Criminalistics

CSC-Antipolo City Pride/What Criminologist Knows?
/2016
What Criminologist Knows?

CRIMINALISTICS
Culled by: Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D.
DACTYLOSCOPY
(FINGERPRINT)
1 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

CSC-Antipolo City Pride/What Criminologist Knows?/2016
WHAT CRIMINOLOGIST KNOWS?

DACTYLOSCOPY
ACCIDENTALS – refers to relatively small number ofpatterns too irregular in outline to be

grouped with central pocket loops and double loops. They have two or more deltas and a
combination or fusion of two or more types of patterns not including the plain, radial or ulnar
arch. This category also includes any freak pattern or accidental formation that does not
conform to any conventional type.
ACCIDENTAL WHORL – refers to a pattern which consist of a combination of two different
types of patterns with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas, or a pattern
which posses some of the requirements for two or more different types.
AFIS – the Automated Fingerprint Identification System is a biometric identification (ID)
methodology that uses digital imaging technology to obtain, store, and analyze fingerprint
data. The AFIS was originally used by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in
criminal cases. Lately, it has gained favor for general identification and fraud prevention.
ANKYLOSIS – refers to a bone condition wherein the finger joints cannot be bent.
APPENDAGE – a short ridge at the peak or top of a recurve usually at right angle.
APPROXIMATING PATTERNS – refers to patterns, which, because of extreme complexities
in their formations, cannot be assigned definite, specific interpretations. These usually results
in disagreements on the interpretation among fingerprint experts.
ARCHES – arches represents only about 5 per cent of the fingerprint patterns encountered. In
arch patterns, the ridges run from one side to the other of the pattern, making no backward
turn. There is ordinarily no delta, but where there is the appearance of a delta, no recurving
ridge must intervene between the core and delta points.
BALL ZONE – it is the large cushion below the base of the big toe. It also corresponds to the
thenar zone in palm rights.
BAR OR ROD – refers to a single ending ridge in the center of a recurving ridge of a loop.
BATTLEY SINGLE FINGERPRINT METHOD – refers to a system of classifying and
organizing fingerprints devised by Harry Battley, London, England.
BIFURCATING RIDGE – it is a single ridge, which divides or folks into two ridges.
BLOCKING OUT – refers to the insertion on a fingerprint card the results of the interpretation
of all ten patterns. Represented by letters, symbols or numbers on the card required for each of
the rolled prints.
CALCAR ZONE – it refers to the area at the hee; Very rarely do patterns show in this zone, its
ridge formation consisting of latitudinal strations.
CARPAL DENTAL ZONE – area about the center of the palm, down near the wrist. It is
seldom expected to find a pattern in this zone, but when a delta does appear there, comparison
is easier.
CENTRAL POCKET LOOP WHORL – refers to a pattern which consist of at least one
recurving ridge, or an obstruction at right angles to the line of flow, with two deltas, between
which, when an imaginary line is drawn, no recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is
touched or cut.
CHAIN OF EVIDENCE – in court a person must be able to account every minute of time the
evidence has been in his or someone else’s hands or custody from the time it was found at the
scene of the crime until it is offered as an exhibit in court.
CHEILOSCOPY – refers to the examination of lip prints which may serve to identify an
individualize persons.

CHIROSCOPY – is the scene or personal identification by means of friction ridge

characteristics existing on the palmar surface of the human hand.
CLASS CHARACTERISTIC – refers to those characteristics that can be possessed by more
than one print. The class characteristics of friction ridge skin extend to many factors other
than digit or palm, or toe or sole, and the definable pattern type. Patterns of the same type, by
definition, may appear quite diverse.
CLASSIFICATION – refers to the display of fingerprint records into groups or subgroups for
filing purposes. It is a formula derivative from a complete set of ten fingerprint patterns.
CLASSIFICATION OF APPROXIMATING PATTERNS – refers to inscription of all the
probable categorization for a set of prints, which contains one or more uncertain patterns.
CLEANER’S MARK (LAUNDRY TAG) – means of identifying that is solely based on a
laundry tag, laundry or cleaner’s mark on the person’s clothing.
COMBINATION – it is the acceptance of all the possible variations of classification, which a
set of fingerprints nay bring into being.
COMPOSITES – refers to fingerprint patterns in which combinations of the tented arch, loop
and whorl are found in the same print, also patterns where the majority of ridges are loops and
a few ridges at the center or side are whorls. These are subdivided into central pocket loops,
double loops and accidentals.
CONVERGING RIDGE – refers to a ridge whose closed end is angular and serves as a point of
convergence; it is sharp and abrupt.
CORE – the heat or the innermost center of a pattern.
CRIME SCENE PROCEDURES – refers to sound, lawful or proper approach in the manner of
crime scene searches.
DACTYLOSCOPY – also referred to as Fingerprint Identification it is the process of comparing
questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions from fingers.
DELTA – point on the first ridge formation at or exactly in front of the divergence of the type
lines.
DEVELOPING (A LATENT PRINT WITH POWDER) – the process of applying powder to
the print in such a way that the fine particles will adhere to the moisture left by the ridges of
the finger.
DISSOCIATED RIDGES – refers to those odd ridge structures having no well-defined
patterns; the ridges are never fused, extremely short and are series of ―patches‖ caused by a
disturbance of developmental process at the pre-natal life of an individual.
DISTAL – it is manifested when the exist of a loop formation points toward the fingertips.
DIVERGING RIDGES – are two ridges running side by side and abruptly separating.
DOT RIDGE – a ridge which resembles a point.
DOUBLE LOOP WHORL – refers to a pattern consisting of two distinct and separate loop
formations of different sizes, having two deltas and two sets of shoulders.
EDGEOSCOPY – the study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges; shape or
contour of the edges of friction ridges.
ENCLOSURE – refers to a split which does not stay open but in which the legs of the
bifurcation, after running along side by side for a short distance, come together again to form
a single ridge once more. It completely surrounds a section of a furrow.
ENDING RIDGE – terminus of a long or short ridge.
ENVELOP – occurs when a staple encircles one or more rods.
FIBULAR ZONE – situated on the little toe side of the foot, just under the plantar zone. It is on
the side of the foot, which the fibula runs and patterns are seldom located in this area. It
corresponds to the ulna bone of the arm.

FILING – refers to the process of finding the proper place in the fingerprint file where a certain
set of print belong and placing it there.
FILLING OUT – refers to entering on a fingerprint record card of all known indispensable dat
about a subject, except the fingerprints themselves.
FINAL CLASSIFICATION – refers to the ridges count of the loop on the right little finger.
FINGERPRINT – refers to the reproduction on some smooth surface of the design or pattern
formed by the ridges on the inside of the end joint of a thumb or finger.
FINGERPRINT CLASSIFICATION INDEX – refers to succession of guide cards having
tabs on which are lettered the numerous fingerprint classification combination.
FOOTPRINT PATTERN ZONES – areas in the sole of the human foot containing friction
ridge characteristics where footprint identification is based.
FRICTION RIDGES – also referred to as epidermal or papillary ridges. They are strips of skin
on the inside end joints of our thumbs and fingers by which fingerprints are created.
FURROWS – they are canals or depressions between the ridges, which may be compared with
the low area in a tire tread.
HYPOTHENAR ZONE – this area comprises the large cushion below the base of the little
finger. It may contain whorls, loops, or combinations of both or no pattern at all.
IDENT OR CATCH – refers to locating or finding of a previously filed duplicate record card of
the subject.
INCIPIENT RIDGES – refers to those abnormal type of ridges found in a small percentage of
patterns. They are found in the furrows between two well-formed ridges. They are narrow,
short and badly ridge.
INNER WHORL – a ridge whose course being traced from the left delta to the right delta
passes inside the right delta with three or more ridges intervening between the right delta and
the traced ridge.
ISLAND RIDGE – a single ridge which splits into two branches flowing side by side toward the
same direction at a certain point meets forming the original ridge.
KEY – refers to the ridge count on the first loop in a set of prints, beginning with the right
thumb. The key is placed at the extreme left end of the classification line. It is at all times
shown in the numerator, no matter whether it is obtained from a right or a left-hand finger.
LATENT PRINT – hidden or concealed fingerprints found at the scene of a crime. The latent
finger mark, deposited by the fingertip pattern, is a intricate mixture of natural secretions and
contaminations from the environment.
LATERAL POCKET LOOP – Henry described lateral pocket loops as patterns whose core
points have their exists on the same side of one of the deltas.
LINE OF FLOW – visible in a central pocket loop, determined by drawing an imaginary line
between the inner delta and the center of the innermost recurving ridge.
LOOP – refers to a pattern in which one or more of the ridges at one of the pattern, run toward
the upper corner on the opposite side, then recurve and start back toward the side from which
they came originally, forming a delta at the end of the pattern area and a loop with a core in
the center. Loops constitute or make up between 60 to 70 percent of the patterns encountered.
MAJOR DIVISIONS – they are produced by the counting of loops and the tracing of whorl
type patterns emerging on the left and right thumbs. These divisions are used to subdivide
large collections of sets that the primary, secondary, do not divide into adequately small
groups to allow easy filing and searching.
MAKE – refers to the fact that identification has been made.

MEETING – is one in which the ridge whose course being traced from the left delta toward the
right delta exactly meets the right delta with not more than two deltas superseding between
them.
MINUTIAE – refers to the endings and the branching of the finger lines.
NON-NUMERICAL PATTERNS – refers to patterns mainly used in making up primary
classifications that are not given numerical values.
NUMERICAL PATTERNS – these are patterns, which are assigned number values depending
on which fingers they appear when making up the primary classification.
OUTER WHORL – it is the ridge whose course being traced from the left delta toward the right
delta passes outside the right delta with three or more ridges intervening.
PAIRING OFF – method of arranging a set of fingerprints so that all numerator fingers or
values are above the line and that all denominator fingers or values are below the line.
PALM PATTERN ZONES – basis of palm print identification by means of the parts of the
human palms containing friction ridge characteristics.
PALMAR ZONE – this is the area that is situated at the bases of the index, middle, ring, and
little fingers.
PAPILLARY OR FRICTION RIDGES – refers to common term given to the ridges on the
fingers, palms and soles of the feet.
PATTERN AREA – part of a fingerprint which rests within the area surrounded by type lines.
PATTERN INTERPRETATION – it is the process of designation of names of fingerprint
patterns.
PLAIN ARCH – a pattern in which the ridges come in on one side of the pattern and flow
towards the other side, with a rise in a center, with no upward thrust, no recurving ridge and
no angular formation.
PLAIN IMPRESSION – the method of recording the center of the friction ridge pattern. It is
made by pressing an inked finger directly down upon a fingerprint card without any rolling
motion.
PLAIN WHORL – a pattern which consists of one or more ridges which make or tend to make
a complete circuit, with two deltas, between which, when an imaginary line is drawn, at least
one recurving ridge within the inner pattern area is touched or cut.
PLANTAR ZONE – is an area occupying all the ―ball‖ of the foot not occupied by the ball
pattern zone.
PODOSCOPY – science of identification through friction ridge characteristics existing on sole
of the human foot.
POLYDACTYLISM – refers to the appearance of extra fingers as anatomically known.
PORELON PAD – a special inking pad which requires no ink supply or roller.
POROSCOPY – it refers to the science of identification using the pores.
POST MORTEM FINGERPRINT – it is the process of taking fingerprints of a dead person
for identification purposes.
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION – derived through the use of numbers assigned to certain types
of fingerprint patterns. It is the foremost classification which means the initial ―sorting‖ of
sets fingerprints and acts as the keys to all fingerprint classification and filing.
RADIAL LOOP – occurs when the downward slope of the ridges about the core is from the
direction of the little finger toward the thumb.
RECURVING RIDGE – refers to the ridge that bends back in the direction from which it
started.
REFERENCE CLASSIFICATION – a second choice classification from a set of points having
approximating or disputed patterns.

RIDGE BIFURCATION – refers to the forking of a single ridge into two or more brances.
RIDGE CHARACTERISTICS – minute or tiny details in the ridges of fingerprint patterns
which are used in comparing and identifying fingerprints. (―Minutiae‖ or ―Galton‖ details)
RIDGE COUNTER – refers to a petite pointed instrument used for counting ridges.
RIDGE COUNTING – it is the process of counting ridges that cross or touch an imaginary line
drawn between the delta and core of a loop. The core and delta are not counted, only the
ridges that go across or touch the imaginary line are counted.
RIDGE ENDING – an abrupt end of a ridge formation; it either ends pointing up or down in a
fingerprint pattern.
RIDGE TRACING – refers to the process of charting the ridge that originates from the lower
side of the left delta toward the right delta to see where it flows in relation to the right delta.
ROLLED IMPRESSION – the process of recording the entire ridge pattern of the nail joint by
rolling an inked finger from one side of the fingernail to the other.
SHORT RIDGE – a ridge of limited length.
SHOULDERS OF A LOOPING OR RECURVING RIDGE – points, one on each side of a
loop, just where the ridge positively begins and stops its recurve.
SUBSECONDARY CLASSIFICATION – the ridge trace or ridge count symbols of the
patterns on the index, middle and ring fingers of both hands, whether all three patterns are of
they same type or not.
SUFFICIENT RECURVE – consists of the space between the shoulders of a loop, free of
appendages which lie a long side upon it at a right angle on the outside of the recurve.
TENTED ARCHES – are a variety of the arch family which is a transitional pattern, because it
bear a resemblance to a plain arch and a loop pattern.
THENAR ZONE – refers to the large cushion at the base of the thumb. On this vicinity may
appear whorls, loops or combinations of both.
TIBIAL ZONE – this area is on the big toe of the foot in which patterns are almost never found;
but there are exceptional cases when they appear here.
TWIN LOOPS – the ridges containing the core points have their exist on different sides.
TYPE LINES – they refer to the two innermost ridges which start or go parallel, diverge, and
surround or tend to surround the pattern area.
ULNAR LOOP – manifested when the downward slope of the ridges about the core is from the
direction of the thumb toward the little finger.
UPTHRUST – refers to an ending ridge of any distance end to end rising at a sufficient degree
from the horizontal plane.
WHORLS – between 25 and 35 per cent of the patterns encountered consist of whorls. In a
whorl, some of the ridges make a turn through at least one circuit. Any fingerprint pattern
which contains 2 or more delta’s will be a whorl pattern.
I. HISTORY OF FINGERPRINTS
Why Fingerprint Identification?
Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is the essential
explanation for having supplanted other methods of establishing the identities of criminals
reluctant to admit previous arrests.
China has been recognized by many authorities as the first country that uses fingerprint. But,
such usage was not aimed to identify the identity of individuals, but rather it was used for their
―Rituals‖, and ―Trade and Commerce‖. Ironically, there has been no scientific historical data that
will support that the Chinese has studied the use of fingerprint.
Scientific and explorative studies of fingerprint:

Dr. Nehemiah Grew of Oxford University was the first individual who published a study
―Philosophical Transaction‖, a study of the ridges and pores of the hands and feet in 1684.
Govard Bidloo in his study in titled ―Anatomia Humanis Corporis‖ he showed that there are
Sweat Pores and arranged Ridges in the Fingers, in 1685.
In 1686, Dr. Marcello Malpighi published his study in titled ―De Externo Tactus Organo‖.
Wherein his study reveals that the ridges found on the palmar surface of the hand have diverse
formations and designs. He was able to recognize the existence and function of the pores in the
ridges which is serving as a mouth of the sweat glands. He was also instrumental in discovering
the inner and outer layer of the skin, which is now better known as dermis and epidermis.
A certain Hintze and Albinus presented their wrings on the anatomy of the ridge formations,
in 1751.
J.C.A. Mayer published his study in 1788, stating that the arrangement of the ridges of the
skin would never be duplicated in two persons, only closer similarities among individual
fingerprints. His categorical statement that prints of two different individuals are never alike, was
supported by the findings of Herman Welcher, in 1856 that, fingerprint would never change.
Prof. Johannes E. Purkinje of University of Breslau in 1823 published his study on the
different pattern of fingerprint describing its ridges and giving its names. He was able to identify
nine types of fingerprint patterns; (1.) the transverse curves (today known as plain arch) (2.) the
central longitudinal strain (today known as tented arch) (3.) the oblique stripe (today known as
ulnar/radial loop) (4.) the oblique loop (today kwon as ulnar/radial loop) (5.) the almond (today
known as whorl) (6.) the spiral (today known as central pocket loop) (7.) the ellipse-elliptical
whorl (today known as whorl) (8.) the circle circular whorl (today known as whorl) (9.) the
double whorl (today known as double loop). Although he was able to identify the different
fingerprint patterns however, no use for identification was made.
The beginning of fingerprint as a method of identification
Sir William Herschel published a book in titled ―The Origin of Fingerprinting‖ in 1858 in
which he encourages the fingerprinting of the laborers to avoid impersonation. And later he used
fingerprint system in all jails in India and was recognized as the first European to practice
fingerprint identification.
Dr. Henry Faulds was a doctor of medicine stationed in Tokyo Japan in 1880 he published
an article in titled ―Om the Skin Furrows of the Hands‖ which he points out that chance prints or
latent print left at the crime scene would provide a positive identification of offenders. He then
recommended the use of thin film of printers ink as a transfer medium which is known used
today. He also initiated the development and enhancement of latent prints.
Sir Edward Richard Henry the successor of Sir William Herschel was able to develop his
own system of fingerprint classification in 1880 and was adopted by the British Association for
advancement of science in 1889. He was considered as the father of fingerprint due to his system
of classification.
Juan Vucetich he was able to develop his own system of classification in 1891 and was
adopted by Argentina and other Spanish speaking countries.
Sir Francis Galton, he was credited for establishing and discovery the three families of
fingerprint patterns: the Arch, the Loop and the Whorl. Revealing as well that ridge pattern
remains constant throughout life. He also developed its own system of fingerprint classification
and filling of fingerprint cards.
FINGERPRINT is a positive and absolute means of identification. The use of fingerprints

as an infallible means of identification is based on three Dogmatic Principles;
1. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTANCY - the papillary ridges are immutable, perennial, and
individual from the third month of the embryonic period of a person until decomposition sets

in after death. The fingerprints of a, man has been noted by scientist to appear the beginning
of the 3rd embryonic while child is still in mother’s womb period and it never change until
decomposition sets in after death. Man, not knowing carries with him identification from his
cradle up to his graves.
2. PRINCIPLES OF VARIATION - no two fingerprints of different person or the
neighboring finger of the same person have ever been found to be identical or exactly alike in
all respects, and it has been studied and proven that ridges appearing in a fingerprints of man
wherein it has been used as an infallible means of identification. Sir Francis Galton in 1892.
He concluded the theory that the chance of two people to possess identical fingerprints is one
in 64 billion persons.
3. PRINCIPLES OF INFALLIBILITY – man’s fingerprints cannot be forged. Criminals
have tried to destroy their fingerprints in an effort to fool Justice, even if they cut his finger
with a razor, or knife, time brought new ridge to the surface. True, there were scars in the
lower layer of the skin, but the patterns were so distinct that when classifying will show
positive identification of the criminal.
“The fingerprint of man is GOD architectural design and no expert in the world
could equal the making our GOD the Creator.”
II. The Skin and the Characteristics of Ridges
Friction Skin - is the skin covering the bulb of the fingers and thumbs, the palm of the hands,
and the soles of the feet.
-is the epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or the lower surface of the hands and feet
covered with minute ridges and furrows, and without pigment or coloring matter.
Bulb of Fingers -is the portion on the inside of the tips of the fingers and thumbs in the first
phalange and from one nail joint to the opposite nail joint.
Phalange –the skeletal finger covered by the friction skin is made up of three distinct bones
namely; 1.) basal or proximal phalange, which is located at the base of the finger nearest to
the palm; 2.) middle phalange, is the next above the basal bone, 3.) the end or terminal
phalange, the bone that is covered with friction skin having different types of pattern and
located near the tip of the finger.
Epidermis – is the scientific term of the outer layer of the skin. It has two components; 1.)
stratum corneum which covers the surface on which the ridges is visible. 2.) stratum mucosum
is the layer beneath the stratum corneum and forms the ridges that run length twice and
corresponds to the surface ridge.
Dermis – is the scientific term of the skin. Its components are; 1.) sweat glands- are below the
entire dermis which is not visible. 2.) sweat pores- is the mouth of the sweat gland which is
running in a single row along the ridges. 3.) dermal papillae- the nerve endings located
between the dermis and the epidermis, they control the course of flow of the subsequent
ridges and mold the outer surface of the skin.
Ridges – are tiny elevations or hill like structure found on the epidermis of the skin containing
the sweat pores.
Furrows – are the canals or depression found between the ridges they appear as white liners in
an ink finger impression.
Pores – are the mouth of the sweat glands ducts located on the summit of the ridges arranged in a
longitudinal row.
-is a small opening anymore across the ridge surface but is usually found near the center.
Duct – serves as a passage way for the watery substance or the sweat that exists at its mouth, the
pore
Poroscopy – is a branch of the science of fingerprint based on specialized study of the pore
structure found on the epidermal ridges of the skin as a means of identification.

