LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572

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LWT - Food Science and Technology

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Spanish avocado (Persea americana Mill.) honey: Authentication based on its T

composition criteria, mineral content and sensory attributes
I. Rodrígueza,∗, F. Cámara-Martosa, J.M. Floresb, S. Serranoa
a
Department of Nutrition and Bromatology, University of Córdoba, Campus of Rabanales, 14071, Córdoba, Spain
b
Department of Zoology, University of Córdoba, Campus of Rabanales, 14071, Córdoba, Spain

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Samples of Spanish unifloral avocado (Persea americana Mill.) honey (n = 30) have been characterized by
Honey authentication composition criteria, sensory attributes and mineral content in order to fully describe this type of honey. Due to
Honey quality control the significant gaps concerning the characterization of unifloral avocado honeys, this work aimed to contribute
Unifloral avocado honey to its characterization based on different routine laboratory analysis which included: pollen content (qualita-
Honey characterization
tive), water content, sugar content, water activity; electrical conductivity, diastase activity; glucose oxidase
activity; specific optical rotation; hydroxymethylfurfural; pH; colour of honey and acidity (free, lactonic and
total). To define its sensory profile thirty-one sensorial attributes were evaluated: three descriptors for ap-
pearance, eight for olfactory characteristics, three of texture in the mouth, four basic tastes, eight of aroma, three
trigeminal sensations (piquancy, freshness and astringency), persistence and after taste. A mineral content
analysis was also carried out and the elements studied were Fe, Zn, Cu, Ca, Mg and Na. The obtaining results
revealed that, it was possible to define and authenticate Spanish unifloral avocado honey based on a combi-
nation of common routine laboratory analysis.

1. Introduction
Avocado is mainly grown in Central America and the Mexican
market is certainly the largest producer of avocado worldwide (FAO,
2019). Spain and Israel are the principal avocado producers within the
Mediterranean area (Terrab & Heredia, 2004). The beginning of the
Spanish avocado (Persea americana Mill.) planting dates back to 1955
when the first commercial plantation of avocado was established on the
coast line of Granada (Almuñecar). Well before that, in the Canary Is-
lands some isolated avocado trees were grown from South-American
seeds. Since then, the avocado tree plantings have increased en-
ormously and nowadays are spread not only over the regions of the
Canary Islands, but also on the southern coast of Spain in Andalusia
(Malaga and Granada) (Díaz Robledo, 1992).
Avocado flowers have an unusual system of flowering to prevent
self-pollination. This species presents the phenomenon of dichogamy
proterogyny synchrony, in other words, sequential development of re-
productive functions. There are two complementary flowering groups
to classify avocado cultivars, A and B (Gazit & Degani, 2002;
Papademetriou, 1976; Sedgley, 1985; Stout, 1933). The type A flowers
open in the morning as female stage, then close before opening as male
stage in the afternoon of the following day. While the type B flowers
open first in the afternoon as female stage and then close before
opening as male in the morning of the following day (Alcaraz,
Montserrat, & Hormaza, 2011; Pattemore et al., 2018; Terrab &
Heredia, 2004).
In its native environment, a diversity of insect species pollinates
avocado flowers, most of them of the orders Hymenoptera, Diptera,
Coleoptera and Heteroptera. (Afik, Dag, & Shafir, 2006; Ish-Am,
Barrientos-Priego, Castañeda-Vildozola, & Gazit, 1999). The honey bee
behaviour in avocado orchards has been studied and was found that
bees are active on avocado blooms. Thus, growers place honey bee
colonies inside the orchard in the flowering season. However, in some
cases honey bees tend to leave avocado orchards and collect nectar and
pollen from competing flowers when more attractive blooms are
available (Ish-Am et al., 1999).
Furthermore, Spain is also the second largest honey producer in the
EU (European Commission, 2017). A great variety of honey types, both
poly- and unifloral, is produced in Spain as its climatic conditions and
diversity of flora are suitable for the beekeeping industry (Crane, 1961;
La-Serna Ramos, Pérez, & Ferreras, 1998). While extensive research has
been undertaken in some unifloral honeys such as citrus, eucalyptus or
rosemary honeys (Rodríguez, Serrano, Galán-Soldevilla, Ubera, &
Jodral, 2010), little research has been made on other unifloral honeys

∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +34957212654 or +34636410412.
E-mail address: v62rodem@uco.es (I. Rodríguez).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.05.068
Received 11 February 2019; Received in revised form 15 April 2019; Accepted 14 May 2019
Available online 15 May 2019
0023-6438/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
I. Rodríguez, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572

like avocado honey (Dag, Afik, Yeselson, Schaffer, & Shafir, 2006;

Gómez-Díaz, Navaza, and Quintáns-Riveiro (2006)

Dvash et al., 2002; La-Serna Ramos et al., 1998; Rodríguez, Serrano,
Galán‐Soldevilla, Piva, & Ubera, 2015; Terrab & Heredia, 2004). Avo-

IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)/AOAC (1990) method

Serrano, Villarejo, Espejo, and Jodral (2004)
cado honey comes from the nectar of avocado (P. americana Mill.) trees
and is characterized by its dark brown colour, high minerals content
IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)/Codex (1969)
and high pH value (Dag et al., 2006). In addition, its fairly unique rich

AOAC (1990) method no. 962.19.

taste, buttery flavour and high quality makes it attractive to consumers
(Dag et al., 2006; La-Serna Ramos et al., 1998; Sáinz Laín & Gómez
Ferreras, 2000; Terrab & Heredia, 2004; Wilson, 2012). Nevertheless,
IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)

IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)

IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)

IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)

IHC (Bogdanov, 2009)
significant gaps exist concerning the characterization of unifloral avo-
cado honeys and our knowledge can contribute to make this honey
Kerkvliet (1996)

more appealing to consumers, thus improving its commercial value.

