(b) whole numbers
(c) integers
(d) rational numbers
(e) irrational numbers
(f) real numbers
Solution
(a) { 4 }
(b) { 0, 4 }
(c) { -9, 0, 4}
1
(d) { -9, 0, 4, , 5.125125 }
3
(e) { 7 ,π }
2
 1 
(f) − 9, 7 , , π 2 ,0,4,5.125125 = S
 3 
Example 1.4
a
Express each of the following numbers as a quotient
b
(a) 1.5555…..
(b) 5.45959..
Solution
(a) Let x = 1.555.... = 1.5 (1)
(1) × 10 10 x = 15.555... (2)
therefore, (2) – (1), 9 x = 14
14
x=
9
(b) Let x = 5.45959... = 5.459 (1)
(1) × 10 10 x = 54.59... (2)
(2) × 100 1000 x = 5459.59.... (3)
therefore, (3)-(2), 990 x = 5405
5405 1081
x= =
990 198
1.1.6 Algebraic Operation on Real Numbers

For all a, b ∈ R
Properties Description Example

a + b = c; c ∈ R 6 + 7 = 13
Closure (a )b = d ; d ∈ R (6)(7) = 42
a+b = b+a 2+4 = 4+2
Commutative ab = ba 5(10) = (10)5
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (1 + 3) + 2 = 1 + (3 + 2)
Associative (ab)c = a (bc) (4 × 2) × 3 = 4 × (2 × 3)
a (b + c) = ab + ac 2(6 + 8) = (2 × 6) + (2 × 8)
Distributive a (b − c) = ab − ac 3(4 − 5) = (3 × 4) − (3 × 5)
a+0 = 0+a = a 9+0 = 0+9 = 9
Identity a (1) = (1)a = a − 5(1) = 1(−5) = −5
a + (−a) = 0 = (−a) + a 10 + (−10) = 0 = (−10) + 10
Inverse 1 1 1 1
a  = 1 =   a, a ≠ 0 5  = 1 =  5
a a 5 5
Example 1. 5
Given a, b ∈ R, ab = 1. Prove that a = b −1 .
Solution
Given ab = 1
(ab ) 1  = 1 1 

b b
 1 1
a b ×  =   (Associative and identity)
 b b
1
a ×1 =   (inverse)
b
1
a=  (identity)
b
a = b −1
1.1.7 The Number Line

2
For example –3.5, and π can be shown on real number line as
3
| | | | | | | | |
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
2
- 3.5 π
3
The order of real numbers is important in presenting the interval on a
number line.
The Order of Real Number
Symbol Description Example

a=b a is equal to b 3=3
a<b a is less than b -4 < 4
a>b a is greater than b 5>0
Note: The symbols ‘<’ or ‘>’ are called inequality sign.

All real numbers between a and b can be written in the form of

intervals as shown in the following table.
Type of
Notation Inequalities Representation on the number line
interval
Closed [ a, b] a≤ x≤b
interval a b
Opened ( a, b) a< x<b
interval a b
Half-closed ( a, b] a< x≤b
Or a b
Half-opened [ a, b) a≤ x<b
interval
a b
Opened ( −∞ , b ) −∞ < x < b
interval a b
( a, ∞ ) a<x<∞
a b
Half-closed (−∞, b] −∞ < x ≤ b
Or a b
Half-opened [ a, ∞ ) a≤x<∞
interval a b
Example 1.6
Represent the following interval on real number line and state
their type.
(a) [−1,4]
(b) (2,5)
(c) [2, ∞)
(d) {x : x ≤ 0, x ∈ R}
Solution
(a)
-1 4
[-1,4] is a closed interval
(b)
2 5
(2,5) is an opened interval
(c)
2
[2, ∞) is a half-open interval
(d)
0
{x : x ≤ 0, x ∈ R} = (−∞,0] is a half-close interval
Intersection and union operations can be perform on intervals.

If A = [1, 6) and B = (-2, 4). Intersection of set A and set B is a half-
opened interval A ∩ B = [1, 4).
Union of set A and set B is a A ∪ B = (-2, 6).
All this can be shown on a number line given below:
-2 1 4 6
A∪ B
A∩ B
10 | F u n d a m e n t a l C o n c e p t s o f A l g e b r a
Example 1.7
Simplify the following using the number line.
(a) [0,5) ∪ (4,7)
(b) (−∞,5) ∩ (−1,9)
Solution
(a)
0 4 5 7
∴ [0,7)
(b)
-1 5 9
∴ (−1,5)
1.2 Exponents and Surds
1.2.1 Exponents
Exponents such as 2, 3, 4 and so on are used to indicate repeated
multiplication. For example,
25 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 32 .
The 2 that is repeated when multiplying is called the base. The small
number above and to the right of the base that is 5 are called
exponent or power. The exponent tells the number of times the base
is to be used when multiplying. So, a x is an expression in which a is
the base and x is the power.
F u n d a m e n t a l C o n c e p t s o f A l g e b r a | 11
Multiplication and division
Rule 1 Example 1.8

a p × aq = a( p + q)
33 × 33 = (3 × 3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3) = 36
Rule 2 Example 1.9

(a p ) q = a p× q = a pq
(a) (33 ) 2 = 33 × 33
= (3 × 3 × 3) × (3 × 3 × 3)
= 36
(b) (4 2 )5 = 4 2 × 4 2 × 4 2 × 42 × 4 2
= (4 × 4) × (4 × 4) × (4 × 4) × (4 × 4) × (4 × 4)
= 410
Rule 3 Example 1.10

p
a 6×6×6×6×6
a p ÷ aq = = a p−q 65 ÷ 63 =
aq 6×6×6
= 6 × 6 = 62
Rule 4 Example 1.11

a 0 = 1 provided
63 ÷ 63 = 63 − 3
a≠0
= 60 = 1
division when power are equal
Rule 5 Example 1.12

1
a− p = 73 ÷ 75 = 73− 5
ap
7×7×7
= 7−2
7×7×7×7×7
1
= 7−2
7×7
1
= 7−2
72
Division when the power of the denominator
is greater than the power of numerator
Rule 6 Example 1.13

1
1
a = a
p p
a3 = 3 a
Rule 7 Example 1.14
p 1
2 1
a q = a p = (a ) p
q q
a = a = (a )
3 3 2 3 2
Example 1.15
35 × 36 18 x 2 y 5
Simplify: (a) (b) (c) (3 x 5 ) 2
34 3x 4 y
Solution
35 × 36 35 + 6
(a) = 4
34 3
311
=
34
= 311− 4 = 37
18 x 2 y 5 6 x 2 y 5
(b) = 4
3x 4 y x y
= 6 x ( 2 − 4 ) y ( 5 −1)
= 6 x −2 y 4
6 y4
= 2
x
(c) (3 x 5 ) 2 = 32 × ( x 5 ) 2 = 9 x10
1.2.2 Surds
is surd or radical sign. The number expressed in term of this sign

cannot be written in decimal form. These numbers have a decimal
expression that does not terminate but to go on without repeating and
known as irrational numbers. However not all irrational are surds
such as π .
Properties of Surd
a a
1. ab = a × b 2. =
b b
3. a b + c b = (a + c) b 4. a b − c b = (a − c) b
Example 1.16
Simplify
(a) 45 (b) 6 7 + 2 7 (c) 5 3 − 27
Solution
(a) 45 = 9 × 5
= 9× 5
=3 5
(b) 6 7 + 2 7 = (6 + 2) 7
=8 7
(c) 5 3 − 27 = 5 3 − 9 × 3
= 5 3 − ( 9 × 3)
= 5 3 −3 3 = 2 3
Example 1.17
Expand and simplify ( 8 − 3 )( 8 + 3 )
Solution
( 8 − 3 )( 8 + 3 ) = 8 ( 8 + 3 ) − 3 ( 8 + 3 )
= ( 8 )2 + 8 3 − 3 8 − ( 3)2
= ( 8 )2 − ( 3)2
= 8−3 = 5
The above example demonstrates the algebraic result for the

difference of two squares.
(a + b)(a − b) = a 2 − b 2
Rationalizing the denominator

When square roots occur in quotient, it is customary to rewrite the
quotient so that the denominator contains no square roots. This
process is referred to as rationalizing the denominator.
For example:
(a) 3 × 3 = ( 3 )2 = 3
(b) ( 3 + 1) × ( 3 − 1) = ( 3 ) 2 − 12 = 3 − 1 = 2
In the rationalizing the denominator of a quotient, be sure to multiply
both the numerator and the denominator by the same expression.
Example 1.18
5 1
Rationalize: (a) (b)
3 7− 2
Solution
5 5 3
(a) = ×
3 3 3
5 3
=
3
1 1 (7 + 2 )
(b) =( )×
7− 2 7 − 2 (7 + 2 )
(7 + 2 )
=
(7 ) 2 − ( 2 ) 2
7+ 2
=
49 − 2
7+ 2
=
47
This choice of multiplier is by no means accidental. When more

complicated expression needs rationalizing, the multiplier is simply
the conjugate of original denominator.
1.3 Logarithms
The logarithm of a number y ( y > 0) for any base a (a > 0) written as
log a y .
If log a y = x , then y = a x , x ∈ R.
For example,
23 = 8
• 3 is the power to which the base 2 must be raised to obtain 8
or
• 3 is the logarithm which with a base 2, gives 8. This is written
simply as 3 = log 2 8
We see that the base of a logarithm may be any positive number.

Common logarithms have base 10. Using calculator it is found that
the common logarithm of 5 is 0.6990 i.e
100.6990 = 5 or
5
log10 = 0.6990 or
lg 5 = 0.6990 or
log 5 = 0.6990
In general,
log a b = c ⇔ b = a c
Example 1.19
For each of the following, write down an expression for a
logarithm in a suitable base:
(a) 81 = 34
1 1
(b) = 5
32 2
Solution
(a) 81 = 34 , so 4 = log 3 81
1 1 1
(b) = 5 = 2− 5 , so − 5 = log 2 ( )
32 2 32
1.3.1 Natural Logarithms

The logarithmic function with base e is called the natural logarithmic
function. The function f ( x) = log e x is usually expressed as
f ( x) = ln x .
Properties of Logarithms
General Properties Natural Logarithms

Properties
log b 1 = 0 ln 1 = 0
log b b = 1 ln e = 1
log b b x = x ln e x = x
b log b x = x eln x = x
The law of logarithms
1. log a b + log a c ≡ log a bc
b
2. log a b − log a c = log a
c
3. n log a b ≡ log a b n
Example 1.20
Given log 2 = 0.301 and log 6 = 0.778 find log12.
Solution
log12 = log(2 × 6)
= log 2 + log 6
= 0.301 + 0.778
= 1.079
Example 1.21
Write the following as single logarithm:
log 8 − log 6 + log 9
Solution
8
log 8 − log 6 + log 9 = log( ) + log 9
6
 8×9 
= log 
 6 
= log12
Change of Base
log b c
log a c =
log b a
For example if
log 7 2 = x
then 7x = 2
so x log 7 = log 2
log 2
or x=
log 7
log 2 0.3010
Therefore log 7 2 = = = 0.3562
log 7 0.8451
In special case when c = b this identity becomes
log b b
log a b =
log b a
1
or log a b =
log b a
For example: To solve an equation like 5 x = 10 .