Dr. Edmund Locard of France was the first person who conducted a study on pores and came-up
with a findings on the pores on the following bases:
1. Size – the size of each pore on the ridge vary in diameter from 88 to 220 micro.
2. Shape – pores varies in its shape it could be elliptical, oval, square, rhomboid or triangular.
3. Position on ridge – the position of the pores may differ in their relative position to each other.
A few may appear grouped together or spread apart. Occasionally, two pores may appear to
be abreast on the ridge or they may be so close together that they appear to form a triangle.
Such points are valuable as point of identification and are also valuable in locating a
fragment of a print in the complete known impression.
4. Number of frequency – the average number of pores that occur in one centimeter of ridges
from 9 to 18.
Edgeoscopy – is the study of the characteristics formed by the sides or edges of papillary
ridges as a means of identification.
Prof. Harris Wilder an American scientist discovered that first emerge in the fetus at around 5 to
6 month old. These pore pods fuse together to form ridges. Each pore pod has its own unique
characteristics. The pore pods are the ridge edges which acquire the bases for identification.
In 1963, Salil Kumar Chatterjee discovered that the ridge edge has the following characteristics.
1. Straight
2. Concave
3. Convex
4. Table
5. Peak
6. Pocket
7. Angle
8. Other Shape found on the ridge edge
The ridge characteristics:
1. Appendage – is a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurving ridge.
2. Angle – is the result of two ridges meeting each other and forms an angle.
3. Bifurcation – is a single ridge which splits into two ridges.
4. Converging – are two ridges tending to approach each other at one point, they may continue
to form a single ridge.
5. Divergence – these are two ridges which after running parallel, suddenly separate and to be
parallel to each other.
6. Dot – is a ridge which forms a dot.
7. Enclosure – is formed by a bifurcation when the branches which separate meet again and
become a single ridge.
8. Island – is a ridge which resembles as a circle, or a dot. An island and enclosure is often
referred to be the same. However, an island is always smaller than an enclosure.
9. Recurving Ridge – is a ridge which at certain point of its flow goes back to its direction.
10. Short Ridge – is a ridge which is shorter in its size as compared to other ridges.
11. Type Lines – are the two innermost ridges that are frequently broken and may both be
continuous, which established a boundaries of a fingerprint pattern, which tend to surround
the pattern area.
12. Beginning & Ridge Ending – is the entrance and exist of the flow of the ridge.
Rules governing the darkness or clarity of the ridge

1. Ridges of males tend to be clearer or darker than the ridges of females.
2. Ridges of an adult tend to be clearer or darker than those of infants.

3. Ridges of the very aged to be less clearer or darker than younger persons.
4. Ridges of the right hand of both males tend to be clearer or darker than those of the left
hand.
III. The fingerprint Pattern

Fingerprint –is a reproduction of some smooth surface of the pattern of design formed by the
ridges on the inside of the first joint of a finger or a thumb or at the terminal phalange.
Types of Fingerprint impression:

1. Rolled impression 2. Plain impression
Dactyloscopy- is the science of fingerprint as means of identification.

Dactyl – is originating from a Latin word which means finger or toe.
Skopelin – is a Latin term which means to examine.
Dactylography- is the study of fingerprints for the purpose of identification.
Dactylomancy – is an attempt to know one`s character by reading through the patterns of the
fingerprint.
Dermatoglyphics- are the lines, tracings, and designs on the skin of the fingers, palms and soles
of the feet.
Polydactyl – is a hand having more than the normal numbers of fingers.
Pattern Area- is the portion of the fingerprint that is rounded by the type lines and wherein
includes the vital elements or characteristics necessary for the interpretation and classification
of the type of pattern.
Branches of Dactyloscopy:
1.Chiroscopy – which is the scientific examination of the palm of the hand.The palm print may
be divided into four areas or zones. The flow and configuration of the ridges found on the
different pattern areas the basis for comparison.
Thenar Zone – is the large cushion area at the base of the thumb. Latent impression on this area
is usually found on objects such as beer, bottles, pipes used as weapon.
Hypothenar zone- this zone contains the large cushion area just below the base of the little
finger. Latent impression of this area is common on question documents or papers involved in
handwriting.
Palmar Zone- this is the area at the base of the fingers .Usually a broad delta is noticed at the
base of each finger.
Carpal Delta zone – this is the area about the center of the palm, down near the wrist where the
delta is frequently present. Latent impression may appear on windowsills and counter or
tabletops when the suspect requires support for climbing.
Some terms used in the study of the palm
Distal – in palm prints means toward the fingertips.
Proximal- in the palm prints means toward the wrist.
Radial – in the study of fingerprint pattern where a loop is shown having ridges flowing
toward the radius bone or thumb side.
Ulnar- is when the flow of the ridges is toward the side of the ulnar bone where the little
finger rest.
2. Podoscopy- is the scientific study of the sole of the foot.The footprint pattern zones are found
on the sole of the foot on the following areas;
 Ball zone -this area is found below the base of the big toe.

 Plantar Zones -is the space just below the base of the four little toes besides the ball
zone.
 Calcar Zone -is the area located at the hell.
 Tibial Zone -is the area on the side of the foot where the big toe is located.
 Fibular zone -is situated on the little toe side of the foot just below the plantar zone.
 Tread Area -is an area which includes that portion of the foot lying between the ball-
plantar zones and calcar zone.
The fibular and tibial zones are found within the tread area.
3.Poroscopy- is the scientific examination of the sweat pores.
The basis of the fingerprint system of identification:
1. The peculiarity of their formations into various patterns.
2. The formation of two fixed points known as the core and delta.
Fingerprints pattern:
1. Plain Arch- is a pattern in which the ridges flow one side to the other, without re-curving
usually having a slight upward curve in the center, making the pattern appear like arch.
There is no core and delta.
2. Tented Arch- is a pattern in which the ridges flow from one side to the other without re-
curving, but the ridges rises higher in the center, giving the pattern the appearance of a tent.
A tented Arch must have a core but no delta, or a delta without a core.
3. Exceptional Arch- is a type of tented arch which its impression has re-curving ridge/s but
no delta or with a delta but without a curving or looping ridge/s, or having both a looping
ridge/s and a delta but no ridge count.
4. Loop- is a pattern in which one or more ridges enter on either side of the impression and
making a re-curve which pass out or terminate on the same side as the ridges entered. It has
a core and delta and a ridge count of at least one.
Divisions of Loop:
4.1 Radial Loop- is when the downward slope of the ridges is toward the direction of the thumb.
4.2 Ulnar Loop- is when the downward slope of the ridges is toward the direction of the little
finger.
Essential requisites of a Loop:
1. A sufficient re-curve of a ridge which passes on the side of the delta and core.
2. It must have a delta and a core.
3. It must have a ridge count of at least one.
5.Plain Whorl- is a pattern in which the ridges forms a series of circles or spirals around the
core or axis. An imaginary line drawn between the two deltas must touch or cross at least one
of the re-curving ridges within the pattern area. The whorl has a core and two deltas
6.Central pocket loop- is a pattern in which most of the ridges the pattern known as loop,or
more of ridge loop or those surrounding the core re-curve forming somewhat like a spiral,
oval, circuit, or any variant of a circle; or where one or more re-curving ridges having an
obstruction of a right angle to the inner flow. It must have two unbalance deltas, in which an
imaginary line would not touch the recurving ridge within the inner pattern area.
7. Double Loop – is a pattern which consists of two separate loop formations with two separate
and distinct sets of shoulders and two deltas.
8. Lateral Pocket loop- is a pattern which consist two loops formations on the same side where
they entered.

9. Accidental Whorl- is a pattern with two or more deltas and a combination of two or more
types of patterns.
Possible combination of patterns in accidental whorl:
1. A loop and tented arch;
2. A loop and a plain whorl;
3. A loop and a central pocket loop;
4. And other possible combinations, except plain arch because is excluded in the absence of
the pattern.
Identifying the Core and Delta ( refer to index)

Delta- is the first of the two focal points. It is the first obstruction of any nature at the point of
divergence of the type lines in front of, or nearest to the center of the divergence. It is the
outside terminus.
Types of delta:
1. Open delta- the one that display any ridge formation, excluding the bifurcation ridge,
located midway where the two type lines separate and not joined to any of the neighboring
ridge.
2. Closed Delta- a ridge formation, as the bifurcation ridge that obstruct or block the space or
opening where the type lines separate.
Rules in selecting two or more deltas:
 When two or more possible deltas which conforms to the definition, the delta nearest the core
is chosen.
 When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta, the bifurcation is
selected as the delta.
 When there is a choice between two possible deltas, neither of which is a bifurcation, and
when both are in the vicinity of the divergence of the type lines, the delta nearest the center of
the divergence is selected.
 When a single ridge enter a pattern area with two or more bifurcation which is closers to the
core becomes delta.
Rules in selecting the delta on a ridge:
1. When a ridge runs half way between the type lines and the pattern area, the delta is placed
on the end of the ridge nearest the core.
2. When a ridge runs entirely within the pattern area, the delta is placed on the end nearest the
point of divergence of the type lines.
3. When a ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type lines the
delta is placed on the end nearest the core.
Core- is the second of the two focal points. It is the approximate center of the fingerprint
impression. It is the inner terminus.
Types of Core:
1. Staple Core- where a single loop appears, the recurving ridge of said loop farther from the
delta is used as the inner terminus or core at a point near the top, just before the recurving
ridge or its shoulder.
2. Bar Core- is innermost ridge forming a rod, where the core is located at the top most of the
rod. If there are even rod the one farther from the delta is located.
3. Fragmented Core- a very short ridge not more than three millimeters ( 3mm) found inside a
recurving ridge located on or above the shoulder line of such ridge.

Rules in selecting the core;

1. When the innermost loop contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high the shoulder of the
loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from the delta.
2. If there is one rod within the recurving ridge is a s high as the shoulder the core is placed on
the tip of the rod.
3. If there are two rods within the recurving ridge which rise to the shoulders at the different
heights, the core is placed on the higher tip.
4. If the two rods within the innermost recurving ridge have the same heights, the core is placed
on the tip of the rod farther from the delta.
5. If there are three or uneven number of the rods within the recurving ridge, the core is placed
on the center rod even if it does not rise as high as the shoulders of the recurving ridge and
whether it touches the looping ridge or not;
6. If there are four or even number of rods within the recurving ridge the two innermost rods are
considered as one, as if an imaginary curve joined the tips of the rods and the core is placed
on the two imaginary shoulders farther from the delta.
7. Any appendages abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a right angle automatically
destroys the ridge for the used as a core or ridge count.
8. When two loops, side by side are present within one recurving ridge, the two loops are
considered as one and the core is placed on the inner shoulder of the loop farthest from the
delta.
9. When two loops are interlocking the loops are considered as one, if an imaginary line is
drawn between the shoulders of both loops crossers the point of interlocking, the core is
placed at this point.
10. The core cannot be placed on a recurving ridge having an appendage. If the innermost loop
has an appendage on the outside of the recurve, at a right angle between the shoulders the
next outside is considered for the placing of the core.
IV. The Taking of Fingerprint

The equipment required for taking fingerprints consists of an inking plate, a cardholder,
printer`s ink ( heavy black past), and a roller.
In order to obtain clear, distinct fingerprints, it is necessary to spread the printer`s ink in a
thin even coating on a small inking plate, as a roller approximately 6 inches long and 2 inches in
diameter has been found to be very satisfactory.
An inking plate may be made from a hard, rigid, scratch-resistant metal plate 6 inches
wide by 14 inches long or by inlaying a block of wood with a piece of glass one-fourth of an inch
thick, 6 inches wide and 14 inches long. The glass plate by itself would be suitable, but it should
be fixed to a base in order to prevent breakage. The inking surface should be elevated to a
sufficient height to allow the subject`s forearm to assume a horizontal position when the fingers
are being inked. For example, the inking plate may be placed on the edge of a counter or a table
of counter height. In such a position, the operator has greater assurance of avoiding accidental
strain or pressure on the fingers and should be able to procure more uniform impressions. The
inking plate should also be placed so that the subject`s fingers which are not being printed can be
made to ―swing‖ off the table to prevent their interfering with the inking process. The stand is
made of hardwood and measures approximately 2 feet in length, 1 foot in height and width. This
stand contains a cardholder and a chrome strip which is used as the inking plate. Two
compartments used to store blank fingerprint cards and supplies complete the stand. This
equipment should be supplemented by a cleansing fluid and necessary cloths so that the subject`s

fingers may be cleaned before rolling and the inking plate cleaned after using. Denatured alcohol
and commercially available cleaning fluids are suitable for this purpose.
The fingerprints should be taken on a 8- by 8- inch cardstock, as the size has generally
been adopted by law enforcement because of facility in filing and desirability of uniformity.
Preparing to take a set of a fingerprint
In preparing to take a set of fingerprints:
a. A small daub of ink should be placed on the inking glass or slab and thoroughly rolled until
a very thin, even film covers the entire surface.
b. The subject should stand in front of and at forearms` length from the inking plate.
c. In taking the rolled impressions, the side of the bulb of the fingers is placed upon the inking
plate and the finger is rolled to the other side until it faces the opposite direction.
d. Care should be exercised so that the bulb of each finger is inked evenly from the tip to below
the first joint.
e. By pressing the finger lightly on the card and rolling in exactly the same manner, a clear
rolled impression of the finger surface may be obtained.
f. It is better to ink and print each finger separately beginning with the right thumb and then, in
order, the index, middle, ring and little fingers.
If consideration is given the anatomical or bony structure of the forearm when taking rolled
impressions, more uniform impressions will be obtained. The two principle bones of the forearm
are known as the radius and the ulna, the former being on the thumb side and the latter on the
little finger side of the arm. As suggested by its name, the radius bone revolves freely about the
ulna as a spoke of a wheel about the hub.
In order to take advantage of the natural movement in making finger impressions, the
hand should be rotated from the awkward to the easy position. This requires that the thumbs be
rolled toward and the fingers away from the center of the subject`s body.
This process relieves strain and leaves the fingers relaxed upon the completion of rolling
so that they may be lifted easily from the card without danger of slipping which smudges and
blurs the prints.
The subject must be cautioned to relax and refrain from trying to help the operator by
exerting pressure as this prevents the operator from gauging the amount needed. A method which
is helpful in effecting the relaxation of a subject`s hand is that of instructing him to look at some
distant object and not to look at his hands.
a. The person taking the fingerprints should stand to the left of the subject when printing the
right hand, and to the right of the subject when printing the left hand.
b. To obtain ― plain‖ impressions, all the fingers of the right hand should be pressed lightly
upon the inking plate, then pressed simultaneously upon the lower right hand corner of the
card on the space provided. The left hand should be similarly printed, and the thumbs of
both hands should be inked and printed, without rolling, in the space provided.
Printing of fingers having disabilities

1. If fingers are cut, amputated, bandage, or missing at birth should be noted in the fingerprint
card.
2. If hands are damage due to its occupation the use of softening agents such as oil and creams
are recommended to obtain legible ink impression. A very small amount of ink should be
used on taking plate.