According to the Annex II (Composition criteria of honey) of EU
no.980.23
Reference

Council Directive 2001/110/EC, ‘honey consists essentially of different

sugars as well as other substances such as organic acids, enzymes and solid
particles derived from honey collection’ and ‘as far as possible must be free
from organic or inorganic matters foreign to its composition’. In 2015 the
European Commission established an EU coordinated control plan with
(μgH2O2/g of honey/h at

a view to determine the prevalence of fraudulent practices on the

market of honey, such as adulteration with sugars and honey authen-
ticity mislabeling with regard to their botanical source or geographical
(% moisture)

origin. According to the EU Recommendation 2015/1558, Member

mm Pfund
(mS/cm)

(mg/Kg)

mEq/Kg

States were required to participate and to undertake official controls.

(°Brix)

20 °C)
Unity

(DN)

Following this control plan, the main goal of this work is the au-
(°)
–

thentication of Spanish avocado unifloral honey based on the evalua-

tion of physico-chemical parameters, sensory attributes and mineral
content. For this purpose, a good representation for this kind of honey
Ultrospec 3000 Pharmacia Biotech UV/Visible photometer and Phadebas®

was provided.
Merckoquant test strip (no. I 00 I I; Merck, Darmstad, Germany)

2. Material and methods

Ultrospec 3000 Pharmacia Biotech UV/Visible photometer

2.1. Honey samples

In the present study thirty (n = 30) Spanish avocado honey samples

from Apis mellifera were used. The samples were extracted directly from
Automatic polarimeter, Zuzi model No.412

apicultural holdings placed inside avocado orchards in three different

locations of southern Spain: Canary Islands (n = 4), Malaga (n = 21)
Novasina IC-500 AW-LAB, Switzerland

and Granada (n = 5) during the avocado blooming season (harvest of

2017). Each sample was provided from a different apiary and im-
mediately transferred to the laboratory. On arriving at the laboratory,
Basic. 20. Crison pH meter

Basic. 20. Crison pH meter

the honeys were fractioned into 100 g units in sterile glass containers
Landis & Koch, 1977

and kept refrigerated at 4-5 °C up to their analysis. Analyses were made

Abbé refractometer
Abbé refractometer

Crison model 524

within 2–3 months after harvesting.

Amylase Test
Instrument

2.2. Composition criteria

2.2.1. Melissopalinological analysis

Titration to pH 8.5 and pH 8.3

Unifloral honeys are often traded at a higher price than polyfloral

honeys, increasing significantly fraud risks. The presence of pollen
contained in honey samples is used as a marker to obtain information
Electric hygrometer

Optical comparator

about their botanical origin. The current scenario is that well-defined

legal criteria for pollen content giving unifloral honeys have not been
Conductometer
Refractometric
Refractometric

Colorimetric
Photometric

Photometric
Polarimeter

established yet.
pH meter

A qualitative melissopalinological analysis (in duplicate) was car-

Method
Physicochemical parameters studied.

ried out on all honey samples according to the working methods de-
scribed by Maurizio (Louveaux, Maurizio, & Vorwohl, 1978; Louveaux
Free, lactonic and total acidity

& Maurizio, 1963) and Erdtman (1966), respectively, to identify the

pollen types and to confirm the dominance of the Lauraceae family.
Sspecific optatical rotation
Glucose oxidase activity

Counts were expressed as percentages after counting a minimum of

Hydroxymethylfurfural
Electrical conductivity

1200 pollen grains on three slides per sample. The pollen slides were
Water activity (aw)

Diastase activity

examined at 400x and 1000x to make an identification of the pollen

Sugars content

types under the light microscope (Nikon Labophot-2 microscope;

Parameters

Moisture

Nikon, Tokyo, Japan). For comparison and recognition purposes, her-

Table 1

Colour

barium specimens from the University of Córdoba and pollen mor-

pH

phology guides were used.