⇒ log 5 x = log10
x log 5 = log10
log10
x=
log 5
1
x= = 1.43
0.6990
Example 1.22
Solve the equation log 3 x − 4 log x 3 + 3 = 0
Solution
4
log 3 x − +3 = 0
log 3 x
(log 3 x) 2 − 4 + 3 log 3 x = 0
y + 3y − 4 = 0 ; substitute y = log 3 x
( y + 4)( y − 1) = 0
y = −4or1
Therefore
log 3 x = −4 or log3 x = 1
x = 3−4 or x = 31
1
x= =3
81
C o m p l e x N u m b e r s | 19
CHAPTER 2:
COMPLEX NUMBERS
Definition of imaginary numbers
We have already seen equation such as x 2 = −1 whose roots are

clearly not real. To solve such equation, we need another category of
numbers. Members of this set are called imaginary numbers,
example being − 1, − 20
A general form of the members of this set is − n 2 where n is real.
Defining i = − 1
Then − n 2 = (n 2 × −1)
= n2 × − 1
= ni
So we see that every imaginary number can be written in the form ni
where n is real and
i = −1 .
e.g − 16 = 4i, −3 = i 3
Further
i 2 = −1
e.g i 3 = −i
i4 = 1
Definition of Complex Numbers
Any numbers of the form z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R is called a

complex number. a = Re(a + bi ) is called the real part, and
b = Im(a + bi ) is called the imaginary part of the number.
e.g Re(2 + 3i ) = 2 and Im(2 + 3i ) = 3
20 | C o m p l e x N u m b e r s
If b = 0 then z = a + (0)i = a is real number. Hence real numbers are

subset of complex numbers.
2.1Operations on Complex Numbers
2.1.1 Adding and Subtracting

Complex numbers can be add/subtract by summing/subtracting the
real part and the imaginary correspondingly.
(a + bi ) + (c + di ) = (a + c) + (b + d )i
(a + bi ) − (c + di ) = (a − c) + (b − d )i
Example 2.1
Given z = 2 + 3i and w = 7 − 6i , find (a) z + w
(b) w – z
Solution
(a) z + w = (2 + 3i ) + (7 − 6i )
= (2 + 7) + (3 − 6)i
= 9 − 3i
(b) w − z = (7 − 6i ) − (2 + 3i )
= (7 − 2) + (−6 − 3)i
= 5 − 9i
2.1.2 Multiplying Complex Numbers

To multiply two complex numbers, apply usual rules of algebra.
(a + bi )(c + di ) = ac + adi + bci + bdi 2
= ac + (ad + bc)i − bd ; (i 2 = −1)

= (ac − bd ) + (ad + bc)i
Example 2.2
Given that z = 4 + 3i and w = 7 + 5i , find zw.
Solution
zw = (4 + 3i )(7 + 5i )
= 28 + 20i + 21i − 15
= 13 + 41i
2.1.3 Complex Conjugates

The conjugate of a complex number is obtained by changing the sign
of the imaginary part. Thus z = a + bi , its complex conjugate, z is
defined by
z = a − bi
Example 2.3
Find the conjugate of z. a) z = −3 + 2i
b) z = 3 − 2i
Solution
a) z = −3 − 2i
b) z = 3 + 2i
2.1.4 Division
Furthermore (a + bi )(a − bi ) = a 2 + b 2 is real number. This fact is
useful in simplifying expressions where denominator of a quotient is
complex.
Example 2.4
1
Simplify (a)
i
3
(b)
1+ i
Solution
1 1 −i
(a) = ×
i i −i
−i
=
− (−1)
= −i
3 3 1− i
(b) = ×
1+ i 1+ i 1− i
3 − 3i
=
2
3 3
= − i
2 2
Example 2.5
1+ i
If z = , find z in the form of a + bi
2−i
Solution
1+ i
z=
2−i
1+ i 2 + i
= ×
2−i 2+i
2 + i + 2i + i 2
=
4 − i2
1 + 3i
=
5
1 3 1 3
= + i⇒z= − i
5 5 5 5
2.1.5 Solving Equation

Just as in real numbers, we can have equation with complex numbers,
as illustrated in the example below.
Example 2.6
Solve the following equations for the complex number z.
(a) 4 + 5i = z − (1 − i )
(b) (1 + 2i ) z = 2 + 5i
Solution
(a) 4 + 5i = z − (1 − i )
z = 4 + 5i + (1 − i )
= 5 − 4i
(b) (1 + 2i ) z = 2 + 5i
2 + 5i
z=
1 + 2i
2 + 5i 1 − 2i
= ×
1 + 2i 1 − 2i
12 + i
=
5
12 1
= + i
5 5
2.2 Argand Diagram
Any complex number z = a + bi can be represented by an ordered

pair (a,b) and hence can be plotted on xy-axis with the real part
measured along x-axis and the imaginary part along the y-axis. The
graphical representation of the complex number is called an Argand
diagram.
Example 2.7
Represent the following complex numbers on an argand
diagram.
(a) z = 3 + 2i (b) z = 4 − 5i
Solution
Im
(3,2)
Re
(4.-5)
2.2.1 Argand diagram of Complex Conjugates
In words, z is obtained by reversing the sign of the imaginary part of

z. Geometrically, z is the reflection of z about the real axis.
y
b z
x
a
-b z
2.2.2 Modulus and Argument
Im
b A (a,b)
|z|
θ
0 a Re
The length OA is called the modulus of the complex number a + bi

and is written | a + bi| so that
a + bi | =| z |= a 2 + b 2
The angle θ is called the argument of a + bi and is written

b
Arg(a + bi ) , thus Arg(a + bi ) = θ = tan −1  ,−π < θ < π
a
Example 2.8
Find the argument of z in radian and degree.
a) z = 1 b) z = −i
c) z = 2 + 2i d) z = −1 + 3i
Solution
a) z = 1
Im
0 1 Re
θ = 0 rad or θ = 0o
b) z = −i
Im
0 Re
-1
π
θ =− rad or θ = −90o
2
c) z = 2 + 2i
Im
0 2 Re
π
θ= rad or θ = 45o
4
d) z = −1 + 3i
Im
θ
α
-1 0 Re
θ = π −α θ = 180o − α
α = tan −1 (3 − 1) α = tan −1 (3 − 1)
α = −1.249rad or α = −71.565o
θ = π - 1.249 θ = 180o - 71.565o
θ = 1.893rad θ = 108.435o
Example 2.9
Find the modulus and argument of the following complex
numbers
(a) z = 1+ i
(b) z = −5 + 2i
Solution
(a) z = 12 + 12 = 2
Arg(1 + i ) = θ
= tan −1 (1)
= 0.7854rad
(b) z = 52 + 22 = 29
Arg(−5 + 2i ) = θ
α = tan −1 (2 − 5)
α = −0.3805rad
θ = π - 0.3805
= 2.761
Example 2.10
If a = 2 − i and b = 1 + 3i, find the modulus and the argument
of the following.
(a) a + 2b (b) 2a − b (c) ib
Solution
(a) a + 2b = (2 − i ) + 2(1 + 3i ) = 4 + 5i
a + 2b = 42 + 52 = 41
5
arg(a + 2b) = tan −1 ( ) = 0.896rad
4
(b) 2a − b = 2(2 − i ) − (1 + 3i ) = 3 − 5i
2a − b = 32 + (−5) 2 = 34
5
arg(2a − b) = tan −1 (− ) = −1.030rad
3
(c) ib = i (1 + 3i ) = i − 3
ib = 12 + (−3) 2 = 10
1
arg(ib) = tan −1 ( ) = π − 0.322 = 2.820rad
−3
2.3 Polar Representation of Complex Numbers
The complex number z = x + yi (Cartesian form) can be written in
polar form as z = r (cosθ + i sin θ ) , which is r = z .

Example 2.11
Express the complex number in polar form using its argument
in radian unit.
a) z = −4 b) z = −1 + 2i
Solution
a) z = −4
Im
-4 0 Re
r = 4 and θ = π rad
In polar form z = r (cosθ + i sin θ )

= 4(cos π + i sin π )
b) z = −1 + 2i
Im
2
z
θ
α
-1 0 Re
r= (− 1)2 + 22 = 5
α = tan −1 2 = 1.107 rad

θ = π − 1..107 = 2.034rad
In polar form z = r (cosθ + i sin θ )
= 5 (cos 2.034 + i sin 2.034)

2.3.1 De Moivre’s Theorem

De Moivre’s Theorem:
If n ∈ Q , then
(cosθ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ
Example 2.12
By using De Moivre’s Theorem, find (1 + i )12 . Give your
answer in Cartesian form.
Solution
Step 1: Convert (1 + i )12 into polar form
Im
1 1+ i
θ
0 1 Re
r = 12 + 12 = 2
π
θ= rad
4
In polar form: 1 + i = r (cosθ + i sin θ )
 π   π 
= 2  cos  + i sin   
 4  4 
Step 2: Use De Moivre’s Theorem to find (1 + i )12

12
  π   π  
(1 + i )
12
=  2  cos  + i sin   
  4  4  
[ ]
12
 π 
12  π 
= 2 cos  + i sin  
 4  4 
 π   π 
= 64 cos12  + i sin 12 
 4  4 
= 64[cos 3π + i sin 3π ]
= 64[−1 + 0]
= −64
2.3.2 Euler’s Formula

Euler’s Formula:
cosθ + i sin θ = eiθ
Example 2.13
Find Re(z) and Im(z) of z = 3eiπ
Solution
z = 3eiπ
= 3(cos π + i sin π )
= 3(−1 + 0)
= −3
Re(z) = -3 and Im(z)=0
Example 2.14
Find r and θ , if reiθ = 3 + 4i .
Solution
Convert 3 + 4i into polar form
Im
0 3 Re
r = 32 + 42
4
θ = tan −1   = 0.927
3
In polar form:
3 + 4i = r (cosθ + i sin θ )
= 5(cos 0.927 + i sin 0.927)
5(cos 0.927 + i sin 0.927) = 5ei 0.927

Therefore,
r = 5 and θ = 0.927 rad
M a t r i c e s | 33
CHAPTER 3:
MATRICES
3.1 Matrix
A matrix of order m × n is a rectangular array consisting of entries in

m rows and n columns, as shown below and can be written as Am× n
 a11 a12 a13 N a1n 

a
 21 a22 a23 N a2 n 
Am× n =  a31 a32 a33 N a3n  m rows
 
M M M M M
am1 am 2 am 3 N amn 
n columns
The above Am× n matrix can also be written as aij . [ ]

Matrix of order m × 1 is known as a column vector or column matrix
 a11 
a 
 21 
A =  a31 
 
M 
am1 
Similarly matrix of order 1 × n is known as row vector or row matrix
[
A = a11 a12 a13 N a1n ]
34 | M a t r i c e s
Example 3.1
What is the order of the matrices below?
2 1 
1 2
A = 1 2 , B= ,
2 4 1 3
1 
C = [1 2] , D= 
 2
Solution
A:3x2 matrix B:2x2 matrix

C:1x2 matrix D:2x1 matrix
Example 3.2
 1 
5 6
Let A =  2
− 2 3 − 7 
 
(a) What is the order of A.