3. If hands excessively perspire, wipe the fingers with cloth and immediately ink the finger and
roll it on the fingerprint card. The use of some drying agents is also recommended such as
alcohol, benzene or other similar fluid.
4. If the first joint of the fingers were amputated, the finger’s second or third joint must be
printed with proper notation.
5. If all fingers are amputated, the footprints should be obtain.
6. If fingers are crippled, bent or having deformities in which it is not possible to take the
fingerprint, make a proper notation. But, if it is possible, the bent, or cripple fingers should
be printed individually using the same equipment of fingerprinting dead person, such as;
spatula, roller and a curve holder for the individual finger.
7. If the fingers are already faint because of old age, a small of ink is applied and a slight
pressure is required in rolling the fingers.
8. If the subject has more than 10 fingers, the extra finger is printed on the side of the card with
proper notations.
9. If the subject’s fingers webbed or grown together, making it possible to roll, the inside
10. finger must be printed completely and a proper notation must be made.
11. If the thumbs are split, having two nail joint, the joint outside the hand is considered not
present, only the inner joint is used.
Ridge Counting and Tracing

Ridge tracing – means the method of ridge cursing using the two deltas as the points.
Relative point – is the point of the ridge directly opposite the right delta when an imaginary line
is drawn.
Classification of Tracing
Inner – following the tracing if the ridge from the left delta to the right delta, a count of three or
more ridges intervening on the inside of the right delta is Inner.
Outer – following the tracing of the ridge from the left delta to the right delta, a count of three or
more ridges intervening the outside of the right delta is Outer.
Meeting – following the tracing of the ridge from the left delta to the right delta, a count of two
intervening ridges on either of the right delta is Meeting.
Basic Rules for Ridge Tracing in Whorls

Tracing always begins at the left delta and goes towards the right delta.
An uninterrupted ridge can be traced from the left delta to the right delta.
When the tracing ridge suddenly ends, the tracing is continued on the ridge immediately below
it.
A ridge must definitely end before the tracing may be continued on the ridges below.
When a ridge bifurcates, the tracing is continued on the lower branch of the bifurcation.
When the delta is a dot, the tracing begins on the type line, which is the ridge immediately
below the ―delta‖. ( this is the only time the type line is used as a tracing line.)
Rules for Beginning and Ending Ridge Tracing

1. Ridge tracing begins at the extreme left delta and stops at the point directly in front of the
right delta.
2. In an accidental whorl having three deltas, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta and
goes towards the extreme right delta. Any other delta encountered is ignored.

3. In a double loop whorl, the tracing begins at the extreme left delta. When the tracing passes
inside of the right delta, one stops at the nearest point to the right delta on an up thrust.
4. If no up thrust is present, one continues the tracing until a point of opposite the delta, or the
delta itself, is reached.
Tracing of Patterns
1. In the plain whorl, the tracing begins at the delta and goes to the right delta.
2. In a double loop, the tracing begins at the left delta and follows on the up thrust loop. When
tracing on an up thrust ridge, one tops at the point on the up thrust which is nearest to the
right delta. If no up thrust loop is present, one continues tracing until a point opposite the
right delta, or the right delta itself, is reached.
3. Accidental whorl often posses three deltas. In tracing, only the extreme deltas are
considered. Therefore, tracing begins at the extreme left delta and continues towards the
extreme right delta; the intervening delta is ignored. An intervening delta is considered only
when it appears in whorls on either or both little fingers. The intervening delta is not
considered for the purpose of tracing, but rather for the purpose of ridge counting when a
final classification is being made.
4. When two loops are in juxtaposition, the deltas are generally vertical to each other one
direct above the other. The tracing starts from the bottom delta and continues upward, thus
indicating a ―Meet‖ tracing.
Ridges Courting
Ridges Courting- means the enumeration of the number of ridge characters touching or
passing the line count (imaginary line) which is drawn between the core and delta, excluding the
two terminals points in the count.
Rules in Ridge Counting

1. Located the exact points of the core and delta.
2. Count all ridges which touch or cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and delta. (
In actual use of a fingerprint card for classification, the lens is guided by red line shown on
the disk.)
3. Never include the core and delta in the count. Count only those ridges which intervene or
pass between the core and delta.
4. Incipient ridges are never counted, no matter where they appear. The general is that in order
to be counted, the width of a ridge must be equal to the width of the other ridges in the
pattern under consideration.
Values of Ridges in Ridge Counting

1. A ridge island or dot is given- one ridge count.
2. A short ridge is given- one ridge count.
3. A long ridge is given- one ridge count.
4. An abrupt-ending ridge is given- one ridge count.
5. A bifurcating ridge- if a ridge bifurcates or branches into two across the imaginary line,
then—the count given is two. Should the point of forking of falls short of touching it, it
crosses only one ridge and—the count given is one.
6. Ridge enclosures are counted as—two ridges.
7. Two bifurcations or meeting of two ridges is counted as—two ridges.

Rules for Ridge counting in the Little Fingers for Whorl Family
1. When counting the ridges of the whorl on the little finger of the right hand, the count is from
the left delta to the core.
2. When counting the ridges of the whorl on the little finger of the left hand, the count is from
the right delta to the core.
3. If there is more than one core, the ridge count on an accidental whorl as is follows:
A. On the right hand the ridge count goes from the left delta to the core which is the least
number of ridges distant from that delta.
B. On the left hand the ridge count goes from the right delta to the core which is the least
number of ridges distant from the delta.
4. The double loop count is made from the delta to the core of the upright loop.
5. If the loops of the double are horizontal, the count is from left delta to the nearest core.
Rule for the Count for key Classification

When counting the ridges of the whorl on the thumb of the right hand, the count is from
the left delta to the core. This count is to obtain the key classification.
VII Formula for Fingerprint Classification

Classification -the classification of fingerprints is the method by which filing and searching for
the purpose of comparing prints are facilitated.
Classification Formula -the classification formula is the result of combining all the
patterns of the fingerprints and recording them, in a specific order and manner, at the
top right of the fingerprint card.
Components of Classification
The classification formula is composed of seven possible divisions;
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Sub-secondary
4. Major
5. Second sub-secondary
6. Final; and
7. Key
Order of Designation
The classification formula is written horizontally on the fingerprint card. The
components appear in the following sequence;
1. Key
2. Major
3. Primary
4. Secondary
5. Sub-secondary
6. Second sub-secondary
7. Final
Components of formula
Like a fraction, the classification formula has two parts---a denominator, written
below the line.
Rules in Blocking Fingerprints

Blocking fingerprints – means designating by symbols the type of pattern each

finger and thumb bears and recording these symbols on the fingerprint card in the block provided
for each respective finger and thumb.
The rules of blocking fingerprints are:

1. The symbols indicating the pattern type are marked at the bottom of each block.
2. The ridge count of tracing is marked at the top ant to the right, inside each block in which a
loop or a whorl appears.
3. In most bureaus, the ulnar loop ( and in some, the radial loop ) is indicated by a diagonal
line slanting in the direction of the loop; the diagonal line replaces the letter indication in all
fingers except the index finger. The ulnar loop in the right hand is shown by a diagonal line
from left to right; an ulnar loop in the left hand is shown by a diagonal line from the right to
left.
4. For the index, the patterns are indicated by the appropriate capital letters. This is to avoid
misinterpreting the diagonal line.
5. For all other fingers and thumbs, when plain or tented arches and radials appear, the patterns
are indicated by the corresponding small letter.
The symbols used in blocking print are as follows:

Pattern Index Finger Other Fingers
Arches A a
Tented arches T t
Radial loops R r
Ulnar loops U /or \
Plain whorl, C,D,X W w
In other bureaus they used the following symbols:
Pattern Index Finger Other Fingers

Arch A a
Tented Arch T t
Radial Loop R r
Ulnar Loop U / or \
Plain Loop W w
Central Pocket loop C C
Double Loop D D
Accidenta X X
PRIMARY CLASSIFICATION
Primary Classification means- the sum of all numerical values of theories and
composites in a set of fingerprints plus the fraction of one over one.
Steps in obtaining the primary classification

1. Get to know the natural sequence of the fingers in the fingerprint card;
Thumb Index Middle Ring Little Finger
Right Hand 1 2 3 4 5
Left hand 6 7 8 9 10
2. Identify the odd fingers and even fingers
Odd fingers - 1 ( right thumb);3 ( right middle finger);5 ( right little finger)7 ( left index
finger ) ; and 9 ( left ring finger);
Even fingers - 2 ( right index finger);4 ( right ring finger)6 ( left thumb finger);8 ( left
middle finger); and10 ( left little finger)

3. Get to know the group of patterns that has the numerical value and the patterns that don`t
have numerical value. Generally, patterns of whorl family has the numerical and the non-
whorl don`t have any value.
Patterns that don`t have numerical value:

1. A- Plain Arch
2. T- Tented Arch
3. R- Radial Loop
4. U- Ulnar Loop
Patterns that have numerical value:
1. W – plain Whorl
2. C - Central Pocket Loop
3. D – Double Loop
4. X—Accidental Whorl
4. If any patterns of the whorl family appears on the designated pairs of fingers, it is given the
corresponding value.
1st pair; right thumb and right index --------VALUE IS 16

2nd pair ; right middle and right finger -------VALUE IS 8
3rd pair; right little finger and left thumb -----VALUE IS 4
4th pair; left index finger and left middle finger --VALUE IS 2
5th pair; left ring finger and left little finge--- VALUE IS 1
5.Get the value of the whorl patterns that appears on the odd fingers and even fingers, get the
sum, then add the fraction of 1/1. The Odd fingers is the denominator and the Even is the
numerator.
Numerator --- Even Fingers --2, + 4, + 6,+ 8, + 10

1
Denominator ------ Odd fingers --1, + 3, + 5, + 7, + 9
1
6.Put the result at the bottom of the primary classification following its classification line of the
classification components.
Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary

Final Division Classification
SECONDARY CLASSIFCATION
Secondary Classification means- it represents the type of patterns appearing in the index
fingers of each hand. The right hand serves as numerator and the hand serves as the denominator.
Capital Letters Group

There are five basic types of patterns that would appear in the index finger which must be
capital on the classification line.
A - Plain Arch
T - Tented Arch
R - Radial Arch
U - Ulnar Loop
W - for all whorl family patterns
Small Letters Group

These are three patterns which constitute the small letter group, and such presence of the
pattern on the fingers excluding the index, is given the designation of small letter, which is
placed in sequence before or after the designation of the index on the classification line as the

case may be. The absence of a small letter in the classification line is given the designation of a
dash.
a - plain arch
t -Tented arch
r - radial loop
The small letters group is vital not only on the classification system. But also in the
sequence of filing.
In case of amputation or missing at birth, the value and pattern of the opposite finger is
copied.
SUB-SECONDARY CLASSIFICATION
Sub-secondary Classification – is the grouping of prints according to ridge counts of
loops and ridge tracings of whorl on the index, middle and ring fingers of both hands.
Sub-divisions of sub-secondary classification.

1. Ridge counting or loop division.
2. Ridge tracing or whorl division;
3. Combination of ridge counting and ridge tracing.
The Ridge Counting Division

When all patterns appearing in the index, middle, and ring fingers in both hands are loop,
ridge counting is resorted and represented by symbols ―I‖ and ―O‖ but the key varies on the ridge
count of each finger. The following serves as the table for its ridge on the respective fingers.
Index Finger / ridge count 1 to 9 - symbol is I (Inner) \ ridge count 10 or more -

symbol is O (outer)
Middle Finger / ridge count 1 to 10 - symbol is I (inner) \ ridge count 1 to 13 -
symbol is O (outer)
Ring Finger / ridge count 1 to 13 - symbol is I (inner \ ridge count 14 or more
- symbol is O (outer)
The ridge Tracing Division

when all patterns appearing in the index, middle, and ring fingers in both hands are whorl,
ridge tracing is resorted and represented by ―I‖ for inner, ―M‖ for meeting, ―O‖ for outer.
1. Combination of Ridge Count and Ridge Tracing
When the index, middle, and ring fingers in both hands are having a mixed pattern of
whorls, loops, and arch, its respective symbols is indicated in sequence. The dash (-) represent
the arch patterns.
The opposite fingers in case of amputation or missing at birth the value and pattern of the
opposite fingers is copied.
MAJOR DIVISION
Major Division – this classification represents only the thumb of each hand. It is the
ridge count of the loop and/or tracing of the whorl appearing in the thumb of each hand.
Sub-division of Major Classification
1. Loop Division
2. Whorl Division
3. Loop and Whorl Division
The Loop Division

If both thumbs are loop, the ridge count of the left thumb governs the symbols used to
designate the symbol for the right thumb. The right thumb is the numerator and the left thumb is
denominator.
The whorl Division

If both thumbs are whorl, it is indicated as I (inner), M (meeting), and O, (outer)

The loop and whorl Division
When a whorl appears in one thumb a loop in the other, its value or symbols is indicated
respectively.
THE FINAL CLASSIFICATION

Final Classification - is the ridge count of the loop appearing in the right little finger. If
the loop does not appear in the right little finger, the loop in the left little finger may be used. If
both line fingers are loop, it could be considered and record both. But, the right little fingers
governs in the filing.
If the patterns appearing are whorls, a ridge court of whorl must be obtain in either or both
fingers.
THE KEY CLASSIFICATION

Key Classification – represents the ridge count of the first loop appearing in a set of
prints, beginning with the thumb of the right hand to the left hand, excluding the little fingers. No
matter where it is found, it is always writer at the extreme left of the numerator.
If the set of patterns are all whorls in all fingers, the key is obtained by making a ridge
count of the whorl appearing in the right thumb.
EXTENSION IN CALSSIFICATION
The second sub-secondary classification
Second Sub-secondary Classification – is at times required when a group of fingerprint
becomes voluminous, which further divides the sub-secondary. The second sub-secondary
classification is written directly above the sub-secondary. The sub-secondary classification is
indicated by the following symbols:
S - Small
M - Medium
L - Large
The second sub-secondary classification includes the index, middle, and ring fingers of
both hands. The symbols, S, M, L is indicated for the ridge count of each finger.
Ridge count Symbol

1-5 S
Index 6-12 M
13- or more L
Middle 1-8 S
9-14 M
15- or more L
Ring 1-10 S
11-18 M
19- or more L
3rd Sub-secondary
2nd Sub-secondary
Key Major Division Primary Secondary Sub-secondary Final
THE FBI WHORL EXTENSION

The WCDX Extension – are large groups of whorls. The FBI instituted an extension to
reduce the number of cards to be searched in each group. The extension is placed on the top of
the second sub-secondary or in lieu of the second sub-secondary.
The symbols used in the fingers, thumbs, index, middle, and ring are;
W - Plain Whorl

C - Central Pocket Loop

D - Double Loop
X - Accidental Whorl
The whorl patterns that appears in the index finger is represented by capital letter ―W‖.
all other fingers are represented by small letters c,d,x as the patterns may appear.
THE SPECIAL LOOP EXTENSION

In all loop group, utilizing the ridge counts in fingers 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, and 9 and if necessary,
finger 10.
Ridge Count Value

1 to 4 inclusive - 1
25 and over - 7
The values of the fingers in this extension are placed above the sub-secondary in their
respective positions.
CLASSIFICATION OF SCARRED PATTERNS – Amputations-Missing at Birth
Rules to follow in this classification:

When an impression is so scarred that either the general type of pattern nor ridge tracing
or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the impression should be given both the
general type value and the sub-classification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.
When the impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars above the core so that the
general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges allow reasonably
accurate sub-classifications by ridges tracing or counting, the impression should be given the
primary value of the pattern of the corresponding finger and the sub-classification values as
indicated by the ridges of partially scarred impressions.
When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be determined
with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or counted so as to fall within the
proper sub-secondary classification, the impression should be given the ridge count or tracing
value of the corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the general
type, if the corresponding finger is not of the same general type, the scarred impression should be
given the probable value and referred to all other possibilities.
When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of the pattern nor the ridge
tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it so happens that the
corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred, both patterns are given the arbitrary
value of whorls with meeting tracings.
REFERENCES:
 JUAN L. AGAS & RICARDO M. GUEVARA (2008), Criminology Glossary, Quezon

City, Philippines, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.

 JESUS BUENO VUNLUAN & JOSE MENDOZA BUENAVISTA (2006), Advance

Techniques in Dactyloscopy, Quezon City, Philippines, Wisema’s Books Trading, Inc.


CRIMINALISTICS
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY


FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
A CHROMATIC LEN – a lens which is partly corrected for chromatic aberration.

ANASTIGMATIC LENS – a lens which is free from astigmatism and other types of lens
defects. It has the ability to focus a vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.
ANTI-ATAINING AGENT- The acetic acid which neutralize the alcalie in the developer
carried over that will prevent the weakening of the fixing solution and the staining of the
image produced.
ASA RATING – refers to American Standards Association, expressed arithmetical value
system. The speed ratings in numbers are directly proportional to the sensitivity of the
material.
ASTIGMATISM – a lens defect which is the inability to focus both horizontal and vertical
plane at the same time or lines running in different directions.
BLACK LIGHT – refers to the absence of all colors of the spectrum.
BOX CAMERA – a light-tight container or box equipped with simple lens, a shutter and an
arrangement for holding film and provided with a viewfinder.
BRIGHT LIGHT – a natural light in which objects in open space casts a deep and uniform
shadow.
CABLE RELEASE – this is attached to the shutter to prevent accidental movement of the
camera during the exposure period especially when longer exposure is made.
CAMERA GRIP – a device used to hold firmly the camera so as to prevent the vibration or
movement of the camera during the exposure period. It is usually attached to the body of the
camera and something the flash unit is attach to it.
CENTRAL SHUTTER – a type of shutter that is usually located between the elements of the
lens, made of metal leaves and its action starts from the center toward the side, then closes
back to the center.
CROMATIC ABERRATION – refers to the ability to focus the different colors of light on film
at the same time.
CHROMATIC DIFFERENCE OF MAGNIFICATION – the inability of the lens to produce
image sizes of objects with different colors.
COMA – also referred to as lateral spherical aberration, it is a lens defect in which the rays
enters the lens obliquely.
CONTACT PRINT – it is a photographic positive made by exposing the photographic paper
while it is held tightly against the negative.
CONTACT PRINTER – a wood or metal box, including a light and a switch by which the
exposure time is controlled.
CONTRAST – it refers to the tonal difference between the lightest and darkest segment or
portion of a print.
CONTRAST FILTERS – used to change the relative brightness value sot that colors which
would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have different brightness in the picture.
CORRECTION FILTER – used to change the response of the film so that all colors are
recorded at approximately the relative brightness values as seen by the human eye.
CURVATURE OF FIELD – a lens defect manifested when the image formed by a lens comes
to a sharper focus on curved surface than on flat surface.
DARK ROOM – a room capable of being completely darkened or blacked out‖ which contains
tanks, running water, developing solutions, developing trays, a sink, washer dryer, enlarger,
printer and other apparatus necessary for the production of a finished photograph.
DEPTH OF FIELD – it is the remoteness or distance measured from the nearest to the farthest
object in apparent sharp focus when the lens set of focus is at a particular distance.
DEPTH OF FOCUS – it is the distance toward and away from the film that the lens can be
moved at a given f-value and the object still appears in interior.
DEVELOPING AGENTS – refers to solutions such as the amidol, hydroquinone and metol.
They differ in their action capability of maximum contrast and fineness of grains they
produce. Hydroquinone and metol are usually mixed to produce a developed. Hydroquinone is
an active developer and when used alone produces density. The image appears slowly but the