562
I. Rodríguez, et al.
2.2.2. Physico-chemical analysis
The physico-chemical analyses were carried out according to the
Harmonized Methods of the International Honey Commission (IHC)
(Bogdanov, 2009), the Official Methods of Analysis of Association of
Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990) and the Codex Alimentarius
Commission (Codex Alimentarius Commission, 1969). Table 1 shows
physico-chemical parameters studied. All analyses were carried out in
duplicate.
2.3. Sensory analysis
Sensory analysis combine with other composition elements of honey
is a complementary tool to evaluate botanical origin. Sensory analysis
was performed following an adaptation of the methodology proposed
by Piana et al. (2004) and Marcazzan, Mucignat-Caretta, Marina
Marchese, and Piana (2018). The description card made by Galán-
Soldevilla, Ruiz-Pérez-Cacho, Serrano, and Jodral (2005) was also used.
A panel of ten assessors (six women and four men; aged 28–56
years), participated in this study. Assessors were staff and researchers
from the Bromatology and Food Technology Department of the
University of Córdoba (Spain). The panel had already been selected and
trained following international standards (ISO 8586-1, 1993). Thirty-
one sensorial attributes were evaluated: three descriptors for appear-
ance (visual colour tone, absence of defects and fluidity for liquid
honeys), eight for olfactory characteristics (global olfactory intensity,
floral, fruity, vegetal, warm, aromatic, chemical and animal), three of
texture in the mouth (pastiness and granularity for solid honeys, visc-
osity for liquid honeys), four basic tastes: sweetness, acidity, saltiness
and bitterness); eight of aroma (global aroma intensity, floral, fruity,
vegetal, warm, aromatic, chemical and animal), three trigeminal sen-
sations (piquancy, freshness and astringency), persistence and after
taste. Each sensorial attribute was scored on a structured five-point
scale (zero, complete absence; five, strongest perception of the eval-
uated attribute). Testing was carried out in the sensory laboratory lo-
cated at the University of Córdoba (Córdoba, Spain), equipped with a
round table for training sessions and individual booths, in accordance
with the international standards ISO 8589:2007.
2.4. Determination of total mineral content
One gram of a ground and lyophilized sample was reduced to ash for
15 h in a muffle furnace at 460 °C, to determine the total content of
minerals. (Fe, Zn, Cu, Ca, Mg and Na). Once the ash was cooled, it was
bleached with 2.5 mL of HNO3 2N and dried on thermostatic hotplates,
until complete mineralization, for 1 h in a muffle furnace at 460 °C.
Afterwards, the ash was dissolved in a 1 mL solution of HCl 20% (v/v)
and made up to a known volume (10 mL) with deionized water. Each
sample was analyzed in triplicate. Therefore, the number of samples
analyzed was 90 (30 samples x 3).
Atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS) with a Varian SpectraAA –
50 B model, equipped with standard air-acetylene flame and single-
element hollow cathode lamps were used for all elements except for Na
and K which were determined by emission using the same instrument.
In the case of Ca and Mg, LaCl3 was added to the mineral solution at a
final concentration of 2%, to avoid interference by phosphate. Further
details for the instrumental conditions of the determination are pro-
vided in the Supplementary materials (Table S1). The detection limit
(LOD) was calculated as the mean value of 30 measurements of the
blank plus three times their standard deviation. Regarding the quanti-
fication limit (LOQ), it was calculated as the mean value of 30 mea-
surements of the blanks plus 10 times their standard deviation. These
parameters are registered in Table S1. Furthermore, CRM were also
analyzed (under the same conditions as samples) to evaluate the ac-
curacy of the proposed method. The selected materials were SRM 1568
(rice flour) and BCR 185R (bovine liver). Values obtained are in good
agreement with the certified values (Table S1).
563
LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
2.5. Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses were carried out using Statsoft Inc. STATISTICA®
11.0 software (Tulsa, USA), MatLab® version 6.5 (Math Works, Natick,
MA, USA) and SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 24.0, IBM Corp.
(2016).
2.5.1. Panel reliability testing
Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), was used for the assessment
of consistency or reproducibility of quantitative measurements made by
different observers measuring the same quantity. It describes how
strongly units in the same group resemble each other. As there were
consistent raters for all ratees and a random sample of raters, a “Two-
Way Random” model in SPSS was used. This ICC assumes that the
variance of the raters is only adding noise to the estimate of the ratees,
and that mean rater error = 0. Or in other words, while a particular
rater might rate Ratee 1 high and Ratee 2 low, it should all even out
across many raters. It assumes a random effects model for raters, but it
explicitly models this effect. This statistic models both an effect of rater
and of ratee and assumes both are drawn randomly from larger popu-
lations.
ICC relies in the application of multiple paired Cohen's κ test was
run to test for inter-observer reliability and determine if there was
agreement between ten appraisers' judgement on the scores of 30
samples for the sensory attributes evaluated in this work. Cicchetti
(1994) interpreted ICC for clinical tests as less than 0.4 (low repeat-
ability); between 0.4 and 0.59 (reasonable repeatability); 0.6 to 0.74
(good repeatability); and 0.75 to 1.0 (excellent repeatability) and this
rule of thumb can be used to determine whether the repeatability of the
model was enough to delete the effect of appraiser from the model,
providing a measure of the accuracy of scoring of the appraisers, fol-
lowing the guidelines from Fleiss and Cohen (1973). Then 95% con-
fidence intervals were computed. ICC and 95% IC were calculated with
the Reliability Analysis routine of the Scale procedure of SPSS Statistics
for Windows, Version 24.0, IBM Corp. (2016).
2.5.2. Variable standardization and PCA reliability
Categorical principal components analysis (CATPCA) is appropriate
to reveal the inherent overlapping nature of variables, hence becomes
suitable for variable selection and dimension reduction when catego-
rical variables (ordinal as well) are involved. This statistical test ana-
lyses the interrelationships among a large number of variables and
explains these variables regarding their common underlying dimen-
sions. The objective is to find a few linear combinations of the variables
(covariates and factors) that can be used to summarize the data without
losing too much information in the process. CATPCA is a method that
quantifies variables through a process called optimal scaling. Optimal
scaling uses variable quantifications in such a way that they account for
as much as possible of the variance in the quantified variables in-
dependently from their nature or the unit in which they were measured
(Meulman, 1998). The most relevant characteristic of CATPCA is that it
can handle and discover nonlinear relationships between variables.
Because CATPCA directly analyses the data matrix and not the derived
correlation matrix, so that, we can avoid the usual concern to have at
least five times as many observations as the variables. CATPCA suits
analysis in which there are more variables than objects. For several
productive traits, many of the variables used are qualitative, nominal or
ordinal, thus indicating the use of CATPCA, which has been demon-
strated to be more robust than PCA when assessing categorical vari-
ables.
CATPCA eigenvalues are indicators of how many dimensions are
needed. As a general rule, when all variables are either single nominal,
ordinal, or numerical, the eigenvalue for a dimension should be larger
than 1. However, when choosing the number of dimensions, the most
useful guideline is to keep the number small enough so that meaningful
interpretations are possible.
 Table 2
Physico-chemical analysis results of avocado honeys.
Samples aw Colour Sugar content Water content Glucose-oxidase Electrical Diastase Specific HMF pH Free acidity Lactonic Total acidity Persea americana
activity conductivity activity rotation acidity Mill pollen
I. Rodríguez, et al.

Canary I. Beekeeper 0.526 > 114 81.5 16.6 17.5 0.8 8.7 −3.8 2.4 4.3 42.4 16.0 58.4 19.8
1
Canary I. Beekeeper 0.541 > 114 81.0 17.4 7.5 0.6 20.2 0.1 1.1 5.2 40.9 14.0 54.9 13.6
2
Canary I. Beekeeper 0.566 > 114 79.8 18.6 8.8 0.6 15.7 −2.9 8.4 5.2 45.9 8.0 53.9 15.7
3
Canary I. Beekeeper 0.561 > 114 81.5 16.6 6.3 1.2 17.0 −5.9 26.6 5.5 43.9 3.0 46.9 25.4
4

Granada Beekeeper 0.542 > 114 80.3 18.0 10.0 1.3 17.6 −6.8 23.9 5.3 38.4 20.5 58.9 27.1
1
Granada Beekeeper 0.551 > 114 80.3 18.0 3.8 1.2 14.1 −5.6 1.8 5.2 48.4 1.0 49.4 31.2
2
Granada Beekeeper 0.534 > 114 80.8 17.6 17.5 1.0 21.7 0.3 20.0 5.6 45.9 10.5 56.4 19.8
3
Granada Beekeeper 0.553 > 114 82.0 16.2 7.5 1.1 17.2 −3.6 0.3 5.7 49.4 2.0 51.4 25.8
4
Granada Beekeeper 0.548 > 114 80.8 17.6 10.0 1.0 22.6 −3.2 5.2 5.3 41.9 12.0 53.9 18.9
5