(b) If A = [aij ], identify a 21 and a13 .
Solution
(a) Since A has 2 rows and 3 columns, it is of order 2x3.
(b) The entry a 21 is in 2nd row and 1st column. Thus a 21
=-2. The entry a13 is in the 1st row and 3rd column, so
1
a13 = .
2
Two m x n matrices are equal if they have the same dimension and
their corresponding entries are equal.
Example 3.3
Which matrices below are the same?
1 2 
1 2  1 2  2 1
A=  , B[1 2], C = [2 1], D =   ,E =   , F = 2 1
2 1  2 1  2 1 2 1
Solution
A=D
Example 3.4
3 − a 6 4  9 6 − c 4
Let A =   , and B = 
− 8 2
.
 8 4b 2 2 − 3d
If A = B, find the values a, b, c and d.
Solution
3−a = 9 4b = −8 6−c = 6
a = −6; b = −2; c = 0;
2 − 3d = 8
3d = −6
d = −2.
Square matrix is a matrix which has the same number of rows and
columns.
1 3 2 
 2 3
e.g A=  , 2x2 matrix B = 2 4 3, 3x3
 4 2 4 2 1 
matrix
Null matrix is a matrix which every entry is zero.

0 0 0 
e.g A = 0 0 0
0 0 0
Diagonal matrix is a matrix which every entry is zero except the

diagonal entries.
1 0 0 2 0 0
2 0    
e.g  0 3 ; 0 6 0 ;  0 0 0  .
  0 0 1   0 0 7 
   
Identity matrix is diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are 1.

1 0 0
1 0  
e.g 0 1; 0 1 0.
  0 0 1 
 
Lower triangular matrix is a matrix whose entries above diagonal
are zeros.
1 0 0 
e.g 3 2 0
 
2 4 4
Upper triangular matrix is a matrix whose entries below diagonal

are zeros.
1 2 3
e.g 0 2 1 
 
0 0 4
3.2 Matrix Operation
3.2.1 Matrix addition and subtraction

Matrix addition and subtraction can only be performed for matrices
of the same order. For m x n matrices A = [aij ] and B = [bij ],
A + B = C = [cij ] where cij = aij + bij
A − B = D = [d ij ] where d ij = aij − bij
Example 3.5
1 2  4 3 1 
Given matrices A =   ;B =   ; C =  .
3 4  − 5 6  2
Find: (a) A+B

(b) A–B
(c) A+C
Solution
(a) A+B
1 2  4 3
= + 
3 4 − 5 6
 1+ 4 2 + 3
= 
3 + (−5) 4 + 6
5 5
= 
− 2 10
(b) A–B
1 2  4 3
= − 
3 4 − 5 6
 1− 4 2 − 3
= 
3 − (−5) 4 − 6
− 3 − 1 
= 
 8 − 2
(c) Since matrix A and C are of different orders, the

operation cannot be performed.
3.2.2 Scalar multiplication

If c is a real number and A = [aij ] , then cA = [bij ] , where bij = caij .
Example 3.6
 2 − 4
5 
1 
Compute − • 8
2
− 6 7 
Solution
  
(− )2 (− ) − 4 
1 1
 −1 2 
 2 − 4  2 2
1   1 1   − 5
− • 8 5  =  (− )8 (− )5  = − 4 
2  2 2   2 
− 6 7   1 1   − 7
(− 2 ) − 6 (− 2 )7   3 2 
3.2.3 Multiplication of a row and a column.

A row and a column must have the same number of entries in order to
able to multiply.
 b1 
b 
 2
A = [a1 a2 a3 N an ] and B =  b3 
 
M 
 bn 
n
then, AB = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 + ....... + anbn = ∑ aibi
i =1
Example 3.7
1 2 − 3 5 
 2 − 5 4
Let A= 
 and B = 3 − 2 1 5 
 − 1 7 5  5 4 0 − 7 
If AB = C, compute c13
Solution
− 3
c13 = [2 − 5 4] •  1 
 0 
= 2(−3) + (−5)(1) + 4(0)
= −6 − 5 + 0
= −11
3.2.4 Multiplication of matrices

If A has the same number of columns as the number of rows in B,
then AB = cij ,
 b1 j 
b  n
where cij = [ai1 ]
ai 2 ....ain   = ∑ aik bkj
2j
 M  k =1
 
 bnj 
It follows that if the order of A is m x n and the order of B is n x p,
then AB has order m x n.
Example 3.8
 2 1
 1 2 3
Multiply   and − 3 4
− 2 0 5  2 1 
Solution
 2 1
 1 2 3  
− 2 0 5 . − 3 4
   2 1
 
 1(2) + 2(−3) + 3(2) 1(1) + 2(4) + 3(1)  2 12
= = 
− 2(2) + 0(−3) + 5(2) − 2(1) + 0(4) + 5(1) 6 3 
3.2.5 Transpose of a matrix

The transpose of a matrix Am× n is an n x m matrix written as AT
where AT is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.

Thus, the i th column of AT is the i th row of A for all i.
If Am× n = [aij ], then ( AT ) n× m = [aij ].
Example 3.9
 2 1 3 3 
 
A = [1 2]; B = 1 ; C =   
2 2
Let ; D =  2 5 4 
3  3 4  1 3 5
Find AT , BT , C T , DT
Solution
1 2 1
1  T  2 3 T 
A =  ; B = [2 1 3]; C = 
T T
 ; D = 3 5 3
 2  2 4 3 4 5
Properties of the transpose of a matrix
( A ± B )T = AT ± BT
( AT )T = A
( AB )T = BT AT
(kA)T = kAT
3.2.6 A Symmetric Matrix

A square matrix, A = [aij ], is symmetric if it is equal to its transpose,
that is
A = AT or aij = a ji for all i and j
Example 3.10
 1 a − b
1 2   
 2 3 ;  a 3 c 
  − b c 2 
 
3.3 Determinant of Matrices
3.3.1 Determinant of 2 x 2 matrix

a b 
Given A =   then
c d 
a b
The determinant of A is | A |= = ad − bc
c d
Example 3.11
2 5 3 2
Given A =   ;B =   find |A| and |B|
 3 8 5 2
Solution
2 5
A = = 16 − 15 = 1
3 8
3 2
B = = 6 − 10 = −4
5 2
3.3.2 Minor and Cofactor

Let A be n x n matrix,
1. The minor mij of the element aij is the determinant
of the matrix M ij obtained by deleting the i th row and
j th column of A..
For example:
 a11 a12 a13 
If A = a21 a22 a23  then
 a31 a32 a33 
a22 a23
m11 = M 11 =
a32 a33
2. The cofactor cij of the element aij is
cij = (−1) i + j mij
Example 3.12
1 2 − 1
Consider the matrix A = 3 4 2 
1 4 3 
Find m11 , m32 , c11 , c32

Solution
4 2
m11 = =4
4 3
1 −1
m32 = =5
3 2
c11 = (−1)1+1 m11 = 4
c32 = (−1)3+ 2 m32 = −5
3.3.3 Determinant of 3 x 3 matrix

If A is a 3 x 3 matrix, then the determinant of A is obtained by
summing up the product of each element of a certain row or column
by its cofactor.
 a11 a12 a13 
A = a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
Choosing the first row, A = a11c11 + a12c12 + a13c13
Choosing the first column, A = a11c11 + a21c21 + a31c31
Usually to evaluate the determinant of matrix A, we always choose

the row or column that has the most zero entries.
Example 3.13
 2 −2 0 
Find the determinant of A =  − 3 1 3 
− 2 − 4 − 1
Solution
Choosing the first row,
1 3 −3 3 −3 1
A = 2(−1)1+1 + (−2)(−1)1+ 2 + 0(−1)1+ 3
− 4 −1 − 2 −1 −2 −4
= 2(−1 + 12) + 2(3 + 6) + 0
= 22 + 18
= 40
3.4 Adjoint matrices
[ ]
Let C = cij be the cofactor matrix A. Adjoint of the matrix A, adj(A)
is defined as the transpose of the cofactor matrix, that is