density proceeds rapidly after the image appears quickly but the density and contrast increased
slowly.
DEVELOPING SOLUTION – a chemical concoction, which causes the image on the film to
develop out as a reverse image of the original scene or object photographed.
DEVELOPING THE FILM – it is a method wherein a film is removed from the camera in a
darkened place and treated with certain liquid chemical so that a permanent negative is
produce. It is the process of reduction in which exposed silver halides are reduced to metallic
silver, affected by agitation, concentration of chemicals, exposure and temperature.
DIN RATING – refers to Deutche Industi Normen rating, expressed in logarithmic value
system. In this system, an increase of three degrees doubles the sensitivity of the film.
DISTORTION – a lens defect in which outer parts of the image produced by the lens will be
magnified either more or less than the center image.
DULL LIGHT – a form of natural light in which objects in open space casts no shadows.
EMULSION – consisting of light-sensitive silver salts in a gelatin medium and used to coat
photographic film and papers.
ENLARGING - it is the process of making large pictures from small negatives.
EXPOSURE – refers to the product of illumination and time. The amount of light that affects
the sensitized materials can be controlled by the lens aperture or lens opening and duration of
illumination can be controlled by the shutter speed of the camera.
EXPOSURE METER – an instrument, which actually measures the intensity of light falling on
the subject.
EXTENSION TUBE – a device use in photographing a minute objects. It is attached to the lens
board of the camera and the lens is attached to it when close-up photographing is necessary.
FERROTYPE PLATE – refers to a sheet of brass which has chromium-plated surface on one
sided used for producing a highly glossed and smooth surface.
FILM – a light sensitive material that is placed inside a camera to store any image the camera
focuses.
FILM ADVANCER – necessary so that the exposed film can be wind or transferred to the take
up stool and the unexposed film will be on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.
FILM HOLDER – essential part of the camera that grips the film firmly inside the camera. It is
always located at the opposite side of the lens of any camera.
FILTER – a colored gelatin or homogenous medium which absorbs or transmits differentially
light rays passing through it.
FIXATION – refers to the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the
emulsion after the first image of development of the latent image.
FIXING BATH – it is known as ―hypo‖ and its purposes are to harden the gelatin and striking
lens, to be bent inward.
GRAIN SIZE – refers to silver halides which are light sensitive and impregnated in the
emulsion exists as small crystal and upon development are converted to pure silver granules.
GROUND GLASS – it is focused directly observing the image formed at the ground glass
screen, placed behind the taking lens.
HARDENING AGENT – refers to potassium alum that solidifies the gelatin of the sensitized
materials which was soften in the developing solution.
HAZE FILTER – used to remove or reduce the effect of smog or mist.
HAZY LIGHT – a form of natural light in which objects in open space casts a transparent
shadow.
HOLDER OF SENSITIZED MATERIAL – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its
function is to firmly hold the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the
formation of a multiple or blurred image of the subject.
HYPERFOCAL DISTANCE – the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
INFRARED LIGHT – infrared light are lights having wave lengths greater than 700
millimicrons. Its wave length ranges from 700 to 800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color or
any kind of red. It is an invisible ray and detected by the skin as heat.
IRIS DIAPHRAGM – it is a contrivance built into the lens mount, which may be opened and
closed to control the passage of light through a lens.

LENS – an essential part of the camera which is used to focus the light coming from the subject,
it is mainly responsible for the sharpness of the image formed through which light passes
during exposure.
LENS BOARD – it is a square of metal or small panel upon which the lens barrel containing the
diaphragm and lens elements is threaded.
LENS DIAPHRAGM – controls the amount of the light that passes through the lens.
LENS HOODS OR LENS SHADES – are generally sections of tubular plastic of aluminum,
which are attached to the forward end of a lens barrel for purpose of preventing stray light
striking the lens causing ―flares‖ or ―ghosts‖ on the negative.
LEVER TYPE SHUTTER – refers to a plane blade on the end of a handle that covers the entire
lens quite tightly; excluding all light.
LIGHT – a form of energy and that energy is electromagnetic in nature. It excites the retina of
the eye. Light makes things visible needed to produce a photograph. The speed of light is
always constant. The average speed of light is 186,000 miles per second. However, the wave
length of the rays of light may vary considerably.
LIGHT FILTERS – refers to photographic accompaniments which screen or filters part of the
light rays passing through it.
LIGHT METER – a device use in determining the intensity of light that strike the subjects and
effect the film. This light meter can be an extinction meter or photo electric meter.
LIGHT SENSITIVITY – also known as the speed of the film. Such speed of the film is
determined thru its ASA numbers or DIN numbers given by the film manufacturers. The
literal meaning of ASA is American Standard and Association and the DIN is German
Industrial Standard. The former express the speed in numbers thru arithmetical system and the
later thru logarithmic systems.
LIGHT TIGHT BOX – the body of the camera which is an enclosure devoid of light.
MICRO-PROTOGRAPHS – are commonly employed in certain commercial records systems.
Through this text, micro-photographs designate copies made on 35 mm, and smaller size
films.
MICRO-PHOTOGRAPHY – it is the facsimile of photographs in which the image of an
objects is reproduced much smaller that it actually is.
NEGATIVE – it I an exposed film, being a reverse of the original object.
NEGATIVE LENS – refers to a concave lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is
thinner on the middle that the edge and formed a virtual image on the same side of the lens. It
does not require focusing at all as will everything be sharp, upright and clear, no matter how
close or far away the objects is. It is also known as a diverging lens because of its power to
diverge rays of light that passes through it.
NORMAL LENS – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more that
twice the diagonal of its negative material.
NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – used for reducing or decreasing the amount of light
transmitted without changing the color value.
ORTHOCHROMATIC – films sensitive to ultra-violet rays, blue and green color but not
sensitive to red color.
PANCHROMATIC FILM – films sensitive to ultra-violet rays, to blue, green and red color.
PARALLAX – it is the process of looking at an object closely with one eye and the other and
finding that the object is not seen from the same angle and has a different apparent position or
shape.
PHOTOGRAPH – a reproduction made with a camera and light-sensitive material.
PHOTOGRAPIC NEGATIVE – produced or developed by exposing the film in a camera. The
term ―negative‖ is derived from the appearance of the transparency. The lightest portions of
the original appear the darkest in the negative.
PHOTOGRAPIC POSITIVE – it is a print produced by passing light through the negative,
generally into photographic paper. The tonal values are directly proportional to those of the
original, that is, light areas of the original appearing light, and same is true with the dark ones
with dark areas.
PHOTOGRAPHY – an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the
action of light upon sensitized materials with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the
chemical processes involved therein.

PHOTOMACROGRAPHS – refers to photographs showing objects blown up or enlarged up to

around fifty diameters.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS – it is a photograph made to a compound microscope and maybe a
greatly enlarged image of a small part.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – refers to photography showing initial magnifications when the
camera is used in relation with a microscope.
POLARIZING FILTER – a type of filter used to reduce or eliminate reflections on highly
reflective surfaces.
POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY – an art or science that deals with the study of principles of
photography, the preparation of the photographic evidence and its application to police work.
POSITIVE LENS – a convex lens, which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker on the
middle than the edge and formed a real image on the opposite side of the lens. It has a positive
focal length and bends the light rays together which make it as a converging lens.
PRESERVATIVE – used to protect the developing agents against aerial oxidations. Usually the
preservative chemical is sodium sulfite, that will prevent the formation of staining developer
products, acts as a silver solvent and increases the rate of development and density. Without
this preservative, the developing solution becomes weak and stain the gelatin during the
development process.
PRINTING – it refers to the production of a print from a negative by causing light to pass all the
way through the negative and strike a light-sensitive printing paper which is developed later to
give a finished photograph.
PRINTING PAPER – it is light-sensitive paper, which is not transparent and will provide dense
black and not clear whites.
PROJECTION PRINT – It is a pattern made in an enlarger with a different speed and with the
used of a more light-sensitive paper.
RANGE FINDER – refers to optical mechanism utilized for measuring the angle of
convergence of light coming from a subject as seen from two apertures.
RAPID RECTILINEAR LENS – a combination of two achromatic lens with almost the same
focal length. This is corrected from some kinds of lens defects but not on astigmatism defect.
RELATIVE APERTURE – refers to the light gathering power of the lens, expressed in the F-
number system. By increasing or decreasing the f-number numerically it may control: the
depth of field, the amount of light passing through the lens and the degree of sharpness due to
lens defect.
RETICULATION – it is a negative having rough surface which resembles a ―crackle finish‖
point.
SENSITIZED MATERIAL – the results of photography in its final form is a photograph. The
materials necessary to produce a positive print is a sensitized paper. Its emulsion is coated to
opaque materials like paper.
SHUTTER – it is a gadget, used to block the path of light passing through the lens and
exposing the sensitized material.
SHUTTER SPEED – controls the duration of light passing through the lens.
SIMPLE MINISCUS LENS – this lens is usually found in simple or box camera. It is
uncorrected lens and therefore suffering from inherent defects of lenses.
SINGLR LENS REFLEX TYPE – this type of camera will eliminate the parallax error and it
will work well with all lenses. Never the less, the single lens reflects type is more complex
and liable to break down due to the mirror which give way every time an exposure is made. It
is difficult to focus especially under dim light conditions.
SOLVENT SILVER HALIDE – refers to sodium thiosulfite popularly known as hypo solution.
The function of the hypo solution is to remove the unexposed silver halide.
SPHERICAL ABERRATION – a lens defect in which photographic rays passing through the
edges of a lens are bent and refracted more sharply than those passing through the central part
of the lens.
STANDARD PHOTOGRAPH – any file photograph which is not a microphotograph. A
standard photograph is made in film sizes of 2 ¼ by 1 ¼ inches or larger.
TELEPHOTO LENS - refers to a unique type of lens with a focal length of more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material.

TRIPOD – it is a triple leg device which is adjustable to any reasonable extension. This can be
used in holding the camera when the camera is bulky or when using a shutter speed lower than
one twenty five of a second to prevent the movement that will produce a blurred images in a
photographs.
TWIN LENS REFLEX TYPE – the twin lens reflex camera has two lenses, one for the
viewing and focusing of the objects, and the other is the taking lens. In this type of camera the
image being photograph can be seen in flat surface as reflected by the mirror behind the
viewing lens. The viewing screen will help the photographer in the accurate composition of
the object to photograph as her look into the camera at his waist level.
ULTRAVIOLET LAMP – a gas lamp burning carbon disulphide vapor in oxygen or in nitric
oxide.
ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPH – it refers to any photographs, which records documents
under ultraviolet light or illumination.
ULTRAVIOLET RAYS – radiations having the wavelength of 30 to 400 milli-microns.
VIEW FINDERS – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of
the coverage of the lens.
VIEW FINDER TYPE – the smaller and the simplest type of camera is the view finder camera.
Its view finder framed the objects that will be recorded on the film. Usually it is made of a
simple lens located at the peep hole of the camera. Very often the focusing system of this type
of camera is in the view finder itself, otherwise, the camera is a fixed focus one. This type of
camera can provide an excellent focusing system, especially at dim light condition.
VIEW OR PRESS CAMERA TYPE – the biggest and the most sophisticated among the
different type of cameras.
VISIBLE LIGHT – rays having the wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-microns.
WIDE ANGLE LENS – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
WHITE LIGHT – it is the combination of all the colors in the rainbow or spectrum, mixed in
the same proportions as they occur there.
X-RAYS – radiations having a wavelength between .01 to 30 nanometer or millimicrons,
produced by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
ZONE – possible in wide angle lenses in which there are only three sets of focusing close (3 to 6
feet), medium (6 to 15 feet) and infinity (15 feet and beyond).
ZOOM LENS – this lens has a variable focal lengths which can be adjusted continuously by the
movement of one or more elements in the lens system known as the variable focus lens.
I. THEORIES AND CONCEPT

Investigative and evidence photography has gone through three evolutions. The first one
was Daguerreotype photography. The second evolution was film photography. The third
evolution is digital photography.
Photography is all about capturing light on a photographic emulsion or electronic
sensor.
Photography was derived from the Greek word ― photos‖ ( which means ―light‖ and ―
―graphos’ ( which mean ― to write, to draw or sketch).
The recorded events and people in the form of a photograph when used as exhibit in court
is termed as forensic photography.
According to (Redsicker 2001), Forensic Photography is the art or science of
documenting photographically a crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and
analysis for purposes of court trial.
Therefore photography best translates to ―write with light‖. (Herschel 1839)
Basic importance of crime photography:

1. Refresh memory
2. Preserve time and event
3. Save money
USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN INVESTIGATE WORK
1. Identification

2. Record
3. Presentation
4. Substitution
5. Deciding Factor
Five elements considered in photography are:

 Light or electromagnetic radiation, the source of it may either be natural or artificial
light.
 Camera- a light tight box which maybe of different type, size and use.
 Sensitized materials- materials which are sensitive to light such as the films and
photographic paper.
 Chemical process -a process in photography which involves use of chemicals to develop
and fix latent prints on the film and to develop and fix images onto photographic paper.
The process also involves time, temperature, concentration of solutions and degree of
agitation
 Subject or object- this refers to animate and inanimate things- persons or materials which
shall be the subject or object of photography.
HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
Equipment- 1700- Camera Obscura was designed by Leonardo da Vinci for accurate
perspective and scale.
Chemicals- 1725-1777- Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution had
been discovered and investigated.
1800- Thomas Wedge wood and Humphery Davy – produced photograms.The
Photography accomplished by:
Joseph Nicephore Niepce 1816- was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitixed with
silver chloride solution.
Louis Jacques Daguerre – 1839- ― Daguerreotype‖- The first practical photography
process. Image was made permanent by the use of hypo.
William Henry Fox Talbot- 1841- he patented ― calotype‖ process negatives on paper
sensitized with silver-iodide and silver nitrate. These were contact on sensitized paper . As you
tone and revolving power, Daguerreotype was better.
James Clark Maxwell-1861 – he researched on colors and coined the word ― photography‖
a) 1907 – Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue,
green, and red filter.
b) 1914 – US Eastman Kodak introduced two (2) color subtractive processes called
Kodachrome. Twenty one (21) years later, a three (3) color process came out.
c) 1935 – Electronic flash unit came out.
d) 1947 – Edwin H. Land introduced ―POLAROID,‖ a one step photography.
e) 1960. Laser was invented making possible holography.
1482- The earliest known form of camera, Camera OBSCURA, was described by Leonardo
da Vinci of Italy.
An Italian, Geronimo Cardano- fitted a biconvex lens to the Camera Obscura in 1550 and
in 1568, Daniel Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the image.
1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze- a German physician was credited with the discovery of
the light sensitivity of silver salt.
1777- Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the darkening of silver
chloride by light and found out tha the salt was reduced to metallic silver.
1835- French Dagurre discovered that mercury fume will develop an invisible (latent)
image on a silver plate that is sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.
Talbot process or Talbotype process, is a process wherein the paper was sensitized with
silver iodide and after exposure was developed in Gallic acid. The modern photography is based
on Talbot‘s Negative – to - Positive principle.
1839- is generally known as the birth of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot explained
a process he had invented (Calotype) at the Royal Society of London. The ―Calotype‖ used paper
with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

Sir John F.W. Herschel coins the word ―photography‖;

1839- Daguerreotype consisted of two wooden boxes perfected his photographic process.
Images are made permanent by the use of hypo. The precision of details and exquisite beauty of
these direct-positive images on silver plates make the Daguerreotype an immediate success.
1861- First single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas Sulton.
1880-The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R. & J. Beck.
Eastman George, an American inventor, manufactured a dry plate process in 1880, the roll
film in 1884 and made itavailable to market in 1889, and the Kodak camera in 1888, (6 ½ X 3 ½
X 3 ½) 3 ½ to infinity, 100 exposure.
1880- England. Sir William Abney discovers the use of hydroquinone as a developing
age.
1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive process called
Kodachrome.
1934- Holland. The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.
1947, US. Edwin H. Land introduce the Polaroid Camera- a one step photography with a
self-processing black-and-white film that yields a positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal
method.
1988- the arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded the
image as a computerized file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB
internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory.
THE LIGHT AS IMPORTANT ELEMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY
LIGHT is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be detected by the naked eye.
Visible light is only one very small part of the vast spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.
186,000 miles/sec. – velocity/ speed of light
16,000 to 18,000 ft./sec. – bullets speed
―Effect‖ of light is what we see.
Electromagnetic spectrum – band of colors/energy
ELECTRO MAGNETIC RADIATION ARE:

a. Radio Waves
b. Infra-Red Radiation
c. Visible Light
d. Ultra-violet Light
e. X-rays
f. Gamma Rays
―WAVELENGHT‖- is the distance measured from the crest (highest point) to the wave
of the next succeeding crest while frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in
one second.
Measured in millimicrons and nanometer…….1/1000,000,000,000
.01-30nm---x-rays
30-400nm.---ultra-violet rays
400-700nm---visible light
700-1000-2000nm---infra red rays
This all are capable of introducing change into the photographic emulsion
―White‖ – presence of all colors
― Black‖—absences of all colors
THREE PRIMARY COLORS OF LIGHT:

1. Blue-----400-500nm.
2. Green—500-600
3. Red---600-700
Secondary color of light ( complementary color)- minus one color from white light
a. Blue + green = CYAN
b. Blue + red = MAGENTA
c. Cyan + green= YELLOW

Filter –subtract
COLOR FILTER- work in such a way that it will transmit its own color and absorbs all other
colors.
BLUE FILTER- additive –transmits Blue
- Admits Green and red
- C+Y+ Green
‗‘ RAT LAW‖
R--- Reflection ( most likely to happened) –refers to the different capability to reflection ,
absorption and transmission.
A---Absorption
T---Transmission
Manners of bending of Light:

1. Reflection-the rebounding or the detection of light as hits the surface.
2. Refraction – bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction- bending of lights when it strikes the edge of an opaque object.
--occurs when light passes through a narrow slit. If there were no diffraction, the image of the slit
would be geometrically similar to the slit itself.
THE FOLLOWING ARE LIGHTS IMPORTANT IN PHOTOGRAPHY