Málaga Beekeeper 1 0.558 > 114 80.3 18.0 6.3 1.0 14.1 −4.9 1.8 5.4 48.4 13.0 61.4 22.2
Málaga Beekeeper 2 0.554 > 114 80.8 17.4 6.3 1.3 9.3 −7.2 27.1 6.1 49.4 8.5 57.9 21.5
Málaga Beekeeper 3 0.554 > 114 79.8 15.1 17.5 1.2 24.1 −6.3 0.7 5.4 49.9 6.5 56.4 23.8
Málaga Beekeeper 4 0.535 > 114 81.0 17.4 8.8 0.9 14.3 0.2 2.1 5.2 50.4 3.0 53.4 22.6

564
Málaga Beekeeper 5 0.551 > 114 80.3 18.0 6.3 0.9 18.1 −3.5 8.7 5.9 45.9 8.0 53.9 19.8
Málaga Beekeeper 6 0.555 > 114 80.0 18.2 2.5 1.2 14.0 −3.1 5.5 6.2 47.9 1.5 49.4 21.8
Málaga Beekeeper 7 0.544 > 114 80.0 18.2 10.0 1.0 22.5 −3.3 8.7 5.4 46.9 1.0 47.9 23.1
Málaga Beekeeper 8 0,548 > 114 80.3 18.0 7.5 1.0 19.4 −3.5 0.6 5.3 41.4 3.5 44.9 22.3
Málaga Beekeeper 9 0.546 > 114 81.0 17.4 2.5 1.2 22.2 −2.8 1.1 5.7 43.9 11.0 54.9 21.9
Málaga Beekeeper 0.556 > 114 80.8 17.6 3.8 1.3 12.0 −2.3 3.6 5.8 45.9 7.5 53.4 19.5
10
Málaga Beekeeper 0.564 > 114 80.0 18.4 6.3 1.2 13.8 −4.1 0.3 5.3 47.4 7.5 54.9 23.7
11
Málaga Beekeeper 0.565 > 114 80.3 18.0 6.3 1.4 9.2 −2.7 14.0 5.7 45.9 2.5 48.4 46.9
12
Málaga Beekeeper 0.546 > 114 80.8 17.6 6.3 1.1 18.3 −3.6 1.0 5.3 50.4 6.0 56.4 24.8
13
Málaga Beekeeper 0.556 > 114 81.0 17.4 8.8 1.0 12.1 −3.4 3.0 5.7 48.4 6.0 54.4 18.1
14
Málaga Beekeeper 0.552 > 114 80.0 18.4 5.0 0.7 16.7 −3.9 4.7 5.0 50.4 7.5 57.9 17.1
15
Málaga Beekeeper 0.534 > 114 81.3 17.0 5.0 1.1 17.4 −3.8 0.7 5.2 48.9 2.5 51.4 20.4
16
Málaga Beekeeper 0.566 > 114 80.0 18.4 3.8 1.0 11.3 −4.8 2.1 4.9 46.3 9.5 55.8 25.3
17
Málaga Beekeeper 0.573 > 114 80.0 18.4 5.0 1.0 13.7 −3.2 1.2 5.0 44.4 1.5 45.9 22.4
18
Málaga Beekeeper 0.543 > 114 81.3 17.0 10.0 1.0 20.4 0.2 0.1 4.9 43.9 5.0 48.9 22.2
19
Málaga Beekeeper 0.568 > 114 80.5 17.8 5.0 1.1 14.6 −3.9 2.0 5.1 48.9 3.0 51.9 22.0
20
(continued on next page)
LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
I. Rodríguez, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572

Water and sugar content %; electrical conductivity mS/cm; glucose oxidase gr H2O2 ⁄gr honey/hour at 20 °C; Colour mm Pfund; HMF mg/Kg; acidity mEq ⁄litre; specific rotation °; diastase activity Gothe degrees; P.
Persea americana The reliability of the PCA procedure used, we used the parameter
known as Cronbach's alpha. The internal consistency method based on
Cronbach's alpha allows estimating the reliability of a measurement
Mill pollen

13.6–46.9
instrument through a set of items that are expected to measure the same
27.6

22.9
construct or theoretical dimension. The measure of reliability using

5.8
Cronbach's alpha assumes that the items (measured on a Likert scale)
Total acidity

measure the same construct and are highly correlated (Welch & Comer,
44.9–64.9
1988). The closer the value of alpha to 1 is, the greater is the internal
consistency of the items analyzed. The reliability of the scale must al-
64.9

53.6
4.6

ways be obtained with the data of each sample to guarantee the reliable
measurement of the construct in the specific research sample. As a
general criterion, George and Mallery (2003, pp. 222–232) suggested
1.0–22.5
Lactonic
acidity

the following recommendations for evaluating Cronbach's alpha coef-

22.5

7.5
5.6

ficients: an alpha coefficient > 0.9 is excellent, a coefficient alpha >

0.8 is good, an alpha coefficient > 0.7 is acceptable, a coefficient
Free acidity

38.4–50.4

alpha > 0.6 is questionable, a coefficient alpha > 0.5 is poor and a
coefficient alpha < 0.5 is unacceptable. All those factors and variables
42.4

46.1
3.2

that present values lower than 0.5 will be good candidates to discard
from our model given their confounding nature. By confounding vari-
4.3–6.2

able, we understand those variables that seem to hold a relationship

5.3

5.4
0.4
pH

between them and our response variable that, in reality, does not exist.
0.1–27.1

Hence, through this analysis, we determined the variables that were

HMF

able to explain the highest possible percentage of the variance found in

2.2

8.6
8.0

the population for our response variable and kept them in our model.