[ ] = [c ]
adj ( A) = C T = cij
T
ij
Example 3.14
Find the adjoint the following matrice
1 2 3
A = 3 2 4
1 1 3
Solution
2 4
C11 = (−1)1+1 = 6−4 = 2
1 3
3 4
C12 = (−1)1+ 2 = −(9 − 4) = −5
1 3
3 2
C13 = (−1)1+ 3 = 3−2 =1
1 1
2 3
C21 = (−1) 2 +1 = −(6 − 3) = −3
1 3
1 3
C22 = (−1) 2 + 2 = 3−3 = 0
1 3
1 2
C23 = ( −1) 2 + 3 = −(1 − 2) = 1
1 1
2 3
C31 = ( −1)3+1 = 8−6 = 2
2 4
1 3
C32 = (−1)3+ 2 = − ( 4 − 9) = 5
3 4
1 2
C33 = (−1)3+ 3 = 2 − 6 = −4
3 2
T
 2 −5 1   2 −3 2 

adj ( A) = − 3 0 1  = − 5 0
 5 
 2 5 − 4  1 1 − 4
3.5 Inverse Matrices

1
The inverse of matrix A is denoted by A−1 = adj ( A); A ≠ 0
A
3.4.1 Inverse of 2 x 2 matrix

a b 
If, A =   then A−1 is given by
c d 
1  d − b
A−1 =
ad − bc − c a 
Example 3.15
1 3
Find the inverse of matrix A =  
 2 5
Solution
1  5 − 3 − 5 3 
A −1 = =
1(5) − 3(2) − 2 1   2 − 1
Example 3.16
1 1 − 1
Find the inverse of matrix A = 2 − 3 1 
2 1 2 
Solution
A = 1(−6 − 1) − 1(4 − 2) − 1(2 + 6) = −17
Cofactor of matrix A is
 −3 1 2 1 2 − 3
 − 
 1 2 2 2 2 1 
 1 −1 1 −1 1 1
C = − − 
 1 2 2 2 2 1
 1 −1 1 −1 1 1 
−
−3
 1 2 1 2 − 3 
− 7 − 2 8 
C =  − 3 4 1 
− 2 − 3 − 5
 − 7 − 3 − 2
adj ( A) = − 2 4 − 3
 8 1 − 5
 − 7 − 3 − 2 7 3 2
− 2 4 − 3 =  2 − 4 3
−1 1   1 
A = 
− 17 17
 8 1 − 5 − 8 − 1 5
3.5 Linear system of matrix equations
A linear system of matrix equations in x1 and x2 is
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2
A linear system of matrix equations in x1 , x2 and x3 is
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 (*)
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3
All the linear systems can be written as a single matrix equation. For
example, (*) is equivalent to the matrix equation AX = B
 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1 

a
 21 a22 a23   x2  = b2 
a31 a32 a33   x3  b3 
 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1 

where A = a21 a22 a23 ; X =  x2 ; B = b2 
  
 a31 a32 a33   x3  b3 
Then the system of equation can be solved by

1. using the inverse matrix
2. Cramer’s Rule
3.5.1 Solving AX = B Using the Inverse Matrix

If An× n has an inverse, X n×1 is a variable matrix and Bn×1 a known
matrix, then the solution for the matrix equations AX = B is given by
X = A−1B
Example 3.17
Solve the following system of equation using the inverse
matrix
2 x1 + 5 x2 = 8
(a)
3 x1 − 2 x2 = −7
3x1 + x2 + 2 x3 = 11
3x1 + 2 x2 + 2 x3 = 10
(b)
x1 + x3 = 5
Solution
(a) Convert the given system of equations to a matrix equation of
the form AX = B
2 5   x1   8 
 3 − 2  x  =  − 7 
  2   
 x1  1  − 2 − 5  8  1  − 16 + 35 1  19  − 1
= = =
 x  − 19  − 3 2  − 7  − 19 − 24 − 14 − 19 − 38 =  2 
 2         
Then x1 = - 1 and x2 = 2.
(b) Convert the given system of equations to a matrix equation of

the form AX = B
3 1 2  x1  11
3 2 2  x  = 10
  2   
1 0 1   x3   5 
Then use only the cofactors of elements in the third row to

find the determinant of this 3 x 3 matrix. Thus,
3 1 2
1 2 3 2 3 1
A = 3 2 2 =1 −0 +1 = 1(2 − 4) − 0 + 1(6 − 3) = 1
2 2 3 2 3 2
1 0 1
The cofactors matrix is

 2 2 3 2 3 2 
 − 
 0 1 1 1 1 0 
 1 2 3 2 3 1
C = − −
 0 1 1 1 1 0 
 1 2 3 3 3 1 
 2 −
 2 2 2 3 2 
 2 − 1 − 2
C =  − 1 1 1 
− 2 0 3 
 2 − 1 − 2
adj ( A) =  − 1 1 0 
− 2 1 3 
2 − 1 − 2  2 − 1 − 2
0  =  −1 1 0 
−1 1
A = −1 1
1  
− 2 1 3  − 2 1 3 
 x1   2 − 1 − 2 11  22 − 10 − 10   2 
x  =  −1
 2  1 0  10 =  − 11 + 10 + 0  = − 1
 x3  − 2 1 3   5  − 22 + 10 + 15  3 
Therefore x1 = 2, x2 = -1 and x3 = 3.
3.5.2 Solving AX = B Using the Cramer’s Rule
Given a system AX = B, which is
 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1 

a
 21 a22 a23   x2  = b2 
 a31 a32 a33   x3  b3 
The steps involved in solving the system are:

Step 1 : Find |A|
Step 2 : For solving x j , replace the j th column of A with B;
j = 1, 2, 3. Then find
x1 , x2 and x3 as follows
b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1

1 1 1
X1 = b2 a22 a23 ; X 2 = a21 b2 a23 ; X 3 = a21 a22 b2
A A A
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 a33 a31 a32 b3
Example 3.18
Solve the matrix form AX = B, of the given system we have
1 − 1 2   x1   3 
A = 1 1 − 3; X =  x2 ; B = − 11
   
2 3 1   x3   9 
Then
1 −3 −1 2 −1 2
A =1 −1 +2
3 1 3 1 1 −3
= 1(1 + 9) − 1(−1 − 6) + 2(3 − 2) = 10 + 7 + 2 = 19
Therefore
3 −1 2
1 9(3 − 2) − 3(−9 + 22) + 1(3 − 11)
X1 = − 11 1 − 3 =
19 19
9 3 1
9 − 39 − 8 − 38
= = = −2
19 19
1 3 2
1 1(−11 + 27) − 1(3 − 18) + 2(−9 + 22)
X2 = 1 − 11 − 3 =
19 19
2 9 1
16 + 15 + 26 57
= = =3
19 19
1 −1 3
1 1(9 + 33) − 1( −9 − 9) + 2(11 − 3)
X3 = 1 1 − 11 =
19 19
2 3 9
42 + 18 + 16 76
= = =4
19 19
So x1 = -2, x2 = 3 and x3 = 4.
G e o m e t r i c C o o r d i n a t e s | 51
CHAPTER 4
GEOMETRIC COORDINATES
4.1 Lines and Slope
4.1.1 Distance between two points in the plane

The distance d between the points P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 ) in the
plane is given by
d = ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
Example 4.1
Find the distance in between points A ( 2, 5 ) and B ( -4, 9 )
Solution
Distance between A and B
= ( x2 − x1 ) 2 + ( y2 − y1 ) 2
= (−4 − 2) 2 + (9 − 5) 2
= (−6) 2 + (4) 2
= 36 + 16
= 52
= 7.211
52 | G e o m e t r i c C o o r d i n a t e s
4.1.2 Midpoint Formula

Related to the formula for the distance between two points is the
formula for finding the midpoint of a line segment
The midpoint, M of the segment with endpoint P1 ( x1 , y1 ) and

P2 ( x2 , y2 ) has coordinates
 x + x y + y2 
M = 1 2, 1 
 2 2 
Example 4.2
Finding the midpoint of the line PQ, given that P ( -1, 3 ) and
Q ( 1, -6 ).
Solution
The midpoint of PQ
 x + x 2 y1 + y 2 
=  1 , 
 2 2 
 − 1 + 1 3 + (−6) 
= , 
 2 2 
3
= (0,− )
2
4.1.3 A linear equation in two variables

It is an equation of the form
Ax + By = C
where A and B are not both zero.
Example of linear equation is

3x − 5 y − 6 = 0
4.1.4 Intercepts
The points at which the graph of a linear equation crosses the axes are
called intercepts. The x-intercept is the point at which the graph
crosses the x-axis; the y-intercept is the point at which the graph
crosses the y-axis.
y
intercepts
Steps for finding the intercepts of a linear equation
Steps to find the intercepts of a linear equation Ax + By = C , with

A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0 , follow these steps.
STEP 1 : Let y = 0 and solve for x. This determines the x-intercept of

the line.
STEP 2 : Let x = 0 and solve for y. This determines the y-intercept of
the line.
Example 4.3
Find the intercepts of the equation 2 x + 3 y = 6 . Graph the
equation.
Solution
Step 1: to find the x-intercept
2x + 3y = 6
2 x + 3(0) = 6
2x = 6
x=3
The x-intercept is ( 3, 0 )
Step 2: to find the y-intercept

2x + 3y = 6
2(0) + 3 y = 6
3y = 6
y=2
The y-intercept is ( 0, 2 )
Since the equation is a linear equation, its graph is a line. We
use the two intercepts ( 3, 0 ) and ( 0, 2 ) to graph it.
4.1.5 Equation of a Vertical Line

A vertical line is given by an equation of the form
x=a
where ( a, 0 ) is the x-intercept.
Example 4.4
Find an equation for the vertical line containing the point
( -1, 6 ).
Solution
Since ( -1, 6 ) is a point on the vertical line, its equation is
x = -1.
-1 0
4.1.6 Equation of a Horizontal Line

A horizontal line is given by an equation of the form
y=b
where ( 0, b ) is the y-intercept.
Example 4.5
Find an equation for the horizontal line containing the point
( 3, 2 ).
Solution
Since ( 3, 2 ) is a point on the horizontal line, its equation is
y = 2.
0 3
4.1.7 Slope (gradient) of a lineLet P = ( x1 , y1 ) and Q = ( x2 , y2 ) be

two distinct pointes. If x1 ≠ x2 , the slope of the nonvertical line L
containing P and Q is defined by the formula
y2 − y1
m= ; x2 ≠ x1
x2 − x1
Q
Example 4.6
Find the slope m of the line containing the points ( 3, -2 ) and
( 1, 5 ).
Solution
y2 − y1 5 − (−2) 7 7
m= = = =−
x2 − x1 1− 3 −2 2
4.1.8 Equation of a Line

An equation of a line L with slope m and y-intercept ( 0, c ) is
y = mx + c
Point-Slope Form of an Equation of a Line
An equation of a nonvertical line with slope m that contains the point

( x1 , y1 ) is
y − y1 = m( x − x1 )
Example 4.7
Find an equation of the line with slope 4 and containing the
point ( 1, 2 )
Solution
We know that m = 4 x1 = 1 and y1 = 2
y − y1 = m( x − x1 )
y − 2 = 4( x − 1)
y − 2 = 4x − 4
y = 4x − 2
4.2 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines
If L1 and L2 are nonvertical lines with slopes m1 and m2 , then

i) L1 and L2 are parallel if and only if m1 = m2 .
ii) L1 and L2 are perpendicular if and only if m1 m2 = -1 or