INFRARED LIGHTS. These are light having a wavelength greater than 700
millimicrons. Its wavelength ranges from 700-800 millimicrons. Infrared is not a color or any
kind of red. It is an invisible ray and detected by the skin as HEAT. It is called ―Infra-Red‖
because they sojourn below the red spectrum.
1. VISIBLE LIGHT. The range of the visible light produces different sensation when they
strike the human eye. Colors of different object are usually mixtures of light of various
wavelengths and not a special color. The wavelength of visible light is from 400-700
millimicrons, which produces a white light. Visible light makes objects visible and produces
color.
When light falls on object or material, three phenomenons will arise. They are:
a. ABSORPTION. This is the transmission of light on any material as it passes through it.
objects that caused absorption are TRANSPARENT OBJECT.
b. REFLECTION. The bouncing back of light upon hitting an object or material. Objects that
caused reflection are OPAQUE OBJECT.
c. REFRACTION. This is the change of direction of light as it passes on an object or
materials. REFRACTION occurs on TRANSLUCENT OBJECT.
2. ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT. The ultra-violet light is divided into near and far ultra-violet
and ranges from about 200 to 400 millimicrons wavelength. This ray of light is also invisible
like the infrared. Its position falls between X-ray and Visible wavelength. Ultra-violet rays
from the sun create a layer of ozone (a special form of oxygen) to protect the living organism
on earth.
Its importance in photographic works is the underlying notion in ultra-violet
photography, where an object who possess ultra-violet constituents give up energy in the
form of visible light that produces fluorescence objects if special lighting is applied.
3. X-RAYS. Is electromagnetic energy having a wavelength that ranges from 10 to 30
millimicrons. Object, which is opaque as seen by the naked eye, can be penetrated by x-rays.
To produce a shadow photograph of an internal structure of solid objects, X-RAYS is
suitable.
THE SOURCES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS

There are two sources of light:
They are known as the NATURAL and ARTIFICIAL light. Natural Light are lights which
come to existence without the intervention of man, and an Artificial Light are lights which are

manmade. In photography, natural light is used for outdoor photography and artificial light is
used for indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.
The lighting contrast depends upon the sunlight available in the daylight; when the sun is
not covered by clouds, then the contrast is HIGH. On the contrary, if the sun is covered with
clouds the contrast is LOW. In the process of photographing an object, the lighting condition
and contrast must be considered in the exposures of the film. It is suggested that the
recommendation given by the manufacturer of the film be observed religiously to produce good
and quality photographs.
NATURAL – sunlight, moonlight, lightning & etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF DAYLIGHT ACCORDING TO ITS INTENSITY:
1. Bright Sunlight
2. Hazy Sunlight
3. Dull Sunlight
Factors affecting the color of daylight:
1. Atmospheric vapour- tends to color the daylight orange.
2. Atmospheric dust filters- the sun rays and scatters rays of the shorter wavelengths more
than those of longer wavelength.
3. Part of the light reaching the subject does not come directly from the sun but reflected.
Daylight Classification according to Intensity:

A. Bright sunlight- objects in open soace cast a deep & uniform or distinct shadow. Objects in
open space appear glossy and the colors are saturated.
a. Direct sunlight coming from the sky which serves as reflector
b. Reflected light
B. Hazy sunlight – cast a transparent shadow.
C. Dull sunlight- no longer cast shadow.
a. Cloudy bright
b. Cloudy dull
ARTIFICIAL LIGHT. Almost all-artificial light sources can be used in photographing of
objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing the sensitized materials. The following are
types of artificial light for photography
PHOTOFLOOD LAMP – a reflectorized light or spotlight.
FLASH BULB – are chemical lamps, as they generate lights by the rapid combustion of metal in
oxygen.
ELECTRONIC FLASH – it produces light by instantaneous electrical discharges between two
electrodes in a gas filled glass bulb.
1. FLUORESCENT LAMPS – are tube lamps wherein the walls are coated with materials
capable of fluorescing.
2. INFRARED LAMPS – special type of artificial light that is capable of producing infrared
radiation.
3. ULTRA-VIOLET LAMPS – is a gas lamp burning disulfide vapor in oxygen or in nitric
oxide.
THE CAMERA AS ELEMENT OF PHOTOGRAPHY

CAMERA may be defined as a light tight box, with a means of forming the image (lens),
holding sensitized materials (film holder), and with a means of controlling the amount of light
that reach the film. It is a device used in photographing objects.
1. FOUR ESSENTIAL PARTS OF CAMERA
A. Light Tight Box. This part of the camera is very essential because of its capability to
exclude all unwanted light that may expose the sensitized materials or film. It is an
enclosure that devoid lights.
B. Lens. The lens is the only responsible in focusing the rays of light coming from the
subject. It is one of the most important parts of camera, because without lens, it is
impossible to form a sharp image on a film.

C. Film Holder. The film holder holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always
located at the opposite side of the lens of the camera.
D. Shutter. The shutter served as the barriers of the rays of light that will enter and effect
the film inside the camera. It usually placed at the path of the light passing thru the lens.
OTHER PARTS OF THE CAMERA

1. Viewing system 4. Lens aperture
2. Film Advancer 5. Focusing mechanism
3. Shutter Speed
MAJOR TYPES OF CAMERA

1. VEIWFINDER TYPE. The smallest and simplest type of camera. This is also known as
Instamatic camera. Viewfinder camera suffers parallax error.
2. SINGLE LENS REFLEX. The best way to determine the entire coverage of the camera is
to look behind the lens of the camera. In this manner, the object can be framed properly and
recorded on the film. This type of camera eliminates the problem on parallax error.
3. TWIN LENS REFLEX TYPE. Basically, the twin lens reflex camera has two lenses, one
for the viewing and focusing of the subject, and the other is the taking lens. In this type of
camera, the image to be photograph is seen as flat surface as the image is reflected by the
mirror behind the viewing lens. This suffers also parallax error.
4. VIEW OR PRESS TYPE CAMERA. The biggest and most sophisticated among the
different type of camera. This type of camera is practically useless for candid and action
photography.
5. SPECIAL CAMERAS. These are cameras that have been devised that offer unique
advantage or serve special purposes. Among the special cameras are:
a. Polaroid
b. Panoramic Cameras
c. Aerial Cameras
d. Miniature and Ultra-miniature Cameras
e. Digital Cameras (using computer processing)
6. GRAPHIC CAMERA – is also a view camera, but it is smaller and designed to be folded up
when not in used.
4 inch x 5 inch – graphic camera was the favorite camera of police and newspaper
Advantages of Graphic Camera:

The image can be observed in the ground glass before it is taken.
1. The negative can be printed by the contrast method.
2. By means of holders, only a single film has be taken if that is all that is needed.
7. Miniature 35 mm cameras
German Leica- was the first 35 mm camera was designed to use motion picture film
manufactured in great quantity for the cinema and very cheap.
Two (2) principal kinds of miniature 35 mm camera

a. Range finder
b. Single lens reflex
Advantage:
A. Cheap
B. Handy
C. Capable producing photographs as good as that of a large camera
Disadvantage:
a. More care and more painstaking in processing should be considered.
b. User must use enlarger since negatives are too small( 1x1-1/2)
8. DIGITAL CAMERA
Five basic features of a camera:
The following are the parts that enable the instrument to perform properly:
A. VIEWING SYSTEM

- Normally consisting of a lens or set of lenses, permits the photographer to see that part of a
scene the camera can record on the film. This will also view the scene it will record and will
frame the area his camera can record when pointed in a certain direction.
Parallax Error- is the discrepancy between the view finder lens and that projected onto the film
by the camera`s picture taking lens.
Instamatic:
1. Fixed diaphragm & lens opening
2. Fixed focus
3. Fixed shutter speed
B. FOCUSING SYSTEM- the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp
image.Works mechanically to move the lens closer to or farther away the film, & make the
image sharp or blurred as it strikes the film surface.
How to determine focus of camera:

1. Scale bed or focusing scale
2. Range finders ( coupled with the mica finder)
a. Split image- out of focus using ground glass
b. Co-incident image
3. Ground glass with Penta prism
C. SHUTTER- it is a kind of shied or curtain, opens and closes at various speeds to control
exposure; that is it measures the length of time during which light enters the camera and
strikes the film surface.
Two (2) kinds of Shutter:

1. Leaf shutter- located in the lens ( between the lens shutters)
2. Focal plane shutter- ( operate near the focal plane of the camera) directly in front of the
film.
Difference between the Leaf shutter and Focal plane shutter:

The manner in which the light is permitted to strikes the film. When a Leaf shutter is used
the exposure light is spread over the whole negative, but it builds up intensity to a peak and then
diminished. While the Focal plane shutter- maintains constant light, while allowing the
negative to be exposed sequentially in segments.
D. APERTURE- like a shutter is a device for controlling the amount of light. It works not in a
measured unit of time, but by the measured size of the opening through which light enters
camera via the lens. The aperture usually has a form of over lapping thin metal leaves
arranged in a circle, which called the diaphragm.
Diaphragm- a mechanical device, it can be made to expand or contrast and thus to
admit into the camera greater and smaller amount of light.
E. LENS - gather light rays reflected from the scene or subject being photographed and
project them onto the film surface as a completely reversed image.
Positive lens- is a converging lens which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the
center than the edges and therefore has appositive focal length.
Negative lens- a diverging lens is always thinner at the center than the edges.
Classification of Lenses according to Focal length:
Wide angle- less than the diagonal of its material.
Normal lens- equal but not more than twice the length of the diagonal of the material.
Long or telephoto lens- it has a focal length equal to more than twice the diagonal of the
negative material.
Zoom lens- lens of variable focal length can be adjusted continuously by the movement of one
or more groups of elements in the lens system.
Fish eye lens- a lens with 180 degree angle of coverage.

THE LENS DEFECT.LENS defect is also known as ABERRATION. Aberration is a lens

fault in which light rays are not focused properly thereby degrading the image. Different
types of aberration are:
1. CHROMATIC ABERRATION. Lens aberration in which light of different wavelength is
focused at different distances behind the lens. It can be corrected by combining different
types of glass lens.
2. SPHERICAL ABERRATION. Light rays from the subject on the lens axis passing through
off-center areas of the lens focus at different distances from the light rays that pass directly
through the center of the lens.
3. COMA. A lens aberration in which off-axis light rays focus as different distances when they
pass through different areas of the lens.
4. ASTIGMATISM. A lens aberration in which light rays that pass obliquely through the lens
are focused, not as a point but as a line.
5. FIELD OF CURVATURE. The plane of sharpest focus is a curved rather that flat surface
needed in the film plane.
THE FILM FILTER AND EXPOSURE

SURFACE SENSITIVE TO LIGHT
FILMS and PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS are surfaces sensitive to light. FILMS contain
minute grains of silver halide suspended on animal gelatine and coated with celluloid materials.
It has two main parts, namely;
(a) EMULSION
(b) BASE.
FILMS ARE COMPOSED OF:
A. Thin coat of animal gelatine
B. Base
C. Emulsion
D. Anti-halation backing
FILMS are classified according to its form and types. Basically, films that are available in
the market today are of various forms.
They are in: ROLLS, CARTRIGES and CUT SHEETS.
Light sensitivity of the film is also known as the SPEED OF THE FILM. Such speed as
previously discussed is determined through ASA, ISO or DIN.
Exposure- is the product of illumination and time.
Exposure:
 The lower paper grade the faster is the speed.
 The denser the negative the longer is the exposure.
TYPES OF FILM
1. FAST SPEED FILM. When the available light is dim, this type film is the best choice
because of the low reflecting power of the subject against a reflecting background, which is
low in contrast but high in brightness.
2. PANCHROMATIC FILM. This is sensitive to all colors specially to blue and violet.
There are three (3) classes of Panchromatic film:
a. Processed Panchromatic Film
b. Grain Panchromatic Film
c. High-speed Panchromatic Film
3. INFRARED FILMS. A special type of film which is sensitive to infrared radiation.
4. COLORED FILM. A mixture of the three basic colors of the visible spectrum
5. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM. Film sensitive to all colors except red.
6. X-RAY FILM. A film, which is sensitive to x-ray region of the electromagnetic spectrum.
7. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM. A film specially treated that make more sensitive to blue rays
of light. This is suitable for ultra-violet photography.
Emulsion Speed - all films except those used in instamatic camera have a film speed or
emulsion speed.

Indications for emulsion speed:

1. ASA rating – American Standard Association (expressed in arithmetical value)
2. DIN rating – Deutsche Industrie Normen (expressed in logarithmic value)
3. ISO rating – International Standard Organization (expressed in arithmetical value)
4. JSI – Japanese Institute of Standards
5. BSI- British Standard International.
Major Classifications of Film speed by average ASA & DIN ratings are:
a) Slow films – about 32 ASA (16/10 DIN), which require a high light level;
b) Medium films – about 125 ASA (22/10 DIN), which are used in average or normal
light situations, such as outdoors on a sunny day. (The most common).
c) Fast films – about 400 ASA (27/10 DIN) which are needed when the light level is low –
very cloudy, rainy day, or indoors under available light.
- or when fast shutter speed is required to stop action.
d) Extra-fast films – About 800 ASA (30/10 DIN) which are used only when the other
types of film are too slow – under the dimmest light conditions or when the fastest possible
shutter speeds are necessary.
SENSITIZED PAPER
Three important aspects:
1. Type of emulsion- chloride, bromide & chlorobromide
2. Contrast range - low, normal, hard & very hard
3. Physical characteristics- thickness, surface, finish and color
Each type of emulsion has its own substance and uses in the preparation of photograph.
These emulsions are:
4. Silver chloride emulsion
5. Silver bromide solution
6. Silver chloro-bromide solution
Photo paper is made with different characteristics. These are the combination of
thickness and finish.
The texture may be:
a. Smooth b. glossy c. rough or linen
The choice of photo paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of photographs to be
made. Black and white object is usually printed in white base photo paper. Reproduction of
photo would give satisfactory result if printed on glossy white photo paper. For portrait photo, a
cream paper base photo is necessary and recommended. For LAW ENFORCEMENT, the
smooth photo paper is necessary so that detail of the image appears and appreciated by the
viewers.
THE FILTERS
FILTERS are a homogenous medium, which absorbs and transmits differentially light
rays passing through it. A color filter works in such a way that it will transmit its own color and
absorbs all other colors. By using filter in combination of black and white films, the
photographer can control tonal values to get a technically correct condition or to exaggerate, or
suppress the tonal differences for visibility, emphasis and other effects. With color films, filters
are used to change the color quality of the exposing light to secure proper color balance with the
film being used.
THE FILTER FACTOR

Because filter subtract some of the light passing through the lens, an increase in exposure
time or lens opening is necessary. The number of times that the normal exposures must be
multiplied is called FILTER FACTOR.
TYPES OF FILTER IN BLACK AND WHITE PHOTOGRAPHY
A. Correction filter. Is used to change the response of film so that all colors are recorded as
approximately the relative brightness values seen by the eyes.

B. Contrast Filter. Used to change the relative brightness vales so that two colors which
would otherwise be recorded as nearly the same will have decidedly different brightness in
picture.
C. Haze Filter. Used to eliminate or reduce the aerial haze.
D. Neutral Density Filter. Used for reducing the amount of light transmitted without changing
the color value.
E. Polarizing Filter. Used to reduce or eliminate reflections on highly reflective surfaces.
CHEMICAL PROCESSING:
1. DEVELOPMENT- is the process of reduction. Exposed silver halides are reduced into
metallic silver. There is a separate developer for film ( D-76) and another for paper ( Dektol).
The factors that affect developing time are:

a. Agitation
b. Temperature
c. Concentration of chemicals
d. exposure
2. STOP BATH- an intermediate bath between the developer and the fixer. It is usually a
combination of water plus acetic or just plain water.
3. FIXATION—the process of removing unexposed silver halide remaining in the emulsion
after the first stage of development of the latent image. The usual composition of an acid
fixing solution are solvent silver halide known as hypo, an anti- staining agent like acetic
acid, a preservation like sodium sulphate, and a hardening agent like potassium alum.
4. WASHING on running water.
Chemical composition of developer:
1. Reducers or developing agents
2. Preservative- sodium sulphite
3. Accelerator- sodium carbonate
4. Restrainers – potassium bromide
Chemical composition of a fixer:

1. Dissolving agent- hypo or sodium thiosulphate
2. Preservative
3. Neutralizer- boric acid, acetic acid
4. Hardener- potassium alum
THINGS NEEDED FOR THE DARKROOM

DARKROOM- is a photographic laboratory from which all actinic light ( radiation which
causes chemical effect) may be excluded when necessary.
The term ― darkroom‖ means ( literal meaning) a room which is dark and in which light-
sensitive materials maybe handled without fear of accidental exposures.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A DARKROOM:

1. The Room- size of the darkroom is dependent on the size of the police department. In
bigger police department, it must have:
- 1 small room for film developing
- 1 room for enlarging and printing
- Room for finishing processes
2. Work Areas- bench tops should be chemically inert, watertight and resistant to abrasions
3. Storage
4. Plumbing
5. Electrical outlet and lighting
6. Ventilation
BASIC DARKROOM EQUIPMENT:

1. Flash accessory- used to augment lighting condition to subjects being photographed.

2. Safe lights- safelights are enclosed light sources equipped with a filter. It transmit to a
maximum amount of light which is of a color that will not damage sensitized materials.
3. Trays- used for washing negatives and photographs
4. Tanks- ( film developing tanks
5. Mechanical washers- to wash prints in a continuous and changing water bath.
6. Timers- used to set time during film development
7. Print dryers- used to dry processed photographs.
8. Enlargers- equipment used to permeate image to photographic paper.
9. Tripod- used to hold the camera firmly to avoid camera shake during operation.
10. Clothesline clips- used to clip photograph to dry.
11. Easel board – used to guide the photographer with regards to position and size of image
being printed.
The following ― ING‖ CARDINALS IN FILM DEVELOPMENT ARE:
1. Developing
2. Washing/ rinsing
3. Stop bathing
4. Fixing
5. Drying
ENLARGING TECHNIQUE
After processing an exposed film into a negative, the next step would be to turn the
negative into a positive print or copy. This could be done by either contact printing or projection
printing.
There are four essential parts of an enlarger:
1. A base and stand
2. A lamp house
3. A condenser or diffuser
4. Negative holder and an easel
The following are the steps in enlarging:

1. Preparation of the darkroom, chemicals and the enlarger
2. Put off white light, switch on red light
3. Place the negative in the negative holder with the dull side of the negative facing down
4. Insert the negative holder into enlarger
5. Switch on the enlarger`s light.
6. Adjust the easel to the desired size of the photograph.
7. Focus the lens of the enlarger.
8. Switch off the light of the enlarger.
9. Insert the photographic paper in the easel the shiny side facing up.
10. Make the exposure.
11. Immerse the exposed photographic paper in the developer. The usual developing time for a
normally exposed paper is about 1 to 1 ½ min.
12. Transfer the developed print in the stop bath for about 30 seconds.
13. Place the prints in the acid fixer. The fixing time is about to 30 minutes.
14. Wash the print in running water for about 20 to 30 minutes.
15. Drying
16. Mounting.
FIXERS
Chemical components:
1. Hypo
2. Sodium sulphate
3. Boric acid
4. Acetic acid
5. Potassium aluminium
The fixer for film and paper are the same (10-15)

WASHING- to remove hypo to prevent faded photograph

PRINTING- the shiny sides of the negative and the photograph paper should be facing each
other.
THE BEST EVIDENCE RULE AND PHOTOGRAPH

Photograph is not a legal substitute for the object or article itself, as EVIDENCE.
Nevertheless, all physical evidence should be photographed. A photograph of revolver will not
be accepted as evidence in court. The weapon itself must be brought to court – this is an essence
of.
The BEST EVIDENCE RULE.