3. Results and discussion

−7.2–0.3
rotation
Specific

−3.3

−3.9
1.6

The results for the analysis of the 13 psychochemical parameters,

percentage of P. americana Mill. pollen and mineral content (Fe, Zn, Cu,
Ca, Mg and Na) are summarized in Tables 2–4. Further statistical details
8.7–24.1
Diastase

of the results such as the standard error, coefficient of variation and

activity

12.8

16.2

range are provided in the Supplementary materials (Tables S2–S4).

4.2

3.1. Composition criteria

conductivity

Table 2 shows the results obtained for the pollen frequency per-
Electrical

0.6–1.4

centage and the physico-chemical parameters. The obtaining results

were evaluated according to the criteria established by the EU Council
1.2

1.1
0.2

Directive 2001/110/EC. For those parameters not included in the reg-

ulation, literature and previous research findings were considered.
Glucose-oxidase

Avocado honey seems to have a naturally low percentage of pollen

like other unifloral honeys such as citrus (Estevinho, Feás, Seijas, &
2.5–17.5
activity

Vázquez-Tato, 2012; Rodríguez et al., 2010). This phenomenon ap-

6.3

7.6
4.0

peared to be because of the special floral biology of P. americana Mill.

together with honey bees foraging preference for alternative floral
Water content

sources over avocado (Gazit & Degani, 2002; Ish-Am & Eisikowitch,
americana Mill. pollen (%); pH and aw expressed as absolute value.
15.1–19.0

1998; Vithanage, 1990). For honey samples having under-represented

19.0

17.6

pollen grains, botanical classification must be achieved with a pollen

0.8

frequency percentage of only 10–20% (Estevinho et al., 2012). Taking

Sugar content

the above information into account, all the honey samples analyzed in
79.3–82.0

this study showed that it was possible to confirm the predominance of

the botanical Laureaceae family (at least 10%) and can be classified as
79.3

80.5
0.6

unifloral avocado honey.

Not many studies have been carried out on avocado honey, but
> 114

> 114
Colour

114

according to them the criteria for the classification of honeys as uni-

0.0

floral avocado honey are highly variable (Dag et al., 2006; La-Serna
0.526–0.579

Ramos et al., 1998; Terrab & Heredia, 2004). As reported by Terrab and
Heredia (2004), unifloral avocado honey should contain over 5% of
0.579

0.552
0.01

Persea pollen and even lower percentage of 2% is demanded for the

aw

‘Miel de Tenerife’ Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) honeys. ‘Miel

Table 2 (continued)

de Granada’ PDO honeys and ‘Miel de Malaga’ Quality Label honeys do

Málaga Beekeeper

not agree with these classification criteria but rather vouch for a pollen
content of at least 25% and 20%, respectively. For that reason and in
Min-max

accordance with Marcazzan et al. (2018) a sensory study seems to be an

Samples

21

Mean

important complementary key to set up and define products standards

SD

together with common laboratory routine analyses. Dag et al. (2006)

565
 Table 3
Results obtained in the sensory analysis of avocado honey.
Samples Fluidity Viscosity Sweetness Saltiness Bitterness Persistence Global Processed Resine Woody Balsamic Global Processed Like Woody Balsamic Floral Freshness Piquancy
olfactory Fruit odour odour (Liquorice) aroma Fruit wine aroma (Liquorice) aroma
I. Rodríguez, et al.

intensity odour odour intensity aroma aroma aroma

Canary I. 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 0.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.5 4.0 3.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 1.5
Beekeeper
1
Canary I. 2.5 2.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 1.0
Beekeeper
2
Canary I. 4.0 2.0 1.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.5 1.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 1.0
Beekeeper
3
Canary I. 3.5 3.0 1.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 0.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 2.5 1.0
Beekeeper
4

Granada 2.0 2.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 3.5 3.0 1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.5 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 2.5 0.5
Beekeeper
1
Granada 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.5 2.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 4.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 2.5 1.0 3.0 2.0
Beekeeper
2
Granada 2.5 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.5 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 2.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 0.5 1.5 0.5 3.5 0.5
Beekeeper
3
Granada 3.0 2.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 0.5

566
Beekeeper
4
Granada 3.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 0.0 3.0 2.5 2.0 0.5 0.5 3.0 3.5 3.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 1.5
Beekeeper
5

Málaga 3.5 2.0 1.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 1.0 3.0
Beekeeper
1
Málaga 2.5 3.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 0.0 0.5 3.0 4.0 2.5 0.5 1.0 3.5 0.5 2.5 1.5
Beekeeper
2
Málaga 3.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 3.5 3.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5 4.0 2.0 1.0 2.0 1.0 0.5 3.0 1.0
Beekeeper
3
Málaga 2.5 3.0 2.5 3.5 0.0 3.5 4.0 3.0 0.0 0.5 2.0 3.0 2.5 1.5 0.0 2.5 0.0 2.0 1.0
Beekeeper
4
Málaga 3.5 2.0 1.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 3.0
Beekeeper
5
Málaga 3.0 2.5 2.5 3.0 0.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 3.0 3.5 3.5 0.0 0.5 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.0
Beekeeper
6
Málaga 4.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 3.0 0.5
Beekeeper
7
(continued on next page)
LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
 Table 3 (continued)

Samples Fluidity Viscosity Sweetness Saltiness Bitterness Persistence Global Processed Resine Woody Balsamic Global Processed Like Woody Balsamic Floral Freshness Piquancy
olfactory Fruit odour odour (Liquorice) aroma Fruit wine aroma (Liquorice) aroma
intensity odour odour intensity aroma aroma aroma
I. Rodríguez, et al.