1
m1 = − .
m2
Example 4.8
Find an equation of the line parallel to y = 3 x − 2 and
through the point ( -1, 3 ).
Solution
From the equation m = 3. So
y − 3 = 3( x − (−1))
y − 3 = 3( x + 1)
y = 3x + 6
Example 4.9
Find an equation of the line perpendicular to y = −2 x + 4 and
intersecting the line at the point ( 1, 2 ).
Solution
The slope of equation is m1 = -2. Then the slop of the
perpendicular m2 is
m1 m2 = -1
-2 m2 = -1
1
m2 =
2
Since the line must pass through the point ( 1, 2 ), The
equation of the perpendicular line is
1
y−2 = ( x − 1)
2
1 1
y−2 = x−
2 2
1 1− 4
y = x−
2 2
1 3
y = x+
2 2
4.2.1 Intersection of Two Lines

To find the point of intersection of two lines, we solve the two
equations simultaneously.
Example 4.10
Find the intersection point of two lines, y = 2 x + 7 and
2 y = −x + 4
Solution
y = 2 x + 7..........................(1)
2 y = − x + 4........................(2)
2 y = 4 x + 14.......................(3)
0 = −5 x − 10
5 x = −10
10
x=− = −2
5
Substitute x = -2 into equation (1)
y = 2 (− 2 ) + 7
= −4 + 7
= 3
The intersection point is ( -2, 3 )
4.2.2 The shortest distance ( perpendicular distance )

The shortest distance from a point ( h, k ) to a straight line
ax + by + c = 0 is
ah + bk + c
d=
a 2 + b2
Example 4.11
Find the perpendicular distance from the points A ( 2, 3 ) to
the straight line
3x + 4 y = 1
Solution
ah + bk + c
d=
a 2 + b2
3(2) + 4(3) − 1
=
32 + 42
6 + 12 − 1
=
25
17
=
5
F u n c t i o n s & G r a p h s | 61
CHAPTER 5:
FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
5.1 Relations and Functions
Definition
• A function is defined as a relation in which every element in
the domain has a unique image in the range.
• In other words, a function is
- one to one relation
- many to one relation
Examples of functions
- Mapping is another name for function.

- A mapping or function f from set A to a set B is
usually written as
f :A →B
- If an element x, of set A is mapped into an element y
in set B we say that y is an image of x.
- The image of x is thus represented by f(x) and we write
y = f(x).
62 | F u n c t i o n s & G r a p h s
Example 5.1
Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4} and B = { set of integers }. Illustrate the
function f : x → x + 3.
Solution
5.1.1 The graph of function

- The most common method of representing function is
by means of graph
- Each graph is drawn with the coordinate axes
- Horizontal axis ( x – axis ) representing the domain
- Vertical axis ( y – axis ) representing the range.
Example 5.2
Draw the graph of the function f : x → x 2 , x ∈ R , where R is
the set of real numbers.
Solution
Assume the domain is x = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. A table of
values is constructed as follows:
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
f(x) 9 4 1 0 1 4 9
5.2 Types of functions and their graphs
1. Constant 2. Linear
Example: f ( x) = 3; x ∈ R Example: f ( x) = x; x ∈ R
3. Quadratic 4. Cubic
Example: f ( x) = x 2 ; x ∈ R Example: f ( x) = x 3 ; x ∈ R
5. Exponential
Example: f ( x) = e x ; x ∈ R
6. Logarithmic
Example: f ( x) = ln x; x ∈ (0, ∞)
5.3 Transformations of Functions
The graph of one function can be turned into the graph of a different
function rely on a function’s equation.
5.3.1 Vertical Shift

Let f be a function and c a positive real number.
- The graph of y = f ( x) + c is the graph of y = f (x)
shifted c units vertically upward.
- The graph of y = f ( x) − c is the graph of y = f (x)
shifted c units vertically downward.
Example 5.3
Use the graph of f ( x) = x to obtain the graph of
g ( x) = x − 4
Solution
5.3.2 Horizontal Shift

- The graph of y = f ( x + c) is the graph of y = f (x)
shifted to the left c units.
- The graph of y = f ( x − c) is the graph of y = f (x)
shifted to the right c units.
Example 5.4
Use the graph of f ( x) = x 2 to obtain the graph of graph
g ( x) = ( x + 2) 2 .
Solution
5.3.3 Reflections of Graph

- The graph of y = − f (x) is the graph of y = f (x)
reflected about x-axis.
- The graph of y = f (− x) is the graph of y = f (x)
reflected about y-axis.
Example
5.3.4 Stretching and Shrinking Graph

- if c > 1 , the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of
y = f (x) vertically stretched by multiplying each of
its y-coordinates by c.
- if 0 < c < 1 , the graph of y = cf (x) is the graph of
y = f (x) vertically shrunk by multiplying each of its
y-coordinates by c.
Example
5.4 Properties for Graph of Functions
- All forms of relations can be represented on

coordinates
- To test if a graph displayed is a function, vertical lines
are drawn parallel to the y – axis.
- The graph is a function if each vertical line drawn
through the domain cuts the graph at only one point.
Example 5.5
Consider the graphs shown below and state whether they
represent functions.
Solution
Graphs (i) and (iii) are functions but graphs (ii) and (iv) are
not functions.
5.4.1 Domain and Range

- The domain of the function is the set of all first
components of the ordered pairs of the function.
- The range of a function is the set of all second

components of the ordered pairs of the function.
Example
Consider the function f : x → x + 4 with domain
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4 }. The range of the function can be shown
by the table.
x 1 2 3 4
f(x) 5 6 7 8
The range of the function is B = { 5, 6, 7, 8 }
Note:
- The domain and the range of the function can be
determined by means of graph, horizontal axis
representing the domain and the vertical axis the
range.
Example
The domain of this function is A = { -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 } and the

range as shown by the graph is B = { 9, 4, 1, 0}.
Example 5.6
Consider for what value of x are the following function
defined?
(i) f(x) = 2x – 5
1
(ii) f ( x) =
x−2
Solution
(i) y = f(x) = 2x – 5 is defined for all values of x, since to
any value of x we obtain a value of y.
y+5
x= show the range of f(x) can be defined for all
2
values of y since to any value of y we obtain a value
of x.
1
(ii) y = f ( x) = is defined for every value of x except
x−2
x = 2 since if we try to evaluate y when x = 2 we
1
obtain which is meaningless since division by zero
0
is not a valid operation.
1
x= + 2 show the range of f(x) can be defined every
y
value of y except y = 0 since we try to evaluate x
1
when y = 0 obtain which is meaningless.
0
5.5 Composite Functions
5.5.1 Operation on functions

Functions can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided in a
many ways. For example consider f ( x) = x 2 and g(x) = 2x + 6.
1. Addition
(a) f ( x) + g ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 6
(b) g ( x) + f ( x) = 2 x + 6 + x 2
= x2 + 2x + 6
Therefore f(x) + g(x) = g(x) + f(x).
2. Subtraction
(a) f ( x) − g ( x) = x 2 − (2 x + 6) = x 2 − 2 x − 6
(b) g ( x) − f ( x) = 2 x + 6 − x 2
Therefore, f(x) - g(x) ≠ g(x) - f(x).
3. Division
f ( x) x2
(a) = , x ≠ −3
g ( x) 2 x + 6
g ( x) 2 x + 6
(b) = ,x ≠ 0
f ( x) x2
f ( x) g ( x)
Therefore, ≠
g ( x) f ( x)
4. Multiplication
(a) f ( x) g ( x) = x 2 (2 x + 6) = 2 x 2 ( x + 3)
(b) g ( x) f ( x) = (2 x + 6) x 2 = x 2 (2 x + 6)
Therefore, f(x)g(x) = g(x)f(x).
It is also possible to take the output values from one function and use
them as the input values for another function. The function which are
composed in this way are called composite function or function of a
function.
Definition:
Consider two functions f(x) and g(x).
We define f  g = fg ( x) = f [ g ( x)] meaning that the output
values of the function g are used as the input values for the
function f.
This can be represented in an arrow diagram:
Note that f  g ≠ f ( x) g ( x).

Similarly, we define g  f = gf ( x) = g[ f ( x)] meaning that the output
values of the function f are used as the input values for the function g.
This can be represented in an arrow diagram.
Note that g  f ≠ g ( x) f ( x)
Example 5.7
If f(x) = 3x + 1 and g(x) = 2 – x, find as a function of x.
(a) f  g (b) g  f
Solution
(a) f  g = f [ g ( x)]
= f (2 − x)
= 3(2 − x) + 1
= 6 − 3x + 1
= 7 − 3x
(b) g  f = g[ f ( x)]
= g (3 x + 1)
= 2 − (3 x + 1)
= 1 − 3x
5.5.2 Determine the Domain of the Composite Functions
From the above arrow diagram, the domain of the composite function
f  g is the set of all of x in the domain of the g for which g(x) is in
the domain of f.
From the above arrow diagram, the domain of the composite function
g  f is the set of all of x in the domain of the f for which f(x) is in
the domain of g.
Example 8
Let f ( x) = x for x ≥ 0 and g(x) = 2x + 3 for x ∈ R
(a) Find g  f and determine its domain.
(b) Find f  g and determine its domain.
Solution
(a) ( g  f )( x) = g ( x ) = 2 x + 3
The domain of g  f is x ≥ 0 or [0, ∞)
(b) ( f  g ) = f (2 x + 3) = 2 x + 3
3 3
The domain of f  g is x ≥ − or [− , ∞)
2 2
5.6 The Inverse Of A Function
If f is a function, the inverse is denoted by f −1 . Suppose y = f(x) then
x = f −1 ( y ) .
9
y = f ( x) = x + 32
5
9
y − 32 = x
5
5
x= ( y − 32)
9
5
f −1 ( y ) = ( y − 32)
9
Since y could be any variable, we can rewrite f −1 as a function of x as
5
f −1 ( x) = ( x − 32)
9
Example 5.9
x−3
Find the inverse of f ( x) =
2
Solution
Let y = f(x). Then x = f −1 ( y )
x−3
So y = and x = 2y + 3
2
therefore f −1 ( y ) = 2 y + 3
hence f −1 ( x) = 2 x + 3
5.5.1 Function with no inverse

An inverse function can only exist if the function is a one-to-one
function. This is can be shown in fig. (a) there is only one arrow
reaching each member of the range. Therefore there will be no
inverse if the function is a many-to-one function as shown in fig. (b).
To be a function the rule is that it must map each member of the

domain to one and only one member of the range. That is, it must
give only one image. So, for example if,
y2 = x
Then it is not possible to express y as a function of x since

y=± x
One value of x gives two values of y.
However, y = x , x ≥ 0 is a function, as there is only one positive

square root of x, for any real number which is greater than zero.
A many-to-one function will map different members of its domain

into the same member of the range. An example such as a function is
f ( x) = x 2 , x ∈ R
A many-to-one function maps different values in the domain to the

same value in the range. The graph of many to one function crossed
in more than one points by a parallel line to the x axis, as shown
below.
The graph of the inverse is shown below
This shows that the inverse cannot be a function. So, a many to one
function cannot have an inverse.
If a function is to have an inverse, it must be one-to-one. In other

words, every member of its domain is mapped into its own unique
member of the range. The graph below shows such a function.
Example 5.10
1
Find the inverse of f ( x) = + 2, x ≠ 1. State the domain
1− x
of the inverse.
Solution
1
Let y = f(x), so that y = +2
1− x
1
y−2 =
1− x
(1 − x)( y − 2) = 1
1
1− x =
y−2
1
x = 1−
y−2
This formula gives the inverse function as
1
f −1 ( y ) = 1 −
y−2
Replacing y by x, this becomes
1
f −1 ( x) = 1 − .
x−2
As f −1 ( x) is the inverse of f(x), its domain will be the range of the

f(x). The figure below shows the graph of f(x). The range is the set of
real numbers, except y ∈ R \ {2}.
Therefore there is no value of x for which f(x) = 2, as shown by the

graph below.
So the domain of f(x) is the set of real numbers, except x = 2.