The court recognizes that certain evidence cannot be brought to court. Buildings or roads
are examples. Other evidence change quickly. Vehicles using and passing on it will quickly
destroy skid marks on the highway. Wounds and bruises as evidence of injury will heal and
disappear before the case comes to trial. Such nature or kind of evidence can be preserved by
PHOTOGRAPHY and introduced in court as EVIDENCE.
PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION OF PHOTOGRAPHIC EVIDENCE

Each crime has individual features that should be photographed. Keep in mind that the
nature of the offense and the feature that establishes the elements of the offense is being shown.
Photographic Procedure:
1. The camera should be mounted on a steady tripod whenever possible to avoid camera
movement.
2. The camera should be levelled whenever commensurate with the particular photograph to be
taken.
3. Crime scene views include three (3) general classes. They are:
a. Long views
b. Medium views
c. Close-up views
4. Photographs should be taken progressively as the photographers enter the building or room to
avoid disturbing something that might otherwise remain unnoticed, and to maintain
continuity.
5. Views should be taken to illustrate the general location of the crime scene.
6. Definitely required is a view of the exterior of the building. It is well to include the street
number whenever possible.
7. Needed next is the complete photographic coverage of the interior rooms within the crime
area, which show the condition in general and relate the overall scenes too specific items and
places.
8. Bodies of victims should be photographed exactly as found from all angles, especially from
over head when this can be done for identification purposes. A close up photographs, one to
one if possible, should be taken on all wounds, bruises, discoloration, and abrasion generally
in black and white color.
9. Measuring devices such as rulers, yardsticks, and tape measures can be used to show the
relative size of and distance between objects and the degree of the magnification of an
enlargement. Measuring devices must not obscure the object to be shown, so it is placed at
the bottom or just below the object to show the relative size of objects in a photographic
exhibit.
10. Field Notes:
a. Record the date and time of arrival at the scene as well as the time of departure from the
scene.
b. Specifically record the location area, street number, and name of building, type of scene.
c. Write down the name, badge numbers of all investigative officers present during the
photographing.
d. Record specific information on each exposures, including the time of taking each picture
which can be expressed either using AM or PM or military type of timing.

11. Additionally, record the;

a. Direction camera pointed
b. General statement of the photographed object
c. Exposure or ASA rating
d. Kind of film used
e. Types of lighting utilized in photographing
PREPARING FOR COURT EXHIBIT

A picture offered as evidence should be FAITHFUL representation of the subject matter.
From the study of photographs, the viewer should receive an impression of the scene as object,
which does not mislead him in any important aspect. It should be free of unusual distortion of
lines of shapes and of any tone relationship. Important subject matter should be in sharp focus.
Admissibility:
Evidence photograph may be divided into two categories:
a. Those which represent objects of evidence and simply serve in place of an object or a
verbal description of it.
b. Those which are designed to prove a point or bearing on an issue in the case such as a
comparison photograph of evidence.
THE PHOTOGRAPHER IN COURT

In testifying, his purpose should be to EXPLAIN not to DEFEND his photograph. His
replies to queries should be directly responsive at all times. If he does not understand the
question, he should request clarification. When the nature of the question requires that he
consult his notes, he should request permission from the judge.
a. RELEVANCE AND MATERIALITY
Test for Determining the Relevancy
1. Photographs are admissible whenever they assist the court to understand the case.
2. Photographs are admissible when they assisted witness in explaining his testimony.
b. NECESSITY OF PRELIMINARY PROOF OF ACCURACY

A photograph taken in ordinary way usually is an accurate record of image cast by the
lens upon the film, but as distortion is possible through the manner in which the camera or
negative is used, a photograph is admitted as evidence when it is proven and there must always
preliminary proofs that it is a correct representation of the subject.
WHO MAY VERIFY PHOTOGRAPH

1. The better practice is to show the accuracy of the photographs by the photographer who
took them.
2. Any person having sufficient knowledge of the subject to say that the photograph is a
faithful representation thereof.
EFFECT OF VARIOUS PHOTOGRAPHIC CONDITIONS

A. Experience and skill of photographer
1. Amateur
2. Professional
B. Photographs are dependent for their accuracy upon the skill of the person making them and
the truthfulness of the one vouching for them. Interest and prejudice of the photographer
C. Condition and size of the taking apparatus. (efficacy of camera)
D. Marking the subject before photographing. Marking includes the following:
1. Chart or sign bearing identification data
2. Rulers or any measuring devices
3. Any animate or inanimate object used a position marker
4. Any substance used to intensify details which otherwise would not show up in the
photograph.
E. Development

F. Methods of Printing
G. Size of exhibit
H. Composite photographs
I. Retouched photographs
J. Marks and notations written on exhibits.
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY:

Three vantage points that must be considered by the investigator:
1. Long range or Over-all Range- photographs that show the entirely of the crime scene.
2. Midrange photographs- taken at the distance of 15 to 20 ft., which is intended to show the
relationship of the objects found inside the crime scene.
3. Close up range- one which shows the specific condition of the victim as the degree of
wound or the specific condition of the pieces of evidence on the crime scene.
Common requirements that makes the Photograph acceptable as Evidence in Court:

1. What is the relationship of the photo to the original?
2. Faithful representation of the subject as seen by the naked eyes.
3. Avoid Distortion- by using an appropriate film.
4. Camera- consider the subject position, whether condition etc.
- Consider limitation of your equipments.
REFERENCES:
 SALLY S. KALALANG (2009), Instructional Handbook on Police Photography w/

Laboratory Manual, Quezon City, Philippines, Wiseman‘s Books Trading.
 JUAN L. AGAS & RICARDO M. GUEVARA (2008), Criminology Glossary, Quezon City,
Philippines, Wiseman‘s Books Trading Inc.


CRIMINALISTICS
FORENSIC BALLISTICS


FORENSIC BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS
BALLISTICS is the science of the motion of projectiles; a branch of applied physics
which deals with the motion of projectiles. The term ballistics itself was derived from the Greek
word „BALLO’ which means literally to threw. Its root was implied or used in the name of an
early Roman War Machine called “ballista” – a gigantic bow or catapult which was then used to
hurt missiles or large stones or hard objects against their enemy forces.
WHAT IS FORENSIC BALLISTICS

FORENSIC BALLISTICS is that branch of firearms identification wherein the ballistics
report of the examiner such as firearm, bullet, slugs, and shells are presented and identified by
the prosecution during the proceeding and in turn disputed by the defense counsel before the
court of justice. The term “forensic” as applied to ballistics or to any other subjects suggests a
relationship to a court of justice and legal proceedings. The term being derived from the Latin
word „forum‟, or a public place, wherein people gathered for discussion of a subject in issue.
THE FOUR BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS (or Firearm Identification)

1. INTERIOR BALLISTICS. It is that branch of the study of science which has something to
do with the properties of the projectile of bullet while inside the barrel of the gun, and this
extend from the breech to the muzzle. This branch of interior ballistics specifically involves
the following:
a. Firing pin hitting the primer;
b. Ignition of priming mixture;
c. Combustion of the gun powder;
d. Expansion of the heated gas;
e. Pressure developed;
f. Energy generated;
g. Recoil;
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel;
i. Engraving of cylindrical surface of the bullet.
2. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
The branch of science, which has something to do with the movements and attributes of
the bullet after it has left the muzzle of the gun, which involves the followings:
a. Muzzle blast – that is the sudden noise or sound created at muzzle point of the by reason of
the sudden escape – a – exit of the expanding gas as it comes in contact with the air in the
surrounding atmosphere;
b. Muzzle energy – that energy generated at mizzle and point;
c. Trajectory – the actual curve path of the bullet during its flight from the muzzle of the gun;
d. Range – the straight distance between muzzle & target; (Min. & Max.)
e. Velocity – rate of the speed of the per unit of time;
f. Air resistance – the power of capacity of the bullet to resist air during its flight from the
muzzle of the gun;
g. Pull of gravity – that is when the bullet plunge or dive itself after attaining its effective
ranges;
h. Penetration – the depth to which the bullet has entered its target or object hit.
3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS
That branch of SCIENCE that deals with the effects of the impact of the projectile on the
target, and this involves the following:
a. Terminal accuracy – that the size of the bullet group on target,
b. Terminal energy - that the energy of the projectile when it strike or striking force or
energy,
c. Terminal penetration – that the depth of the bullet penetration on the target or object hit.
d. Terminal velocity – velocity of the projectile when it strikes the target or object.

4. FORENSIC BALLISTICS
Forensic ballistic is being used in legal proceedings wherein a written report of the
examiner involving firearms, bullets and shells are properly presented and identified by the
prosecution in connection with the crime alleged to have been committed. Forensic ballistics is
sometimes properly called a firearms Identification.
Definition of firearms in its legal term;

Section 877 of the revised administrative code defines firearms; or arms, as herein used
include rifles, muskets, carbines, shot guns, pistol, revolvers, and all other deadly weapons from
which bullets, balls, shots, shells, or other missiles may be charged by means of gun powder or
other explosive. This term includes the air rifles, except those of limited ranges and small caliber
and which are used as toys the barrel of any firearms shall be considered a complete firearm for
all purposes hereof.
Definition of firearms in its technical term;

A firearms is an instrument used for the propulsion of the projectiles by the expansive
force of gasses coming from a burning gunpowder.
Classification of Firearms:
1. General:
a. Rifled bore firearms – firearms that contain rifling [land & grooves] inside the gun barrel.
Example: 1. Rifles 2. Pistol 3. Revolvers
b. Smooth bore firearms – firearms that contain no rifling inside the gun barrel.
Example: shot guns and early types of Muskets
2. Main type:
a. Artillery – those that propel projectiles more than one [1] inch in diameter, such as cannons,
mortars, recoilless rifles.
b. Small arms – those that propel projectiles less than one [1] inch in diameter.
1. Machine gun – is designed to shot automatically, more one shot, without manual
reloading, by a single press on the trigger [example Thompson and M-16]
2. Shoulders arms – normally fired from the shoulders; like rifles & shotgun.
3. Hand guns – designed or intended to be fired one hand. Like pistol & revolver.
3. According to Mechanical Construction
a. Single shoot firearms – designed to shoot only one shot for every loading, {example:
pistol, revolvers, rifles, and shotguns};
b. Repeating arms – designed to fire several shots in one loading, [example: automatic pistol,
revolvers, rifle and shotguns];
c. Bolt action type – example rifles and shotguns
d. Automatic Loading – example pistols, rifles, and shotguns
e. Slide action - example; rifles and shot guns
4. According to Use:
1. Military Firearms: 3. Target and Outdoor Men‟s Firearms:
b. revolvers b. revolvers
c. rifles c. rifles
d. machine guns
3. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms:
a. Pistols c. rifles
b. Revolvers d. shotguns
What are Handguns?
Handguns are either revolver or pistols. A revolver is hand firearms which a rotating
cylinder serving as magazine, successively places cartridge into position for firing. On other
hand pistol is a short barrel hand firearm designed to shoot a single projectile through a rifled
bore for every press of the trigger and usually applies to a semi-automatic loading.

WHAT ARE SHOULDER FIREARMS?

Shoulder firearms are firearms or guns, which are fired from the shoulder of the firer.
Shoulder firearms are:
1. Rifle – which means any weapon designed or redesigned, and intended to be fired from the
shoulder and made to use the energy of the explosive in a metallic cartridge to fire only
single projectile through a rifled bore for each single pull of the trigger.
The bore of a rifle has a number of shallow grooves cut spirally in the surface of the bore
from breech and to muzzle end.
2. Muskets – this an ancient smooth – bore and muzzle loading military shoulder arm
designed to fire or shoot a single round lead ball.
3. Carbine - This is a short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer that 22 inches, designed and
redesigned to fire a single projectile through a rifle bore, either semi-automatic or full
automatic for every press of the trigger.
WHAT IS A MACHINE GUN?

A machine gun is any weapon which shoot, or is designed to shoot, automatically more
than one shot without manual reloading, by a single press of the trigger.
THEIR (SPECIFIC) FUNCTIONS ARE:

 Barrel – initiates the path of the bullet
 Frame – houses the part
 Cylinder – serve as chamber and magazine
 Yoke - connecting pivot between the cylinder and the frame
 Extractor – pulls the empty cases from the cylinder simultaneously
 Extractor Spring – returns the extractor end holds it within cylinder
 Extractor rod – activates the extractor and is a locking device
 Center pin – serves as a socking device for the cylinder pin
 Center pin spring – holds the center pin in a locked position
 Side Plate – provides access to the internal part
 Side Plate screws – hold the slide plate and yoke in place
 Hammer block – safety device that prevents hammer blow to primer
 Double action – built into weapon to allow double action fire
 Hammer – strike the blow that initiates or ignites the primer
 Bolt – disengages center pin to allow opening of the cylinder and blocks hammer
 Thumb piece – activates bolt to release the cylinder
 Hands – rotates the cylinder when the hammer is cocked
 Cylinder stop – stops and holds the cylinder in alignment for firing
 Trigger – activates the parts necessary to fire the weapon
 Trigger Guard – guards the trigger from unnecessary action
 Rebound Slide – returns the trigger, activates hammer block and lock hammer
 Trigger Spring – provides energy for movement or rebound slide
 Trigger Lever – provide energy to the hammer
 Mainspring – contact rebound slide to return trigger forward
 Strain Screw- controls the tension on mainspring
 Trigger Stop – prevents excessive rearward travel after the hammer release
WHAT IS AMMUNITION?
In its definition, under the provisions of the national internal revenue code, the word
ammunition shall mean loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, and
pistols, from which the bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile may be fired by means of gun
powder or other explosive. The term includes ammunition for air rifle. In its technical term,
ammunition my refer to a group of cartridges or to a single unit or single cartridges, which means
a complete unit consisting of bullet, primer, cartridges case, and gunpowder.

WHAT ARE CARTRIDGES

When we speak of a cartridges, we the whole component of an ammunition, or round, or
shot, specifically cartridges refers to;
1. Bullet - the projectile propelled through the barrel by the expansive force of heated gas. It is
sometimes called [slug].
2. Cartridge case – the container of the gunpowder, sometimes called shell.
3. Gunpowder – sometimes called (propellant or powder charges ) which when ignited by the
primer flash, is converted to gasses under high pressure and propels the bullet or shot charges
through the barrel and unto the target.
4. Primer – the chemical compound or (priming mixture ) contained in the primer cup. This
mixture is highly susceptible to friction.
WHAT IS RIM FIRE CARTRIDGES?

This is the most simple form of modem cartridges. This is devised from the fact that this
type of cartridges can be fired only if the cartridges case is struck by the hammer or firing pin on
the rim of the case. In this type of cartridges the [priming mixture] is contained or located in a
cavity inside and around the rim of the cartridge which is very sensitive area. Rim fire cartridge
may be identified by smooth base of the cartridge case, which may or may not have a head stamp
imprinted on it. these head stamp are merely letters or designed placed on the cases by the
manufacturer to identify his products, this rim fire cartridges are found in caliber .22s.
CENTER FIRE CARTRIDGE:

In modern center fire ammunition, the firing pin blow on the cartridge, that is at the
center of the primer, which then crushes the priming mixture between the primer cup and the
anvil of the primer. In effect, the flame passes through the vent or flash hole and this ignites the
powder charges of the repellent. The firing pin must strike the center area of the primer, because
a blow to one side or other will not sometimes crushes the priming mixture between the anvil
and the cups.
PIN FIRE CARTRIDGE:

A self-exploding type commonly attributed to monsieur le fracheus of Paris about the
year 1836. This type of cartridge is now obsolete, and is today very rare and seldom encountered
in the field of firearm investigation.
WHAT IS SHOTGUN SHELL?

A shotgun shell is the single of ammunition for shotgun, it consist of a tabular case, either
in paper or metal, with a metallic base, containing the primer, propellant or powder, wads and
shot or pellets. It is general larger than those used in pistols, revolvers, and rifles; it is to
function from smooth bores capable of withstanding far less pressure, it is necessary in shotgun
shells to have fast burning powder that will not be too high on initial pressure.
CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS:
1. ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION:
a. Lead bullets – those, which are made of lead or alloys, which are slightly harder than a
pure lead.
b. Jacketed bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered by jacket of harder metal such
as gilding metal, a copper-zinc alloy approximately 90% nickel. The primary function
of the jacket of a bullet is to adherent of metal into the gun barrel.
2. ACCORDING TO SHAPE:
Usually divided into two description, that portion to:
a. Nose (forward portion)
b. Base (rearward portion)
3. ACCORDING TO BULLET TYPE:

a. Solid lead c. metal cased e. Metal case hollow point
g. Rifled slug
b. Solid hollow d. soft point f. Point metal point
WHAT ARE RIFLE BULLET?

Nowadays, targets of any kind can be penetrated or destroyed by small arms, missiles or
projectiles, such small arm missiles or projectiles are the following:
1. Ball Bullet - this kind of bullet has soft cores and is used against personnel only.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – a kind of bullet that has hardened steel core and its fired against
vehicles, weapons, and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullet – contains a compound, usually similar to barium nitrate, which is set on fire
when the bullet is projected. The flash smoke from the burning permits the flight of the
bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullet – contains a high charge of explosives. Because of its small size, it is
difficult to make a fuse that work reliably in small arm ammunition. For this reason, the use
of high explosives bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE?