Málaga 2.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 3.5 4.0 2.0 0.5 0.5 2.0 4.0 3.0 2.5 1.0 3.0 0.5 2.5 1.0
Beekeeper
8
Málaga 3.5 4.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.5 3.5 2.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 0.5 2.5 1.0 4.5 1.0
Beekeeper
9
Málaga 2.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 3.0 3.0
Beekeeper
10
Málaga 3.0 2.5 2.0 3.0 1.0 3.5 3.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 2.5 3.5 2.0 3.5 1.0 1.0 0.5 3.0 0.5
Beekeeper
11
Málaga 3.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 3.0 4.0 0.0 4.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 1.0
Beekeeper
12
Málaga 3.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 4.0 5.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 2.0 0.5
Beekeeper
13
Málaga 3.0 2.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 3.0 3.5 2.0 0.0 0.0 4.0 4.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.0 3.0 2.0
Beekeeper
14
Málaga 1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 3.5 3.5 2.5 0.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 2.5 1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5 3.0 1.0
Beekeeper
15

567
Málaga 3.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 1.0 3.0 3.5 3.0 1.0 0.0 2.0 4.5 2.0 1.0 0.5 3.5 1.0 2.0 1.0
Beekeeper
16
Málaga 3.0 2.5 1.0 3.5 0.0 4.0 3.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 3.0 4.5 4.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 3.5 1.0
Beekeeper
17
Málaga 3.0 2.5 1.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 3.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 2.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 2.5 0.0 3.0 0.5
Beekeeper
18
Málaga 2.5 3.0 3.0 3.5 1.0 3.5 4.0 2.0 0.0 1.5 2.0 3.5 4.0 1.0 0.0 3.0 1.0 2.5 1.0
Beekeeper
19
Málaga 3.0 2.0 2.0 4.0 1.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 1.0 0.5 2.5 4.0 3.5 0.5 0.5 4.5 0.5 3.5 1.0
Beekeeper
20
Málaga 1.0 4.0 2.0 3.0 1.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 4.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 3.0 2.0
Beekeeper
21

Mean 2.8 2.4 2.1 3.1 0.7 3.5 3.4 2.2 0.8 0.6 2.5 3.8 2.4 1.2 0.8 2.8 0.5 2.8 1.2
SD 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.2 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.7 0.7
Min-max 1.0–4.0 2.0–4.0 1.0–3.0 2.0–4.0 0.0–1.0 3.0–4.0 3.0–4.0 1.0–3.0 0.0–3.0 0.0–3.0 2.0–4.0 3.0–5.0 1.5–3.0 0.0–3.5 0.0–3.0 2.5–3.0 0.0–2.0 1.0–4.5 0.5–3.0
LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
I. Rodríguez, et al. LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572

Table 4
Results obtained for the mineral content of avocado honey (mg/Kg).
Samples Fe Zn Cu Ca Mg Na

Canary I. Beekeeper 1 4.9 5.7 2.3 77 28 322

Canary I. Beekeeper 2 8.3 8.4 3.6 162 124 279
Canary I. Beekeeper 3 6.6 6.2 2.1 80 93 302
Canary I. Beekeeper 4 12 10 3.5 188 146 308

Granada Beekeeper 1 14 11 4.1 393 264 623

Granada Beekeeper 2 12 13 5.6 270 294 525
Granada Beekeeper 3 10 9 3.5 195 215 267
Granada Beekeeper 4 12 15 6.3 254 415 705
Granada Beekeeper 5 15 11 3.2 86 105 184

Málaga Beekeeper 1 8.9 11 4.5 93 109 232

Málaga Beekeeper 2 10 22 8.8 396 296 974
Málaga Beekeeper 3 6.9 7 1.2 33 64 370
Málaga Beekeeper 4 13 12 4.2 347 269 556
Málaga Beekeeper 5 13 11 5 163 184 291
Málaga Beekeeper 6 17 14 4.5 365 327 778
Málaga Beekeeper 7 1.1 0.34 0.43 236 139 388
Málaga Beekeeper 8 9.2 9.1 1.2 55 67 920
Málaga Beekeeper 9 11 11 3.8 145 138 232
Málaga Beekeeper 10 14 17 5.2 110 233 296
Málaga Beekeeper 11 8.3 11 4.2 381 256 221
Málaga Beekeeper 12 7.3 11 4 224 196 274
Málaga Beekeeper 13 8.7 9 1.6 50 69 453
Málaga Beekeeper 14 9.4 17 9.2 378 336 658
Málaga Beekeeper 15 8.6 8.8 3.5 114 144 220
Málaga Beekeeper 16 13 10 3.2 113 233 463
Málaga Beekeeper 17 6.5 8.8 2.1 64 88 279
Málaga Beekeeper 18 7.3 9.2 2.3 51 78 402
Málaga Beekeeper 19 9.6 7.9 3.3 115 121 239
Málaga Beekeeper 20 15 14 3.6 211 218 469
Málaga Beekeeper 21 9.5 8.1 2 42 91 585

Mean 10 11 3.7 173 177 427

SD 3.38 3.95 1.98 115.21 99.08 213.27
Min-max 1.1–17 0.34–22 0.43–9.2 33–396 28–415 184–974