1
f −1 ( x) = 1 − , x ∈ R, x ≠ 2.
x−2
The graph of f −1 ( x) is shown below.
Note that the range of f −1 ( x) is the domain of f(x).
Note: ( f −1 ) 2 = ( f 2 ) −1
Example 5.11
Given that f ( x) = 3x + 5 . Find (a) ( f −1 ) 2
(b) ( f 2 ) −1
Solution
(a) Let y = 3x + 5
y −5
x=
3
x−5
f −1 ( x) =
3
( f ) ( x) = f −1[ f −1 ( x)]
−1 2
x−5
= f −1 ( )
3
x−5
−5
= 3
3
x − 20
=
9
(b) ( f 2 ) = f [ f ( x)]
= f (3 x + 5)
= 3(3 x + 5) + 5
= 9 x + 20
Let w = 9 x + 20
w − 20
x=
9
x − 20
Therefore ( f 2 ) −1 =
9
Note: ( f  g ) −1 = g −1  f −1
Example 5.12
1
Given that f(x) = 1 – x and g ( x) = , x ≠ −2.
x+2
Find ( f  g ) −1 and ( g −1  f −1 )
Solution
( f  g ) −1 (x) = f[g(x)]
1
= f( )
x+2
1
= 1−
x+2
x +1
=
x+2
x +1
Let y=
x+2
xy + 2 y = x + 1
xy − x = 1 − 2 y
1− 2y
x=
y −1
1 − 2x
So, ( f  g ) −1 ( x) =
x −1
Let us find f −1 and g −1 .
Let u=1–x
x=1–u
f −1 (u ) = 1 − u
f −1 ( x) = 1 − x
1
Let v=
x+2
1 − 2v
x=
v
1 − 2x
g −1 ( x) =
x
5.5.2 Graphical Illustration of an Inverse Function

x+3
Verify that the inverse of f(x) = 2x – 3 is f −1 ( x) =
2
9
The inverse of the function f ( x) = x + 32 was found to be
5
5
f −1 ( x) = ( x − 32).
9
The Figure shows the graph of these two functions on the same pair
axes. The dotted line is the graph y = x. These graphs illustrate a
general relationship between the graph of a function and that of its
inverse, namely that one graph is the reflection of the other in the line
y = x.
T r i g o n o m e t r y | 83
CHAPTER 6:
TRIGONOMETRY
Trigonometry
Trigonometry uses the techniques that students have previously
learned from the study of algebra and geometry. The trigonometric
functions studied are defined geometrically rather than in terms of
algebraic equations. Facility with these functions as well as the ability
to prove basic identities regarding them is especially important for
students intending to study calculus, more advanced mathematics,
physics and other sciences, and engineering in university.
6.1 Angles
Angles:( denoted by ∠ )
Angles are geometric figures made from two rays having the same
endpoint The endpoint is called the vertex and the rays are called the
sides of the angle. The side being rotated is called the initial side and
the other side is the terminal side.
∠ ABC, ∠ CBA ∠ B or θ can be used to name angles.

The vertex is always in the middle of the angle.
Angles are measured in degrees or in radians. Degrees are the most

common used unit for measuring angles, but in many modern
applications the radians is used most often. Radians is another unit of
measure for angles which is commonly used in Europe and for
surveying. Angles are measured positive when they are rotated
counter-clockwise and negative when rotated clockwise. The initial
side can be rotated several times before stopping at the terminal side.
84 | T r i g o n o m e t r y
For example
-700
500 160 0
6.2 Radian and degree measures of angles
The relationship between degrees and radians is,

2π radian = 3600 or π radian = 1800
π
0
 180 
Thus, 1 rad =   and 10 = rad
 π  180
π
To convert degrees to radians, multiply by .
180
180
To convert radians to degrees, multiply by .
π
Example 6.1
(a) Express 60 0 in radians
(b) Express π / 4 rad in degrees
(c ) Express -112 0 in radians

6.3 Trigonometric Functions
6.3.1 Trigonometric Functions Using Coordinate Systems:
Angle θ is in standard position if its vertex is at the origin and its

initial side is on the x-axis.
" θ is in Q1 " means that angle θ is in standard position and its

terminal side is in quadrant 1.
If θ is in Q1 and it is an acute angle, then the previous trigonometric

functions can be applied.
Let P = (x , y) be any point on the terminal side of q , and the distance

r from the origin to point P is:
𝑟 = �𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
The trigonometric functions are:

With this new definition for trigonometric functions, some of the

functions may be negative, due to their coordinates. Here is a simple
way of remembering were the trigonometric functions and their
inverses are positive:
A means that all trigonometric functions are positive.

S means that all sine and cosecant functions are positive.
T means that all tangent and cotangent functions are positive.
C means that all cosine and secant functions are positive.
Take note that for any angle θ ,
sin( −θ ) = − sin θ
cos(−θ ) = cos θ
tan(−θ ) = − tan θ
Example 6.2
Evaluate for sin θ , cos θ and tan θ for each of the following
angles
(a) 1450 (b) 2100

Solution
(a) 1450 is in quadrant II, base angle is 350
350
∴ sin 1450 = sin 350 = 0.5736
∴ cos1450 = -cos 350 = -0.8192
∴ tan 1450 = -tan 350 = -0.7002
(b) 2100 is in quadrant III, base angle is 300
2100
300
∴ sin 2100 = -sin 300 = -0.5
∴ cos2100 = -cos 300 = -0.8660
∴ tan 2100 = tan 300 = 0.5774

For some angles it is possible to write exact values of their

trigonometric functions. The most important cases are presented in
the table:
45o 30o
2 2
1 3
45o 60o
1 1
undefined undefined
undefined undefined
Example
Evaluate
(a) sin(-450)
(b) cos (-450)
(c) tan(-450)
Solution
(a) sin(-450) = - sin(450)
1
= −
2
2
=−
2
(b) cos (-450) = cos (450)
1 2
= =
2 2
(c ) tan(-450) = -tan(450)
=-1
Example
Solve: 2 sin 2 x − 1 = 0;0 ≤ x ≤ 360 o
Solution
2 sin 2 x − 1 = 0
2 sin 2 x = 1
1
sin 2 x =
2
1
sin x = ±
2
sin x = ±
1
⋅ 2
=±
2
2
2 2
2
x = sin −1 ±
2
x = 45 ,135 ,225 o ,315 o
o o
6.3.2 Graph of Trigonometry Functions

Consider x as a real number or an angle in radians.
If f is any trig. function then f( x + 2 π ) = f(x) ; Therefore the graph
of the function has an interval of 2 π .
Graph of f(x) = sin x : Graph of f(x) = cos x :
Graph of f(x) = csc x : Graph of f(x) = sec x :
Graph of f(x) = tan x : Graph of f(x) = cot x :
6.4 Fundamental trigonometric identities.

These formulas are the fundamental trigonometric identities, that is to
say, they are valid for any angle . Using them, it is possible to a
bridge and to simplify a calculation process.
sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
1 + cot 2 θ = cos ec 2θ
tan 2 θ + 1 = sec 2 θ
Example 6.3
Verify the following identities:
(a) sin θ cot θ = cos θ

tan x
(b) = sec x − cos x
cos ecx
Solution
(a) sin θ cot θ = cos θ

1
sin θ cot θ = sin θ .
tan θ
1 cos θ
= sin θ . = sin θ . = cos θ
sin θ sin θ
cos ϑ
tan x
(b) = sec x − cos x
cos ecx
tan x tan x
=
cos ecx 1
sin x
sin x sin 2 x
= tan x. sin x = sin x =
cos x cos x
1 − cos 2 x 1
= = − cos x
cos x cos x
= sec x − cos x
6.5 Solving of right-angled triangles
6.5.1 By two sides.

If two sides of a right-angled triangle are given, then the third side
can be calculated by the Pythagorean theorem ( see the paragraph of
the same name in the section “Triangle” of the part “Geometry” ).
Acute angles are determined by one of the three first formulas for
trigonometric functions, depending on the fact what sides are known.
For instance, if legs a and b are given, then angle A is determined
by the formula:
tan A = a / b .
Example 6.4
A leg a = 0.324, a hypotenuse c = 0.544. Find the second leg b and

the angles A and B.
Solution
The leg b is equal:
Example 6.5
Two legs are given: a = 7.2 cm, b = 6.4 cm. Find a hypotenuse and
the angles A and B.
Solution
The hypotenuse c is equal:
6.5.2 By a side and an acute angle.