1. It serves as a means whereby the other components like gunpowder, bullet or primer, are
assembled into one unit known as cartridge or ammunition.
2. It serve as a waterproof container for the gunpowder; and
3. It prevents the escape or evaporation of gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge
case are forced against the walls of the chamber by pressure, it serves as a gas seal at the
breech of the barrel.
The Following are the Parts of the Cartridge:

1. Rim 4. The Head & Body 7. Crimp
2. Primer Pockets 5. Neck 8. Base
3. Vent of Flash Holes 6. Cannelures 9. Shoulder
THE PARTS OF PRIMER (Center Fire)

1. Primer Cup 3. Anvil
2. Priming Mixture 4. Disc
CLASSIFICATIONS AND COMPOSITION OF PROPELLANTS

1. Black powder – this is oldest form of propellants, the standard ingredients of black powder
are: potassium nitrate (60-78%), sulfur (10-18.5%) and charcoal (12-21.1%). Black powder
relies for its explosives properties on .3 qualities which are typical of all explosives;
1. When ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air, this burning is
rapid.
2. In burning, it gives off a large amount of gas; and
3. A considerable amount of heat is also evolved.
2. Smokeless powder – this powder do not gives off huge cloud of white smoke like black
powder. This is commonly used in modern cartridges and is considered as the most
powerful propellant. Their main classes are:
1. Single-base or nitrocellulose, and
2. Double base or nitroglycerine
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED BULLET

1. RIFLING MARKS – they are found on the cylindrical portion of the fired bullets or slugs
and are caused by the riflings inside the barrel.
2. SKID MARKS – are generally found on bullets on slugs fired from revolvers, these marks
are more or less found on the anterior portion of the fired bullets or slugs, and are caused by
the forward movement of the build before it rotates as required by riflings.
3. STRIPPING MARKS – are generally found on bullets or slugs through loose fit barrels
wherein the riflings are badly worn out.
MARKS FOUND ON FIRED SHELLS:

1. FIRING PIN MARKS – are generally found in the primer cup which is the central area of
the base of the cartridge, in case of rim-fire cartridge, the firing pin strikes in any portion
along the rim wherein the priming mixture is contained.
2. EXTRACTOR MARKS – these are generally found in cartridges fired in revolvers,
pistols, rifles, shotguns and machine guns, this are found along the rim of the fired cartridge
case.
3. EJECTOR MARKS – these are generally found in cartridges fired from automatic
weapons, they are also near the rim.
4. MAGAZINE LIP MARKS – these markings are found on the rim of the cartridge cases
and are caused by magazine lips during the loading of the cartridges into position of firing.
5. CHAMBER MARKS – chamber marks are mostly found on the body of cartridge case and
are caused by the irregularities in the inside walls of the chamber.
6. Breech face Mark
7. Secondary Firing Pin Mark
8. Ejection Port Mark
9. Accidental Marks
Consequently, the final identification of a fatal gun is based not upon a few markings, but
upon a PATTERN OF MARKINGS, (the peculiarities of markings of particular firearms alleged
to have been used in the commission of crime.
THE CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS are those that exist in a firearm or firearms even prior to
their manufacture. These characteristics are factory specifications and they serve as basis to
identify a group or class of firearms, like the following:
1. Bore diameter 4. Width of lands
2. 7. Pitch of riflings
3. Number of lands and grooves 5. Width of grooves
4. Direction of twist 6. Depth of grooves
Types of Rifling
 Styr type –four grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width. (4R G-L
 Smith and Wesson type – five grooves, right hand twist, grooves and lands of equal width (5R
G-L)
 Browning type – six grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6R G2X)
 Colt type – six grooves, left hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (6L G2X)
 Webley type – seven grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R G3X)
 Army type – four grooves, right hand twist, narrow lands and broader grooves (4R G3X
USE OF INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS IN FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION

Individual characteristics are those which are peculiar in a particular firearm and which
are not found in all other firearms. They serve to identify a particular gun. These individual
characteristics are generally found on the interior – surface of gun barrel which register into the
fired bullet while inside the bore of the gun and to the base of the cartridge case when it
exploded inside the chamber of the gun.
The successful identification of the firearms from discharged bullet and empty cartridge
cases is based upon a basic principle “THERE IS NO DUPLICATION IN NATURE &
EXCEPTIONS TO THIS RULE ARE NEVER MANIFESTED AS THE RESULT OF MAN‟S
INGENUITY.” These characteristics are produced at the stage of manufacturing of firearms, &
a result of coincidental procedure and subsequent mutations.
PRINCIPLES INVOLVE IN SHELL IDENTIFICATION

1. The breech face and firing pin of every single firearm have individual microscopic
individuals of their own;
2. Every firearm leaves its fingerprint or thumbprint on every cartridge it fires;

3. That, since the breech face of every weapon has individual distinction, the imprints of all
cartridge cases fired from the same weapon are the same.
PRINCIPLES IN BULLET OR SLUG IDENTIFICATION

1. No two barrels are microscopically alike or identical as the internal surface of the bore or
barrels all posses individual characteristics of their own;
2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled gun barrel, riflings are engraved therein, which vary in
its minute details with other firearms, even of the same type.
THE FOLLOWING ARE THE EQUIPMENT GENERALLY USED IN FIREARMS

IDENTIFICATION:
1. Bullet Comparison Microscope7. Micrometer
2. Stereoscopic Microscope 8. Analytical Balance or Torsion Balance
3. Onoscope 9. Bullet Recovery Box
4. Shadowgraph 10. Magnifying Glass
5. Calliper 11. Taper Gauge
6. Helixomeier 12. Gunsmiths Tools
PROCEDURES IN COLLECTION, IDENTIFICATION & PRESERVATION OF

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:
A thorough understanding of physical evidence, its protection, preservation and
examination are necessary if the following important duties are properly performed:
1. Once an officer has taken evidence into his possession, he must be able to establish its
chain of custody until;
a. The same is presented in court;
b. Or return it to the victim or suspect, as the case may be.
2. It is necessary to be able to establish where the evidence has been at all times;
a. If the officer expects to overcome questions presented by the defense;
b. And to impress to the judge or court that the evidence has been property protected.
3. If the evidence is out the officer‟s control for any period of time, he must be able to
establish:
a. Who had the evidence; and
b. When it was returned.
COLLECTION OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

When collecting physical evidence, the officer or investigator should collect all articles,
which are or may at some future date, be something of value as evidence.
These articles consist;
a. Any physical object, which may tend to or indicate whether or not crime was committed;
b. Anything which may connect some particular person with the crime or crime scene.
EXAMPLE OF FIREARMS EVIDENCE ARE:

1. The lethal or fatal weapon 4. Metal fragments
2. Fired bullet or bullets 5. Broken glasses
3. Fired cartridge case 6. Shotgun
DESIGNATION OF INVESTIGATING OFFICER TO COLLECT ALL EVIDENCES

This is so for the purpose of:
a. Making the introduction of exhibits in court simpler; and
b. Being able to keep records, and remembers where, when and what was collected, which is
much better if several men have to hands the same exhibits.
GREAT CARE OF PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

The key word is do not “MAC” the evidence:
1. Mutilate – in no case should the evidence be mutilated in any way, such as crushing, if
ever this can be avoided.

2. Alter – in no case should the altered any way that may changes its original nature. If
alterations do occur the investigator or officer should take note in his report why this
happened.
3. Contaminate – and finally in no case should the evidence be contaminated, that is adding
anything which, may changes the nature of the physical evidence.
SKETCHING AND PHOTOGRAPHING THE CRIME SCENE

The crime scene should be sketched aid photographed, photographs should be taken of
the victim and all other suitable articles like weapon, bullets, shells, holes, and many other
related evidence, before removing them.
STATE THE PROCEDURE IN PROPER PACKING OF FIREARMS OR WEAPON

BULLETS & SHELLS:
The following are the procedure in proper packing of firearms or weapon, bullets, and
shell:
1. After marking the physical evidence, it must be wrapped surely in some soft material, it
should always be placed in suitable container to prevent any further or needless mutilation;
2. Never, under any circumstances, place a discharged or fired bullet in clothing or pocket
without first carefully wrapping it with some & protective covering.
3. Regarding bullets, which are lodged in walls, furniture, wood trims, or even trees, extremes
care must be exercised in removing this evidence. Do not attempt to dig out the evidence
bullet with the knife, or ice pick; rather cut around the evidence in order not to touch it with
anything that would tend to mark it.
4. If the bullet or slug has broken up into many fragments or pieces, secure as many fragments
as possible. These fragments may be fitted together which may aid in some other ways.
5. If cartridge cases or shell are found at the crime scene, after marking them. They should be
preserved as carefully as possible.
6. If cartridge cases are found and appear loaded in a weapon, it is best to transport said
weapon to the laboratory as it is, with exception that a tag be secured to the weapon
labelled, danger loaded weapon.
7. If for security reason, the weapon must be unloaded, the investigator must be carefully mark
each cartridge & cartridge case together with the location of its origin.
8. When a firearm is found at the scene of the crime the investigator should take note of the
following pertinent facts about the firearms,
a. Types of firearms (pistol, revolver, etc.);
b. Make of the firearm (colt, S&W, etc.);
c. Caliber of the firearm (cal. 22, 38, etc.);
d. Serial no. (most important);
e. Load in the cylinder, if revolver, or load in the magazine, if pistol;
f. Other features of significance (length of barrel, nickel or plated);
g. Position of firearm in relation to a dead body at the crime scene;
h. Other distinct outside marks.
9. When a bullet or bullets are found at the crime scene the following should be noted;
1. Type of bullet [lead or jacketed];
2. Caliber of bullet;
3. Shape or form of bullet [round nose, flat nose, etc.]
4. Other metal or bullet fragment if any; and
5. Relative position.
10. When shell or shells are found at the scene of the crime, the following should be note down;
1. Number of the shells and order of recovery;
2. Caliber of the shells;
3. Trade mark or brand of the shells;
11. Relative position of the shells at the crime scene.
FOLLOWING ARE THE MOST IMPORTANT REASON FOR THE MARKING OF

EVIDENCE:

1. The officer may be called to the witness stand several weeks or month later, or even years
later after the commission of the crime, to identify the object he collected at the time of the
offense;
2. The officer cannot completely rely on his memory because there will be many more cases
that he will handle after every case;
3. Defense counsel may require that the complete “chain and custody of evidence” be
established.
FOLLOWING ARE THE PROCEDURAL STEPS IN MARKING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE:

1. Use a distinctive mark in order to exclude others, such as your initials, serial numbers or
personal marks;
2. Record the mark use together with the position of the mark;
3. Record any serial number or other distinctive marks found on the physical evidence;
4. If ever possible, mark the object itself with Due Care in order to avoid any damages or
alternation;
5. Do not forget to mark the container where the physical evidence is placed, notwithstanding
the marking already on the object itself;
6. Whenever tags are used, make corresponding entry in it and attach it accurately on the
object.
HOW TO MARK FIREARM EVIDENCES

1. Bullet
The fired bullet or slug should be marked by the investigator or a police officer who
recover it with his initials nose or base as the case maybe, together with the corresponding date
of recovery.
2. Fired Shell
The initials of the recovering investigator together with the date of recovery should be
made just on the inside and near the mouth with a sharp and metallic instrument.
3. Firearms
Any suspected firearm should be marked by the investigator or police officer who
recovered it, with his initials and corresponding date, or any of the three main and separable
parts, barrel, cylinder and frame, in case of revolver and barrel slide, frame or receiver, in case of
a pistol. Of course this is done without utter disregard of taking down the serial number of the
firearm
A TAG should Be PROVIDED WITH THE FOLLOWING ENTRIES
1. Type of firearm; 5. Place of recovery
2. Make of firearm 6. Name of victim in any
3. Serial number; 7. Name of the subject
4. Date of recovery
WHAT ARE DON’TS IN MARKING OF FIREARM BULLET AND SHELL?

The following are don‟ts in marking firearm, bullet and shell:
1. Never use [x] as an initials identifying mark;
2. Do not put any identifying mark in cylinder or peripheral surface of any bullet or slug.
3. Do not put any identifying mark on the base of a shell;
4. Do not put any identifying mark on any separable part of a firearm.
RULES IN PRESERVING PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

1. Evidence should be properly preserve for future identification and presentation during the
trial of the case;
2. Firearm evidence must be kept in proper place and under proper condition so that they will
be of greatest value in the prosecution of the case;
3. Fired bullet & shell after having been marked should be wrapped in tissue paper & sealed in
box.
4. The container should be properly labelled or mark,
5. Each article of evidence should be placed in a separate container, and each container shall
be accordingly marked for future references.
6. Use a container which will not easily break and one which‟s large enough that the evidence
can be removed and replace without difficulty;
7. The suspected firearm should be properly wrapped and place in a container to prevent loss
or tampering.
MEN BEHIND FIREARM

1. Horace Smith – founded the great firm SMITH and WESSON and pioneered the making of
breech loading rifles.
2. Daniel B. Wesson – associate of Smith in the manufacture of new cartridges and revolvers.
3. Samuel Colt – produced the first practical revolvers.
4. John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the first breech loading
single shot rifles.
5. Alexander John Forsyth - father of the percussion ignition.
6. Elisha King Root – designed machinery for making colt firearms.
7. Eliphalet Remington – one of the first rifle makers.
8. John Mahlon Martin – founded the firearm company which bears his name.
9. James Wolfe Ripley – stimulated the development of the 1855 rifled Musket, the first
firearm of its kind ever produced.
10. Henry Derringer – he gave his name to whole class of firearms.
11. Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest rifle and pistol makers.
12. John T. Thompson – pioneered the making of Thompson, submachine gun.
13. David Carbine William – maker of the first known carbine.
14. John C. Garand – designed and invented the U.S. Rifle, Caliber, 30, M1.
IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1. 1313 – the ages of gunpowder began with its use as a propellant for projectile.
2. 1350 - the first portable hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand
held hot wire or lighted.
3. 1498 – the first reference to rifled barrels appeared.
4. 1676 – paper cartridges combining both powder ball were developed.
5. 1807 – the discovery of Forsyth that certain compounds detonated by a blew could be use to
ignite the charges in a firearm formed the basis for all later percussion and cartridge
development.
6. 1836 – Samuel Colt, patented the first practical revolver in which the cylinder was rotated
by cocking the hammer.
7. 1836 – the pin fire cartridge developed by le Faucheus, was probably, the first self
exploding cartridge which resulted into general use.
8. 1845 – Flobert, a native of France, developed a bullet breech cap which was in reality the
first rim the cartridge.
9. 1858 – The Morse Cartridge marked the beginning of the rapid development of the center
fire cartridge.
10. 1884 – Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun utilizing the recoil of the piece to
load and fire the next charge.
11. 1886 – Viellie of France developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant
which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but more powerful as well.
DEFINITION OF TERMS IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS

1. ACTION - breech mechanism of a gun, by which it is loaded and unloaded.
2. AIR SPACE – space on a loaded cartridge case not occupied by powder and bullet.
3. ANVIL – is a primer or cartridge case, a fixed point against which the priming mixture is
compressed and thereby detonated by action of the firing pin.
4. ARMOR PIERCING – a full patched bullet with steel core used against light mechanized
armored vehicles.
5. BALL – earlier term for “bullet” and still being used in some military terminology.
6. BALLISTICS – science of projectile in motion.
7. BARREL – in part of a gun through, this passes the bullet from breech to muzzle.

8. BASE WAD – compressed paper or other materials inside a shot shell varying in see and
form.
9. BATTERY CUP – type of shot shell ignition form, in which the cap or primer is held.
10. BELTED CASE – cartridge case with a band or belt at base just ahead of extractor groove,
in which case position in chamber of rifle.
11. BLACK POWDER – a mixture of saltpetre, charcoal and sulfur.
12. BLANK CARTRIDGE - a cartridge without a bullet.
13. BORE – the cylinder passage of the barrel through which the bullet or projectile travels.
14. BORE DIAMETER – in rifled arms, the diametrical measurement between tops of lands.
15. BOTTLE NECK CARTRIDGE – A type of cartridge designed to accommodate more
powder usually for high-powered guns.
16. BREECH - the rear end of the bore where the bullet enters.
17. BREECH BOLT - the part of the breech that resists the rearward force of the combustion
that occurs when a cartridge is discharge.
18. BOAT TAIL - referring to the base taper given in a certain bullets to give greater
efficiency at long range.
19. BULLET - the projectile only, (not to be applied to the cartridge) which is sometimes
called ball. Portion of a cartridge, which is propelled from the firearm.
20. CALIBER – bore diameter expressed in decimal of an inch, measured between two
opposite land.
21. CALIPER – the measuring device used in the calibration of bullets and gun bores.
22. CANNELURES – circumferential grooves around the bullet or cartridge case.
23. CAPLACK - used by muzzle loading guns whose ignition system employs percussion, a
small thumb like cap containing a detonating mixture.
24. CARTRIDGE - a complete round of ammunition, made up simply of cartridge case,
primer, powder and bullet.
25. CARTRIDGE CASE - commonly the brass copper envelope that contains primer, powder
and bullet (when ready to use).
26. CENTER FIRE - those ignited by means of a separate and replaceable primer.
27. CHAMBER - that part of the bore, at the breach to accept the cartridge.
28. CHOKE - the construction of a shotgun bore at the muzzle at various ranges or degree,
designed to control pellet charge at the target.
29. CHRONOGRAPH - instrument which measures the velocity of the projectiles.
30. COMPARISON CAMERA - an optical instrument designed to make simultaneous
comparison of two specimens.
31. CORDITE – nitroglycerine smokeless powder used mainly in England.
32. CORROSION – the chemical wears and tears of the inside portion of the barrel of the gun
due to rust or chemical action as a result of combustion after firing.
33. CYLINDER – in a revolver type of firearm, cartridge container that rotates around an axis
parallel to an below the barrel.
34. DIE – in hand loading ammunition, any number of tools used to sized bullets and shells.
35. DRILLING – a three-barrel gun, popular in Europe, which usually combined smooth bores
and rifled bores.
36. DOUBLE ACTION – a weapon in which a pressure upon the trigger both cocks and
releases the hammer.
37. EJECTOR – correctly the device at the barrel breech within the action that knocks the fired
cartridge case.
38. ENERGY - in bullets, the amount of work done, at a given range expressed in foot-pounds.
39. EROSION - more or less gradual wearing a way of rifling by combustion gas, hot and
bullet friction.
40. EXTRACTOR - the mechanism of a firearm by which the cartridge is withdrawn from the
chamber.
41. EXPERT WITNESS – one who had acquired a special skill in a particular branch of
science.
42. EVERLASTING CASE - brass cartridge case from heavy stock intended for extended
reloading life.

