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Synapses
The Concept of the Synapse
Fig. 3-1, p. 52
Sherrington deduced three properties of reflexes:
1. Reflexes are slower than conduction along a
single axon.
Sherrington deduced three properties of reflexes:
Fig. 3-4, p. 54
Graded potentials
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Major sequence of events for neurotransmitters:
1. The neuron
synthesizes
chemicals that serve
as
neurotransmitters.
2. Neurons store
neurotransmitters in
axon terminals or
transport them there
(transportation from
cell body can take
hours or days).
3. An action potential
triggers the release
of neurotransmitters
into the synaptic
cleft.
Major sequence of events for neurotransmitters:
• Reuptake (endocytosis)
(H) refers to the
presynaptic neuron
taking up most of the
neurotransmitter
molecules intact and
reusing them.
Chemical Events at the Synapse
• A hormone is a chemical
secreted by a gland or
other cells that is
transported to other
organs by the blood
where it alters activity.
• Endocrine glands are
responsible for the
production of hormones.
• Hormones are important
for triggering long-lasting
changes in multiple parts
of the body.
Pituitary Gland
• Attached to the
hypothalamus and
consisting of two distinct
glands that each release a
different set of hormones:
– Anterior pituitary-
composed of glandular
tissue and synthesizes
six hormones.
– Posterior pituitary-
composed of neural
tissue and can be
considered an
extension of the
hypothalamus
Drugs and the Synapse
• Drugs work by doing one or more of the
following to neurotransmitters:
1. Increasing the synthesis.
2. Causing vesicles to leak.
3. Increasing release.
4. Decreasing reuptake.
5. Blocking the breakdown into inactive
chemical.
6. Directly stimulating or blocking
postsynaptic receptors.
Table 3-3, p. 76
Link to Mouse Party
Drugs and the Synapse
Nicotine:
– active ingredient in tobacco
– stimulates an acetylcholine receptor known as
the nicotinic receptor, found in
• central nervous system
• nerve-muscle junction of skeletal muscles
• nucleus accumbens
Drugs and the Synapse
• Opiate drugs:
– derived from opium poppy
– decrease sensitivity to pain and increase
relaxation
• Examples: morphine, heroin, methadone.
Drugs and the Synapse
• Endorphins:
– naturally produced neurotransmitters
– ease pain
– inhibit GABA, allowing dopamine to exert its
effect
– attach to the same receptors to which
opiates attach.
Drugs and the
Synapse
• Tetrahydocannabinol (THC):
– active ingredient in marijuana
– attaches to cannabinoid receptors, especially in
the cerebral cortex, cerebellum, basal ganglia,
and hippocampus.
• Cannabinoids: chemicals related to THC, typically
used medically
• Anandamide and 2-AG are the endogenous
chemicals that attach to these receptors.
Drugs and the Synapse
• Hallucinogenic drugs:
– cause distorted perception
– may resemble serotonin in their molecular shape
– stimulate serotonin type 2A receptors (5-HT2A) at
inappropriate times or for longer duration than
usual thus causing their subjective effect.
Alcohol and Alcoholism
• Alcohol:
– is associated with relaxation
– in greater amounts impairs judgment and
damages the liver and other organs
– dependence (alcoholism) is the habitual
use of alcohol despite medical or social
harm
Alcohol and Alcoholism
• Alcohol has a number of diverse physiological
effects, including:
– Enhanced response by the GABAA
receptor
– Blockage of glutamate receptors
– Increased dopamine activity
Alcohol and Alcoholism
• Strong influence of genetics on alcoholism
– The genetic basis for early-onset
alcoholism is stronger than for later-onset,
especially in men
• Researchers distinguish between two types
of alcoholism
– Type I/Type A
– Type II/Type B
Alcohol and Alcoholism
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Medications to Combat Alcohol Abuse
• Most studies suggest that Antabuse has been
only moderately effective
– When effective, it supplements the
alcoholic’s own commitment to quit
– Daily routine of pill ingestion may reaffirm
commitment not to drink
– Many quit taking the pill and continue to
drink
Medications to Combat Opiate Abuse
• Methadone is an opiate similar to heroin and
morphine but is absorbed and metabolized slowly
– Perceived to be less harmful than other drugs
• Assumed to satisfy cravings associated with
previous drug use
• Levomethadyl acetate (LAAM) is similar to
morphine but can be taken three times a week
rather than daily