If one acute angle A is given, then another acute angle B is found as:
B = 90° – A . Sides are found by formulas of trigonometric functions,
rewritten as:
a = c sin A , b = c cos A , a = b tan A ,
b = c sin B , a = c cos B , b = a tan B .
It is necessary to select the formulas, containing a given or already

found side.
Example 6.6
Given: hypotenuse c = 13.65 m and acute angle A = 54°17’. Find
another acute angle B and legs a and b .
6.5.3 More Difficult Applications

It is possible to find values for angles given some information from a
triangle.
Example 6.7
Some of the problems that involve right triangles also involve
angles of depression and angles of elevation. A key element to
solving problems of this nature is to read the problem
carefully and find the horizontal before labeling an angle.
Another important feature is to remember parallel lines that

are cut by a transversal have the property of alternate interior
angles. This is most helpful when problems are involving
angles of depression.
In the diagram above, suppose the golfer comes to the edge of

the course and looks down at the sailboat at an angle of
depression of 48°. If he knows the cliff is 230 feet above the
water he can find the distance, d, between the sailboat and the
cliff by seeing a right triangle, as shown below:
230
tan 48 o =
d
Solving for distance shows the sailboat is approximately 207
feet from the base of the cliff.
6.6 Basic relations between elements of triangle
6.6.1 The Law of Sines:

In a triangle with sides A, B and C and opposite angles a, b and c
,respectively,
It is used primarily to find the third side of a triangle given two sides
and the included angle. It is also used to find an angle when given all
3 sides.
6.6.2 The Law of Cosines:
Given a triangle;
Suppose we are given side b, c, and ∠A .
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2b cos ∠A
a = b 2 + c 2 − 2b cos ∠A
Suppose we are given side a, c, and ∠B .

b 2 = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos ∠B
b = a 2 + c 2 − 2ac cos ∠B
Suppose we are given side a, b, and ∠C .
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos ∠C
c = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos ∠C
6.6.3 The Area Of A Triangle:

Given any triangle:
If two sides, A and C, are given and the included angle b then the
area of the triangle is :
Area = ½ AC sin b
Example 6.8
You need to find all the angles and all the sides of the given
triangle:
Solution
∠A = 180 o − (120 o + 45 o ) = 15 0
The sum of the angles in any triangle is always 180 degrees.

Here we are given 2 angles and a side.
Now find 2 sides a and b:
a c b c
= =
sin A sin C sin B sin C
a 15 b 15
o
= =
sin 15 sin 120 o sin 45 o
sin 120 o
15 sin 15 o 15 sin 45 o
a= b=
sin 120 o sin 120 o
a ≈ 4.48 b ≈ 12.25
Example 6.9
Use the Law of Cosines to solve:
Solution
c = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos ∠C
c = 10 2 + 4.5 2 − 2(10)(4.5) cos 105 o

c ≈ 11.98 ≈ 12
10 12
=
sin ∠A sin 105 o
∠A ≈ 53.7 o
∴ ∠B ≈ 180 o − (105 o + 53.7 o ) ≈ 21.3 o
Example 6.10
Two tugboats that are 150 m apart pull a barge, shown below.
If the length of one cable is 200 m and the length of the other
is 160 m, find the angle formed by two cables.
200 m
150 m
A
160 m
Solution
By using the cosine rule, we get

a 2 = b 2 + c 2 − 2bc cos A
b 2 + c 2 − a 2 160 2 + 200 2 − 150 2

∴ cos A = = = 0.6734
2bc 2(160)(200)
< A=47.67o
P o l y n o m i a l s | 99
CHAPTER 7:
POLYNOMIALS
These function, has its own special name.
Function Special name Degree
ax + b Linear 1
ax 2 + bx + c Quadratic 2
ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d Cubic 3
ax 4 + bx 3 + cx 2 + dx + e Quartic 4
Where a, b, c, d and e are constants. The degree is given according to

the highest power of the variable.
Definition:
A polynomial P(x) of degree n is an algebraic expression of the form
P ( x) = a n x n + a n −1 x n −1 + ......... + a1 x 1 + a 0
where n is a positive integer and a n , a n −1 ,…., a 0 are constant, also
called the coefficients and a n ≠ 0 . a n is called the leading coefficient
and a 0 is called the constant term.
The following functions are examples of polynomials:

P( x) = 2 x + 5
P( x) = 3x 2 + 7
P( x) = x 3 − 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1
P( x) = −3
1 1
x 2
+ x + 2; + 2 x −3 are not polynomials, since they include terms
x
with powers of x at are not positive integers.
100 | P o l y n o m i a l s
3 yz 2 ,2 y 2 − 7 z ,3 x 2 − xy + 2 y 3 are also called polynomials of more

than one variable respectively. However, in this chapter we will only
discuss polynomials of one variable.
7.1 The Algebraic Operations on Polynomials
7.1.1 Adding and subtracting polynomials

The polynomials P(x) and Q(x) may be added or subtracted by
collecting the same terms.
Example 7.1
Given P ( x) = 3 x 4 − 5 x 3 + x − 4 and Q( x) = 4 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 4 x + 3
. Find
(a) P(x) + Q(x)
(b) P(x) – Q(x)
Solution
(a) P ( x) + Q( x) = (3x 4 − 5 x 3 + x − 4) + (4 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 4 x + 3)
= (3 x 4 ) + (−5 + 4) x 3 − 3 x 2 + (1 + 4) x + (−4 + 3)
= 3x 4 − x 3 − 3x 2 + 5 x − 1
(b) P( x) − Q( x) = (3 x 4 − 5 x 3 + x − 4) − (4 x 3 − 3 x 2 + 4 x + 3)
= 3x 4 − 9 x 3 + 3x 2 − 3x − 7
7.1.2 Multiplying polynomials

Note that every term in one polynomial is multiplied by every term in
the other.
Example 7.2
Given P ( x) = 3x 3 − 2 x + 4 and Q( x) = x 2 − 3.
(a) 3P(x) (b) P(x)Q(x)
Solution
(a) 3P( x) = 3(3 x 3 − 2 x + 4) = 9 x 3 − 6 x + 12.
(b) P( x)Q( x) = (3 x 3 − 2 x + 4)( x 2 − 3)
= 3 x 3 ( x 2 − 3) − 2 x( x 2 − 3) + 4( x 2 − 3)
= 3 x 5 − 9 x 3 − 2 x 3 + 6 x + 4 x 2 − 12
= 3 x 5 − 11x 3 + 4 x 2 + 6 x − 12
7.1.3 Division of Polynomials

32 5 5
In the integer division = 3 + = 3 , the divisor is 9, the quotient
9 9 9
is 3, and the remainder is 5.
The statement could be expressed as
32 = 3 × 9 + 5 = quotient × divisor + remainder,
where remainder < divisor.
Similarly, polynomial can be expressed as P(x) = Q(x)D(x) + R(x).

The quotient and remainder can be found by
• Long division
• Synthetic division
i. Long division of polynomials
Example 7.3
If P ( x) = 3 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 4, divide by P(x) by x – 3
3x 2 + 2 x + 8
x – 3 3x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 4
− (3 x 3 − 9 x 2 )
2x 2 + 2x + 4
− (2 x 2 − 6 x)
8x + 4
– (8x – 24)
28
Thus,
3x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 4 28
= (3 x 2 + 2 x + 8) +
x−3 x−3
3 x − 7 x + 2 x + 4 = (3 x + 2 x + 8)( x − 3) + 28
3 2 2
Where Q( x) = (3x 2 + 2 x + 8) and R(x) = 28.

Where Q(x) denotes quotient, D(x) denotes divisor and R(x) denotes
remainder. The remainder has a lower degree than divisor.
Note that 3 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 4 is called dividend.
ii. Synthetic division of polynomials

In synthetic division, the divisor, D(x) must be linear of the form x –
h.
Let P( x) = ax 3 − bx 2 + cx + d
h a b c d
(+) ah ah 2 + bh ah 3 + bh 2 + ch
×h ×h ×h
a ah+b ah + bh +c
2
ah 3 + bh 2 + ch +d
The quotient, Q(x) = ax 2 + (ah + b) x + (ah 2 + bh + c) and
the remainder, R(x) = ah 3 + bh 2 + ch + d
Example 7.4
If P ( x) = 3x 3 − 7 x 2 + 2 x + 4, divide P(x) by x – 3.
Solution
Let D(x) = x – 3
= x – h; so h = 3
3 3 –7 2 4
(+) 9 6 24
3 2 8 28
The result is expressed formally as the long division, of the previous

lecture
P ( x) = (3 x 2 + 2 x + 8)( x − 3) + 28
7.2 Remainder Theorem
When the polynomial P(x) is divided by a linear factor x – a, then the

remainder is P(a)
Note:
• if P(x) is divided by x + a = x – (- a), then R = P(-a)
 b b
• if P(x) is divided by ax – b = a x −  , then R = P 
 a a
Example 7.5
Find the remainder when P ( x) = 2 x 3 − 6 x 2 + 4 x + 3 is divided
by:
(a) x – 2
(b) 2x – 1
Solution
(a) R = P (2) = 2(2) 3 − 6(2) 2 + 4(2) + 3 = 3
3 2
1 1 1 1 15
(b) R = P  = 2  − 6  + 4  + 3 =
2 2 2 2 4
Example 7.6
When 5 x 2 + x − 8k is divided by x – 1 the remainder is 2.
Find k.
Solution
Let P ( x) = 5 x 2 + x − 8k
P(1) = 2
P(1) = 5(1) 2 + (1) − 8k = 2
8k = 4
1
k=
2
7.2.1 Factor Theorem

If the remainder from dividing the polynomial P(x) by (x – a) is zero,
then (x – a) must be a factor of the polynomial P(x)
If P(a) = 0 then ( x – a) is a factor of P(x)
Note:
• Conversely, if (x – a) is a factor of P(x) then P(a) = 0

 b
• In general, if (ax + b) is a factor of P(x), then P −  will be
 a
zero.
Example 7.7
Determine whether the following linear functions are factor of
the given polynomials.
(a) P( x) = x 3 − 3 x 2 − x + 3 ; (x + 4)
(b) P( x) = 6 x 3 + 13 x 2 − 4 ; (2x – 1)
Solution
(a) Let P( x) = x 3 − 3 x 2 − x + 3
P(−4) = (−4) 3 − 3(−4) 2 − (−4) + 3 = −105 ≠ 0

Since P(-4) ≠ 0, (x + 4) is not a factor of P(x)
(b) Let P( x) = 6 x 3 + 13 x 2 − 4
3 2
1 1 1
P  = 6  + 13  − 4 = 0
2 2 2
1
Since P  = 0, (2 x − 1) is a factor of P(x)
2
Example 7.8
Find the constant p for which (x – 2) is a factor of
x 3 + px 2 − 3 x + 6
Solution
Let P( x) = x 3 + px 2 − 3 x + 6
Since (x – 2) is a factor of P(x), P(2) = 0.
P(2) = (2) 3 + p (2) 2 − 3(2) + 6 = 0

4p = -8
p = -2
7.2.2 Root and zeros of polynomial

Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n.
If P(a) = 0, then x = a is a root of the polynomial equation, P(x) = 0

x = a is also called a zero of the polynomial P(x)
Note:
• In general, if x = a is a root of the polynomial equation P(x) =
0 then (x – a)is a factor of P(x).
• Every polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots.
Some of these roots may be repeated.
Example 7.9
Show that x = 3 is a root of x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0
Solution
Let
P( x) = x 3 − 2 x 2 − 5 x + 6
P(3) = (3) 3 − 2(3) 2 − 5(3) + 6 = 0
Since P(3) = 0, so x = 3 is a root of P(x).
Example 7.10
Factorize P( x) = 6 x 3 + 13 x 2 − 4 and write its zeroes.
Solution
Try substituting the factor of the constant term, i.e ± 1,±2,±4
until P(x) = 0 and a linear factor can be identified.
By inspection,
P (1) = 6(1) 3 + 13(1) 2 − 4 = 15 ≠ 0
P (−1) = 6(−1) 3 + 13(−1) 2 − 4 = 3 ≠ 0
P (2) = 6(2) 3 + 13(2) 2 − 4 = 96 ≠ 0
P(−2) = 6(−2) 3 + 13(−2) 2 − 4 = 0
Therefore (x + 2) is a factor of P(x).