reported that when pollen content is low, determination of perseitol
content can be carried out by Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS)
technique to authenticate avocado honey, although this determination
is not considered a common laboratory routine analysis. They assumed
that, in order to authenticate the botanical origin of the samples, avo-
cado honey from Israel which apparently seemed to present low pollen
content, would be classified as unifloral if perseitol content is high.
However, these authors also concluded that physico-chemical para-
meters are also reliable characteristics to authenticate unifloral avocado
honey.
Colour of honey is an appealing attribute which influence the pre-
ference of the consumers towards the acceptance of honey. Avocado
honey is characterized by its dark brown colour (Afik et al., 2006; Dag
et al., 2006; Terrab & Heredia, 2004). Samples analyzed in this study
had a very dark brown colour (> 114mmPfund), which agree with
those results presented by Terrab and Heredia (2004) and Orantes
Bermejo and Gómez Pajuelo (2007) describing Spanish avocado honeys
as very dark amber (> 80mmPfund). Average sugar content of honey is
80% of total soluble solids (White, 1975; da Silva, Gauche, Gonzaga,
Costa, & Fett, 2016). The samples studied showed normal values ranged
79.3%–82% and with a mean of 80.5%. Similar results were obtained
by Terrab and Heredia (2004) with mean values of 80.36%.
According to the EU Council Directive 2001/110/EC, honey or used
in any product intended for human consumption, must meet some
composition criteria. Moisture content found in our samples was within
the range 15.1–19%. Thus, none of the samples exceeded the limit
of < 20% established by the EU Council Directive 2001/110/EC. These
values were quite similar to those reported for other Spanish avocado
honeys from Málaga and Granada (Orantes Bermejo & Gómez Pajuelo,
2007) and from the Canary Islands (Terrab & Heredia, 2004). The
electrical conductivity is linked to the botanical origin of honey, con-
centration of mineral salts, organic acid and proteins (Terrab &
Heredia, 2004). This parameter is being increasingly used in routine
honey quality control (Šarić, Matković, Hruškar, & Vahčić, 2008) as is
considered a valid criterion to distinguish blossom from honeydew
honey can be carried out by electrical conductivity. Our results ranged
from 0.6 to 1.4 mS/cm. These values coincide with those proposed by
Orantes Bermejo and Gómez Pajuelo (2007) and Terrab and Heredia
(2004), who reported values of > 0.8 mS/cm and 0.6–1.2 mS/cm, re-
spectively. According to the European regulation for the quality of
honey (EU Council Directive 2001/110/EC), these values would fail to
meet the requirements regarding the electrical conductivity for blossom
honeys. In general, values lower than 0.8 mS/cm indicate blossom and
higher than 0.8 mS/cm indicate honeydew honey with some listed ex-
ceptions, in which avocado honey (P. americana Mill.) is not included
and should be, as suggested by Thrasyvoulou et al. (2018). Hydro-
xymethylfurfural (5-HMF) content meets legal criterion (40 mg/kg) for
all samples showing a maximum value of 27.1 mg/kg. With regard to
enzymatic activity, very scarce information is available in literature for
both glucose-oxidase and diastase activity in avocado honeys. The ac-
tivity of glucose-oxidase has not been regulated in honey yet (EU Council
Directive 2001/110/EC). The higher the glucose oxidase activity, the
more inhibition of the growth of most bacteria (Kretavičius,
Kurtinaitienė, Račys, & Čeksterytė, 2010). Conversely, diastase activity
is a parameter controlled by European regulation (EU Council Directive
2001/110/EC) and acts as an indicator whether the honey was exposed
to heat treatment. The results obtained in this study showed that all
samples met the honey standards regarding diastase activity (≥8DN),
with a mean value of 16.2 DN.
The pH values of the honey samples ranged between 4.3 and 6.2.