P(x) can be written as:
P(x) = (x + 2)Q(x)
The quotient Q(x) could be found by using long division or

synthetic division. By synthetic division,
-2 6 13 0 -4
(+) -12 -2 4
6 1 -2 0
The result is
P( x) = ( x + 2)(6 x 2 + x − 2)
= ( x + 2)(2 x − 1)(3 x + 2)
1 2
∴ The zeroes of the equation are –2, and − .
2 3
7.3 Partial Fractions
Two more proper fractions can be combined to give a single fraction.

1 2 11
For example + = . Conversely, a fraction can be expressed as
3 5 15
sum or difference of two or more proper fractions, known as partial
fractions.
P ( x ) a ( x ) c ( x ) e( x )
= + +
Q ( x ) b( x ) d ( x ) f ( x )
We can usually apply this technique to algebraic fraction as a sum or

difference of simpler algebraic fractions. The key to this process lies
in the factorization of the denominator. We will consider three
categories of denominator:
• Linear factor
• Quadratic factor
• Repeated factors:
i) repeated linear factor
ii) repeated quadratic factor
A ‘proper’ fraction is a ratio of two polynomials when the degree of

the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator.
An ‘improper’ fraction is a ratio of two polynomials when the

degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to the degree of the
denominator.
7.3.1 Linear factor in denominator

P( x)
Let the fraction be . If Q(x) is a product of linear factors,
Q( x)
Q(x) = (a1 x + b1 )(a 2 x + b2 ).....(a r x + br ) can be expressed as
A1 A2 Ar
+ + .... + where A1 , A2 ,..... Ar are constant.
a1 x + b1 a 2 x + b2 a r x + br
x+3 A B
For example = + .
( x − 2)( x + 4) ( x − 2) ( x + 4)
Example 7.11
2x + 3
Write as partial fractions.
( x − 1)( x + 2)
Solution
2x + 3 A B
= +
( x − 1)( x + 2) ( x − 1) ( x + 2)
2x + 3 A( x + 2) B( x − 1)
= +
( x − 1)( x + 2) ( x − 1) ( x + 2)
Since the denominator on both sides are equal it follows that the two
numerators must be equivalent.
Thus,
2 x + 3 ≡ A( x + 2) + B ( x − 1)
Method 1:
2 x + 3 ≡ A( x + 2) + B ( x − 1)
= ( A + B) x + (2 A − B)
Comparing the coefficient of x gives,

x: A+B=2 ……………………………. (1)
Comparing the coefficient of constants,
constant: 2A – B =3 ……………………………. (2)
solving the simultaneous equation given

(1) + (2)
5
3A = 5 B = 2−
3
5 ;
A= 1
3 =
3
2x + 3 5 1
∴ = +
( x − 1)( x + 2) 3( x − 1) 3( x + 2)
Method 2:
Generally the method involves substitution value of x into the

equivalent equation. However it is more practical to choose some
values of x such that some of the constant. (A or B)
2 x + 3 = A( x + 2) + B ( x − 1)
when x = – 2,
2(−2) + 3 = A(−2 + 2) + B(−2 − 1)
–4 + 3 = 0 – 3B
3B = 1
1
B=
3
when x = 1:
2(1) + 3 = A(1 + 2) + B (1 − 1)
5 = 3A
5
A=
3
2x + 3 5 1
∴ = +
( x − 1)( x + 2) 3( x − 1) 3( x + 2)
7.3.2 Repeated linear factors in denominator

Some algebraic fraction have denominator that contain repeated
3x + 5
factors; for example . This algebraic fraction could be
( x + 2) 2
rewritten as
A B
+ .
( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2
Example 7.12
9
Express , as partial fractions:
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
Solution
9 A B C
= + +
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2
9 A( x + 2) 2 + B ( x − 1)( x + 2) + C ( x − 1)
=
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2 ( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
∴ 9 = A( x + 2) 2 + B( x − 1)( x + 2) + C ( x − 1)
When x = -2,
9 = A(−2 + 2) 2 + B(−2 − 1)(−2 + 2) + C (−2 − 1)
9 = −3C
C = −3
When x = 1,
9 = A(1 + 2) 2 + B(1 − 1)(1 + 2) + C (1 − 1)
9 = 9A
A =1
When x = 0 ( a matter of choice)
9 = 4 A − 2B − C
(−9 + 4 + 3)
∴B = = −1
2
9 1 1 3
∴ = − −
( x − 1)( x + 2) 2
( x − 1) ( x + 2) ( x + 2) 2
7.3.3 Quadratic factors in the denominator.

Some algebraic fractions have denominators that contain a quadratic
5
factor that cannot be factorized; for example . So we can be
( x + 3)
2
Ax + B
rewritten as a fraction .
( x 2 + 3)
Example 7.13
Express the following as partial fractions:
4x
( x + 1)(3 + x 2 )
Solution
4x A Bx + C
= +
( x + 1)(3 + x ) ( x + 1) (3 + x 2 )
2
4x A(3 + x 2 ) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
=
( x + 1)(3 + x 2 ) ( x + 1)(3 + x 2 )
Equating the numerators,
4 x = A(3 + x 2 ) + ( Bx + C )( x + 1)
= 3 A + 3 Ax 2 + Bx 2 + Bx + Cx + C
= (3 A + B ) x 2 + ( B + C ) x + (3 A + C )
Comparing the coefficient of x 2 , x and constant,

2
A = − , B = 2, C = 2
3
4x 2 2x + 2
∴ =− +
( x + 1)(3 + x )
2
3( x + 1) (3 + x 2 )
7.3.4 Repeated quadratic factors in denominator.

We can rewrite the repeated quadratic factors in denominator as:
A1 x + B1 A2 x + B2 A x + Br
, ,..............., 2r
ax + bx + c (ax + bx + c)
2 2 2
ax + bx + c
and A1 , B1 , A2 , B2 ...... Ar , Br are constants.
Example 7.14
Express the following as partial fractions.
1 − x2
(1 + x 2 ) 2
Solution
1 − x2 Ax + B Cx + D
= +
(1 + x )
2 2
(1 + x 2 ) (1 + x 2 ) 2
1 − x2 ( Ax + B)(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)
=
(1 + x 2 ) 2 (1 + x 2 ) 2
Equating the numerators,
1 − x 2 = ( Ax + B )(1 + x 2 ) + (Cx + D)
= Ax + Ax 3 + B + Bx 2 + Cx + D
= Ax 3 + Bx 2 + ( A + C ) x + ( B + D)
Comparing the coefficient of x 2 , x and constant,

A = 0, B = −1, C = 0, D = 2
1 − x2 −1 2
∴ = +
(1 + x )
2 2
(1 + x ) (1 + x 2 ) 2
2

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Fundamental Concepts of Algebra |1

1.1 Real Numbers

1.1.1 Natural numbers

In mathematics, a prime number (or a prime) is a natural

1.1.2 Whole numbers

1.1.4 Rational numbers

1.1.5 Irrational numbers

Irrational numbers cannot be expressed as a quotient of integers. For

We can show that N ⊂ W ⊂ Z ⊂ Q ⊂ R in figure 1.1 below which is

Figure 1.1 Venn diagram of Number Sets

Figure 1.2 shows that Q ∪ Q = R .

Figure 1.3 below shows the relationship of various types of numbers.

Rational Numbers Irrational Numbers

Whole Numbers Negative Integers

Natural Numbers Zero

Figure 1.3 The relationship of various types of numbers

(e) Negative integers

1.1.6 Algebraic Operation on Real Numbers

Properties Description Example

(ab ) 1  = 1 1 

1.1.7 The Number Line

Symbol Description Example

Note: The symbols ‘<’ or ‘>’ are called inequality sign.

All real numbers between a and b can be written in the form of

Intersection and union operations can be perform on intervals.

All this can be shown on a number line given below:

1.2 Exponents and Surds

Multiplication and division

Rule 1 Example 1.8

Rule 2 Example 1.9

Rule 3 Example 1.10

Rule 4 Example 1.11

Rule 5 Example 1.12

Rule 6 Example 1.13

is surd or radical sign. The number expressed in term of this sign

The above example demonstrates the algebraic result for the

Rationalizing the denominator

This choice of multiplier is by no means accidental. When more

We see that the base of a logarithm may be any positive number.

1.3.1 Natural Logarithms

General Properties Natural Logarithms

The law of logarithms

1. log a b + log a c ≡ log a bc

For example: To solve an equation like 5 x = 10 .

Definition of imaginary numbers

We have already seen equation such as x 2 = −1 whose roots are

A general form of the members of this set is − n 2 where n is real.

Definition of Complex Numbers

Any numbers of the form z = a + bi where a, b ∈ R is called a

If b = 0 then z = a + (0)i = a is real number. Hence real numbers are

2.1Operations on Complex Numbers

2.1.1 Adding and Subtracting

2.1.2 Multiplying Complex Numbers

= ac + (ad + bc)i − bd ; (i 2 = −1)

2.1.3 Complex Conjugates

2.1.5 Solving Equation

2.2 Argand Diagram

Any complex number z = a + bi can be represented by an ordered

2.2.1 Argand diagram of Complex Conjugates

In words, z is obtained by reversing the sign of the imaginary part of

2.2.2 Modulus and Argument

The length OA is called the modulus of the complex number a + bi

The angle θ is called the argument of a + bi and is written