568
I. Rodríguez, et al.
Fig. 1. Principal component score plot of honey samples of avocado ( ) and Myrtaceae (Rodríguez et al., 2015) based on physico-chemical and sensory parameters.
These results were moderately higher than those measured in other
Spanish avocado honeys (Terrab & Heredia, 2004). The results obtained
in this study for free acidity and lactonic acidity ranged 38.4–50.4 meq/
Kg and 1–22.5 meq/Kg, respectively. The resulting mean value for total
acidity was 53.6 meq/Kg. By comparing these values to the results of
other researchers, it can be noticed that our results were in line with
those reported by Terrab and Heredia (2004). These authors obtained
values ranged between 27.78 and 45.83 meq/Kg, 1.3 and 6.8 meq/Kg,
and a mean value of 43.31 meq/Kg for the free, lactonic and total
acidity, respectively. Almost all of the studied samples in our work met
the quality requirements for free acidity established in the EU Council
Directive 2001/110/EC. Only three of them exceed by 0.4 meq/Kg the
free acidity limit value of 50.0 meq/Kg established by the regulation.
The results for the specific optical rotation (SOR) ranged from −7.2–0.3°.
We found no previous research that has evaluated whether SOR may be
a useful parameter to characterize avocado honey samples. As general
criteria, it is considered that blossom honeys are laevorotatory (nega-
tive values) and honeydew honeys (or adulterated blossom honey) are
usually dextrorotatory (positive values) (Dinkov, 2003). Our findings
brought to light that avocado honey did not behave as a typical blossom
honey as, for an unknown reason, it also may present positive values.
3.2. Sensory analysis
3.2.1. Panel reliability testing
ICC and 95% IC aimed at testing for the reliability of the scoring
system, which proved to be highly reliable as there was statistically
significant highly good to excellent agreement between the 10 apprai-
sers' judgements when scoring for fluidity, viscosity, sweetness, salti-
ness, bitterness, persistence, global olfactory intensity, processed fruit
569
LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
odour, resine odour, woody odour, balsamic (liquorice) odour, global
aroma intensity, processed fruit aroma, like wine aroma, woody aroma,
balsamic (liquorice) aroma, floral aroma, freshness, and piquancy
(Supplementary Table S5).
3.2.2. Sensory profile
Although thirty-one attributes were tested in this study, not all of
them were finally included in Table 3 as their scores were null. The
sensory parameters of appearance (visual colour tone, absence of de-
fects and fluidity for liquid honeys) revealed no significant difference
from previous studies. Colour tone of avocado honey samples was de-
fined as ‘very dark brown’ or ‘very dark to dark/amber colour’ which
corroborate the findings of previous reports (Dag et al., 2006; La-Serna
Ramos et al., 1998). Terrab and Heredia (2004) described the colour of
avocado honey as between very dark to dark amber. These studies also
described its taste, under the ‘intensity of flavour’ criterion, as ‘high and
strong’. Our studied samples were also characterized for high global
intensity of both, odour and aroma, with values of 3.4 and 3.8 re-
spectively. Avocado honeys seemed to be slightly piquant (1.2) and
salty rather than sweet in taste. In contrast to La-Serna Ramos et al.
(1998), none of the samples evaluated in this work smelled like iodo-
form or tasted like Metcalfa pruinosa honeydew honey in fact, all our
samples presented predominant odour belonging to the fruity (‘pro-
cessed fruit’) and aromatic (balsamic-liquorice) families (Marcazzan
et al., 2018) with mean values of 2.2 and 2.5, respectively, showing no
difference among their geographic origin. All avocado samples pre-
sented balsamic-liquorice notes which belong to the aromatic family
and, no differences were found between samples either. The mean value
for this attribute was 2.8. Our samples were also described by the ab-
sence of defects, medium fluidity (mean value of 2.8), medium viscosity
I. Rodríguez, et al.
(2.4), medium freshness (2.8) and medium–high persistence (3.5).
3.3. Multivariate analysis for physico-chemical and sensory parameters
Supplementary Table S6 shows CATPCA model summaries and re-
liability measures scored with Cronbach's alpha for Physico-chemical
and sensory parameters and Mineral content to identify the parameters
which discriminate among honey types. To determine these parameters
two CATPCA were carried out. In the first CATPCA (Fig. 1), physico-
chemical and sensory parameters were used. A second CATPCA for total
mineral content was conducted separately, as mineral content is not
included in routine analysis of honey.
The first CATPCA was performed using both, data from the avocado
honey analyses, together with data from our previous work on
Myrtaceae honeys (Rodríguez et al., 2015). The first two PCs accounted
for 99.67% of the variation in the honey samples analyzed, where PC1
and PC2 explained 99.46% and 0.21% of the total data variability, re-
spectively. The variables having more correlation with PC1 were free
acidity (FA), electrical conductivity (EC), balsamic-liquorice odour
(BLO) and aroma, (BLA) pH and water activity (aw). The PC2 was
strongly associated with processed fruit aroma (PFA) and odour (PFO).
From the results obtained it was observed that these parameters seemed
to well-distinguish the samples into two groups. The score plot and
correlation circle for the classification of honeys according to their
botanical origin are shown in Figs. 1 and 2, respectively.
3.4. Total mineral content
Previous studies of mineral content revealed that the concentration
of inorganic elements in avocado honeys was significantly superior than
in other unifloral honeys, and in some cases by an order of magnitude
higher (Afik et al., 2006). According to this, mineral and trace elements
contents for honey samples studied in this work (Table 4) were superior
to other types of honeys (eucalyptus, heather, orange-blossom and ro-
semary) from the same geographic region (Fernández-Torres et al.,
2005).
Fig. 2. Correlation circle: projections of the discriminating variables. PFO:
Processed fruit odour; PFA: Processed fruit aroma; BLA: Balsamic liquorice
odour; BLA: Balsamic liquorice aroma; FA: Free acidity; pH: pH; EC: Electrical
conductivity; aw: Water activity.
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LWT - Food Science and Technology 111 (2019) 561–572
These values ranged as follow: 1.1–17 mg/kg for Fe, 0.34–22 mg/kg
for Zn; 0.43–9.2 mg/kg for Cu; 33–378 mg/kg for Ca; 28–415 mg/kg for
Mg and 184–974 mg/kg for Na. The resulting values for Fe, Zn, Mg, Ca
and Cu were in line with those reported by Terrab and Heredia (2004),
Afik et al. (2006) and Dag et al. (2006) for unifloral avocado honeys
from the south of Spain and Israel, respectively. However, our con-
centration for Na was significantly higher than those reported these
authors. The value for Na in our analysis accounted for the 50% of the
total mineral content determined.
High concentrations of mineral content found in our samples could
be responsible of the high values for electrical conductivity also found
in the current study (0.6–1.4 mS/cm) and could even be used as a
marker to identify and characterize them from other types of honey by
means of multivariate analysis. In the attempt to determine whether
total mineral content would characterize different honey types,
CATPCA was used as an exploratory analysis to classify the samples
according to their botanical origin. In this analysis, inorganic micro-
nutrients contents of our sample were used together with those reported
in a previous research carried out with non-avocado unifloral honeys
(Fernández-Torres et al., 2005). Observing the scores plot graph
(Fig. 3), a visibly good separation of the samples by their floral origin
(avocado and non-avocado honeys) was highlighted. In particular, the
first two principal components (PC1 and PC2) contributed to the bo-
tanical discrimination of the samples explaining 95.96% of the varia-
bility. While the inclusion of PC3 was used to explain almost 100% of
the total variance. These findings suggested the possibility of con-
ducting further studies on mineral content to discriminate among
samples of honey from different botanical origin and to monitor frau-
dulent practices in honey.
4. Conclusions
International trade can potentially contribute to fraudulent activ-
ities. Guaranteeing the authenticity of food products is a matter of
pressing concern in order to avoid unethical practices and detect food
fraud. In the current study, parameters analyzed brought into light that
for the authentication procedure of unifloral avocado honey produced
in Spain, not only percentage of P. americana Mill. pollen should be
considered for its classification, but also based on a combination of
different parameters such as psychochemical criteria, mineral content
or sensory attributes. Samples in our study were characterized by a high
value of pH (≥4) and high electrical conductivity (≥0.6 mS/cm),
pollen content ≥10% P. americana Mill., high mineral content (Na re-
presents more than 50% of the total mineral content evaluated), sen-
sory evaluation for balsamic-liquorice aroma and odour together with
very dark brown colour and saltiness attributes. Moreover, our results
revealed that, according to the established regulations, unifloral avo-
cado honey would not meet the requirements to be classified as
‘blossom honey’, thus it is necessary to review current legislation of
honey criteria and standards and include avocado honey in the list of
exceptions in order to properly describe it and furthermore, to prevent
beekeepers from facing problems during the commercialization of this
type of honey.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no competing financial interest or other conflict
of interest.
Funding
The European Union FEDER 2014–2020, the National Institute for
Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) of Spain, and
the Project “Holistic evaluation of risk factors in honey bees and wild
pollinators:The situation in Spain (RTA 2013-00042-C10)”.
I. Rodríguez, et al.
Fig. 3. Principal component score plot of honey samples of avocado ( ) and other types of unifloral honeys (heather, orange-blossom and rosemary) (Fernández-
Torres et al., 2005) based on their total mineral content. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version
of this article.)
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the European Union FEDER 2014–2020, the
National Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology
(INIA) of Spain, and the Project “Holistic evaluation of risk factors in
honey bees and wild pollinators: The situation in Spain (RTA 2013-
00042-C10)” for their financial support. We would also like to thank to
the local beekeepers of Málaga (Asociación Malagueña de Apicultores)
for donating the samples for this study.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.05.068.
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