43. EYEPIECE - a part of the bullet comparison microscope where the examiner view the
specimens.
44. FIREARM - an instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by the expansive force of
gases from the burning gunpowder.
45. FIRING PIN - A part of action, activated by the trigger that hits the primer and fires the
cartridge.
46. FOOT-POUND – the amount of work acquired to raise one pound one foot high against the
force of gravity.
47. FOOT-SECOND – velocity expressed in feet per second.
48. FOLLOWER - A metal platform in a clip of magazine that pushes the cartridge upward to
the proper angle for feeding in the chamber.
49. GAS CHECK - a cup usually copper used on the base of a lead bullet to protect it from
hot gasses.
50. FOULING – the accumulation of a deposit within the bore of a firearm caused by solid
products remaining after a cartridge is fired.
51. GAUGE - unit of bore measurement in shotguns, determined by the number of solid lead
balls, of the bore diameter obtainable from a pond of lead.
52. GILDING METAL - a copper zinc alloy used as a bullet to spin as it travels down the
barrel.
53. GROOVES - spiral cuts in a bore which cause the bullet to spin as it travels from the
barrel.
54. GROOVE DIAMETER - in rifled arms, the diameter measurement between bottom of
grooves.
55. GROUP - number of shots fired into a target usually in one sighting set.
56. HAMMER - a part of action (in some guns) actuated by the trigger, the hammer drives the
firing pin against the primer, thus igniting the primer and further burns the propellant
powder.
57. HANG FIRE - cartridge, which fire for as long as several seconds after the firing pin
strikes the primer.
58. HOLLOW POINT – a design features of some bullets.
59. HEADSPACE - for reamed cartridge, the distance from the face of the breechblock to the
barrel seat of the forward surface of the case rim. For rimless bottle neck cartridge, the
distance from the face of the breechblock to the predetermined point on the shoulder of the
chamber. Belted cases had space on the forward edge of the belt.
60. LANDS - that portion of the bore remaining after the rifling of grooves have been cut.
61. LEADING - lead deposited on the bore of the gun from the bullet passing through it.
62. LENS - optical instrument magnified used for laboratory examination of microscopical
specimens.
63. MAGAZINE - a reservoir to hold extra cartridge.
64. MAGNUM - firearms designed for extra power.
65. MATCH LOCK - an early form of firearm, in which priming charge was ignited by a cord
or match of a slow burning materials.
66. METAL CASE - a form of bullet completely covered forward with copper alloy (jacket).
67. MIDRANGE - usually used in connection with the trajectory, referring to a point midway
between muzzle and target game.
68. MISFIRE - cartridge, which do not fire when firing strikes the firing pin.
69. MUSHROOM - the capacity of certain bullet to expand on after impact, also the term
given to some soft point or hollow point bullet.
70. MUZZLE - end of barrel opposite breach point from which bullet or shots leaves barrel.
71. MUZZLE LOADER - gun loaded through the front end (muzzle) of the bore using loose
powder and ball or shell or paper cartridges.
72. MUZZLE ENERGY (M.E.) - the bullets capacity for hitting measured in foot pounds
from the muzzle.
73. MUZZLE VELOCITY (M.V.) - speed of the bullet from muzzle point.
74. NIPPLE - on muzzle loading gun, the small metal cone at the rear of the barrel through
which the frame from the percussion cup passes to ignite the powder charge.
75. OGIVE - the radius of the curve of the nose of the bullet usually expressed in caliber .
76. OVER BOARD CAPACITY - condition in which the volume of a cartridge cases exceed
the amount of powder, which can be most efficiently burnt.
77. PARADOX - smooth bore gun in which the final few inches of the barrel are rifled to
increase the efficiency of the round ball or slug.
78. PARCHING CLOTH - use to form a gas seal around the projectile of the muzzle of the
loading gun.
79. PATTERN - pellet from a shotgun usually expressed as so many pellets within a 30circles
at 40 yards.
80. PERCUSSION CUP - a small metallic cap containing fulminating material that explodes
when struck by a gun‟s hammer.
81. PISTOL - any small cancellable short barrel gun, generally not revolver.
82. PLATED BULLET - a bullet covered with a thin coating of a copper alloy to prevent
leading.
83. POWDER CHARGE - an amount of gunpowder in one load.
84. PRESSURE - the gas pressure generated in a cartridge on its being fired, usually expressed
in pound per square inch.
85. PRIMER POCKET - a portion of the base center of a cartridge case designed to
accommodate the primer (center fire ).
86. PRIMER - in center fire cartridge cases, the small cap containing a detonating mixture,
which is similar mixture, found in cartridge cases.
87. PROJECTILE - one that is projected through the barrel and out of the gun by the powder
gasses.
88. PROPRIETORY CARTRIDGE - one developed and exclusively by one establishment or
factory.
89. RANGE - the distance from gun muzzle to target.
90. RAMROD - rod or wood used to force the bullet out of the bore of the gun barrel.
91. REBATED RIM - type of a cartridge case rim smaller than the diameter of the case at
point just forward of the extractor groove.
92. RECOIL - the backward thrust of a gun caused by the reaction of the powder gasses
pushing the bullet forward.
93. REPEATER - any arm holding more than one round at a time.
94. REVOLVER - a multi-shot handgun, using a revolving cylinder as a cartridge container.
95. RICOCHET - the deflections of the bullet from the normal path after striking a resistance
surface.
96. RIFLE - types of weapons fired from the shoulder.
97. RIM FIRE - a cartridge containing priming mixture in the rim, which struck by firing pin.
98. RIMMED CARTRIDGE - a cartridge having a flanged rim a little wider in size the body
of the case.
99. RIMLESS CARTRIDGE - a cartridge having the size of the case in the same with the size
of the body proper.
100. RIFLING - spiral cuts into the bore of a rifled gun barrel to impart a spin on the bullet
assuring point in flight for better accuracy. The purpose of rifling is to gyroscopic stability
of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle.
101. RIM - the projecting edge of a cartridge case.
102. SEMI-AUTOMATIC - single shot for every press on the trigger.
103. SHOT - lead or lead alloy spheres used as a projectiles in smooth bore guns or shotguns.
104. SHOTGUNS - a smooth bore gun using cartridge loaded with shots.
105. SINGLE ACTION - a weapon in which pressure upon the trigger releases the hammer
which must be manually.
106. SMOKELESS POWDER - gunpowder which gives off almost no smoke when burned.
107. SMOOTHBORE - a barrel without riflings.
108. SOFT POINT (S.P.) - a term used for bullet with partial jacketing, having some
portions of the bullet to exposed at the front.
109. TRACER BULLET - a military type of bullet that contains a chemical elements that
burns while the bullet is in flight.
110. TRAJECTORY - the carved path of the bullet in flight or in a parabola.

111. TRIGGER – the level operated by a shoulder which releases the firing pin and allows it
to discharge the cartridge.
112. TRIGER GUARD- bent strip of metal that protects the trigger from accidental
discharge.
113. TWIST - angle of rifling relative to the axis of the bore. Usually uniform, expressed in
turns or part turns in so many inches, less common the progressive or gain twist.
114. UNDERSIZE BULLET - bullet slightly smaller than the actual bore diameter of the
gun barrel.
115. VELOCITY - a projectile speed, usually measure feet per second.
116. VENT - orifice through which the flame enters to burn the powder charge.
117. WAD - a disc of paper, felt plastic or other materials used in shells.
REFERENCES:

City, Philippines, Wiseman‟s Books Trading Inc.
 MILLER F. PECKLEY (2006), Miscellaneous Questions on Forensic Ballistics, Quezon
City, Philippines, Smart Script Corporation.



CRIMINALISTICS
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT


QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
DOCUMENT- in the fullest meaning , it is any material, which contains marks signs or
symbols either visible or invisible that may presently convey a meaning or message to
someone to someone. A great portion of Document is written on paper with the use of
fountain pen, ball pen, pencil or type.
QUESTIONED DOCUMENT – any documents about some issue has been raised or which is
under scrutiny is referred to as Questioned Document ( also Disputed Document) A document
that has been questioned in whole or in part with respect to its authenticity or identity or origin
or the relations among parts or respect to its relation to either things. It may be deed, contract,
will, election ballot, marriage contract, checks, visas, check- writer, certificate, etc.
ABNORMAL WRITING CONDITION – are writing executed in condition not normal
to individual writer such as standing position, lying, walking, on a moving vehicle, under
pressure, threat and similar condition.
ALIGNMENT –include characters which write improperly in the following respects twisted
letter; horizontal mal alignment, vertical mal alignment, and a character „ off- its feet”.
ALTERED DOCUMENT – it is one that contains some changes either as addition or deletion.
ANGULAR STYLE OF WRITING – a writing wherein the most part specifically the upper
and lower strokes forms an angle or wedge.
ARC- is the bend, crook or curved on inner side of a loop such as letter “ b”, “n” and “ p”. It is
any arcaded in the body of letters “ c‟. “ a‟ and “ o‟.
BALLPOINT PEN – the ballpoint pen works on a very simple principle, a tiny rotating ball
pick-up a supply of a link by contact with that contained in a reservoir and then transmits it to
the paper.
BASELINE- is the ruled or imaginary line which letter rest.
BENZENE METHOD- another chemical method of ink examination. Black style of writing is
characterized.
BLOCK STYLE OF WRITING- are characterized by writing are all capital letters or printed.
BLUNT- is the beginning and ending stroke of letter both small and capital in which the pen
touched the paper without hesitation, beard, hitch or knob.
BODY- is the parts of the letter ordinarily form by small circle that usually lies on the line
of writing as bodies of “ a”, “o”, “ d”, “g”, “p” and “q‟.
BOWL- is fully rounded oval or circular form in a letter complete in an “o‟ or modified “ B”,
“D‟, “P” and “ R”.
BUCKLE KNOT- is the horizontal loop that are often used to complete such as “ A”, “B”. “H”
and “K”.
CACOGRAPHY – is characterized as bad writing.
CALLIGRAPHY – is the art of beautiful writing.
CARBON IMPRESSIONS - any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action of the
typefaces striking through carbon paper.
CARBON INKS- inks in the carbon class consist of a finely ground carbon particles.
CHARACTERISTICS- is any property or mark which distinguishes and in document refers to
identifying details. These are the two groups of characteristics; class and individual.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS – not all characteristics encountered in document examination
are peculiar to a single person, or thing and one, which is common to a group maybe describe
as a class and individual.
COLLATION - means critical comparison or side-by-side examination.
COMPARISON – is that act of setting of two or more items side by side to weight their
identifying quantities. It infers not only a visual but also the mental act which the elements of
one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
CONCLUSION - a scientific conclusion results from relating observe facts by logical common
sense reasoning in accordance with establish rules of laws.
The document examiners conclusions are so derived. It is common to refer his conclusions by the
legal terms, “OPINION”.

COPY BOOK FORM – the design of the letter which are fundamental to a writing system are
referred to as copy book forms. The terminology is derived from the old methods of teaching
form a copybook, which contained engraved script, printed of each for the student to imitate.
DECIPHERMENT – the process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced. It
refers to the process of reaching or making out the material, which is illegible without actually
developing or restoring the original writing on the documents, itself.
DEFECTS – any abnormality or maladjustments in a typewriter which is reflected in its work
and which led to its individualization and identification.
DESCENDER – is the lower portion of the letter of lower loop such as “g”, “j”, “Q”, “Y”, and
“P”.
DIACRITRIC – is an element added to complete a certain letter such as dot on small “I”, “j”
and bar on “Ψ” and accent mark on foregoing language.
DISGUISED WRITING – writer may deliberately try to alter his usual writing habit in hope
of hiding his identity. The result regardless of their effectiveness is returned as disguised
writing.
DISPLAY EXHIBIT – describes a gently enlarged photographic court exhibit which is made to
such size that it must be placed an easel the jury box. These exhibits may also be referred to as
“bromide enlargements”.
DISPUTED DOCUMENTS – means that there is argument or controversy over the document.
DOCUMENT EXAMINER – one who studies scientifically the details and elements of
documents in order to identify their source or to discuss other facts concerning them.
DUCTUS BROKEN OR JUNCTION BROKEN –the disconnected or non-continuous stroke
between two letters.
DUCTUS INK OR JUNCTION LINK – the continuous line that join two letters.
ERASURE – the removal of writing, typewriting, or printing from the document,
EXAMINATION – is the act of making a close and critical study of any material and with
questioned documents is the process necessary to discover the facts about them. Various types
are undertaken, including microscope visual, photographic chemical, ultraviolet and infrared
examination.
EXPERT WITNESS –a legal term used to described a witness who by reason of his special
technical training and experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue or
certain aspect of the issue, that is involved in a lawsuit.
EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE IS NOT A SIMPLY A SIGNATURE – it is signature signed at
a particular time and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at the particular
age, in a particular and mental condition using particular supplements, and with particular
reason and purpose for recording his name.
EYE LOOP OR EYELET –is small looped form by strokes that exerted in divergent direction
as in “b”, “c”, “f”, “k”, “p”, “r”, “s”, and “z”.
FLEXIBILITY OF PEN POINT – the quality of the nib pen that varies with the different pens
and can be measured by the amount of pressure necessary to cause a spreading of the nibs or a
given degree of shading.
FISTIOFF THEORY OF COMPARISON – the act of setting two or more signature in an
inverted position to weight their identifying significance, the reason being that those we fail to
see under normal comparison may readily be seen under this theory.
FLYING START AND FLYING FINISHES – when the motion of the pen procedes the
beginning of the stroke and continue beyond the end to a vanishing point is found in free
natural writing and as a rule is an important indication of genuineness.
FOOT – is the base or bottom of a letter that lies on the line of writing.
FORGERY – a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine document but also intent on
the part of the maker defraud. Outside of the courtroom, however, it is used synonymously
with fraudulent signature or spurious document. Every person who, with in tent to defraud,
sign of the name of another person, or of fictitious person knowing that he has no authority to
do so, or falsely, alters, forges or counterfeits any check draft due to bill for the a payment of
money or properly or counterfeits or forgets the seal or handwriting of another knowing the
same to fake, alternated, forged or counterfeited, with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud
any person is guilty of forgery. As used I handwriting identification is the act of imitating or

simulating somebody‟s signature by another without the permission of the former and for
profit.
FORM OF BLINDNESS – there are people who lack the ability to differentiate forms, size,
shape, letter configuration design and angle.
FOUNTAIN PEN – is the modern nib pin, which contains a reservoir of ink in a specially
designed sack or chamber.
FREEHAND IMITATION OR STIMULATED FORGERY – a fraudulent signature that was
executed by stimulation rather than by tracing the line of a genuine signature can be referred
to as executed in free hand imitation.
GOOPING OF BALLPOINT PEN WRITING –is the excess of globules of ink oftentimes
deposited after a sharply curve stroke or the point of an abrupt change of writing direction.
GRAPHOLOGY – is the art of determining character, disposition and aptitude of the individual
from the study of handwriting.
GUIDED HAND SIGNATURE – signature actually produced by the cooperation of two hands
and two minds. A seriously ill testator sometimes ask someone for assistance in affixing his
signature, generally then, abnormally, clumsiness, disconnection, uneven alignment and
illegibility are indication of genuine and the condition are evidence of lack of genuineness.
HABIT LETTERING – a disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately is a form of hand lettering of hand printing.
HABIT – a writing habit in any expected elements of defect, which may serve as identifying
characteristics in individuals writing.
HAND EXBIHIT – described a photographic court exhibits which is designed to be held and
examined by the individual juror or pair of jurors.
HAND WRITING – is a result of a very complicated series of act, being as a whole, a
combination of certain forms of visible mental and muscular habit acquired by long continued
painstaking effort.
- Is a result of bodily movement, which is almost unconscious of fixed muscular habit, reacting
from fixed mental impression of certain idea with script form?
HESITATION – is the term applied to the irregular thickening, which is formed when the
writing shows down or stops down while a penman takes stocks of the position.
HIATUS – may be regarded as a special form of penlift distinguishable in that a perceptible gap
appear in writing, through sometimes hiatus are caused by failure of ink to register on a paper
due to speed of writing movement.
HITCH –is the introductory background stroke added to the beginning of many capital letters? It
is also seen occasionally in introductory strokes of some small letters.
HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT – any document completely prepared, written and designed
by the person himself without the assistant of a lawyer.
HOOK – a minute and involuntary talon like formation often found at the commencement of an
initial upstrokes on at the end of terminal strokes.
HORIZONTAL MALALIGNMENT – an alignment defect in which the character prints to the
right or left of its proper position.
HUMP – is a rounded outer side of the top of the bend, crook to, curve in small letter such as
“h”, “m”, and “n”.
INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS – characteristics highly individualize or perculiar to
an individual writer or characteristics which are highly personalize and unlikely to occur in
other instances.
INFRARED EXAMINATION – infrared examination of documents employs invisible
radiation beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow, which is usually recorded
on specially sensitized photographic emoltion. This infrared or heat rays can also be converted
to visible light by electronic viewing equipment which to date has had limited used in the
question document film.
INFRARED PHOTOGRAPHY – the principle in infrared as a means of preparing
photographic evidence is based upon the fundamental facts that different substances which
looks alike to the naked eye but are of different chemical component may have a varying

ability, reflect or transmit infra-red rays and hence, will not appear alike when photographed
by the infra-red rays.
INITIALS EMPHASES – is the greater pressure on strokes or the initial stroke.
INK ANALYSIS – the application of chemicals on ink to determine its component whether or
not it came on the same source.
INK ERADICATION – consists of chemicals solutions which are capable of bleach ink.
INK FLOW BACK – ink sometimes will flow back on strokes from a shaded to an unshaded
portion giving the appearance of two ink film, logwood ink sometimes shows these
characteristics. The condition is readily distinguishable from n actual patching by this accurate
fitting together of the lines.
NSERTION OR INTERLINEATIONS – includes the addition of writing and other material
between lines or photographs, as the addition of whole pages to a document.
INTERSECTION – is the meeting of two lines, which intersect.
IODINE FUMES – a kid of chemical examination of ink erasure.
JUNCTION – is the meeting of two lines which do not cross.
KNOB – is the extra deposit of ink in the initials and terminal stroke due to the withdrawal
of the pin from the paper.
EAD OR GRAPHITE – is the substance in the pencil commonly made up of titanium chloride,
sulfite and ion that produced writing?
LENS – consists of one or more optical ground glasses, which focus light rays similar to the
pupil of the eyes and to focus an image of the object being photographed or the film surface.
LIGATURE – a stroke connecting two letters.
LINE QUALITY – it is the condition of the pen itself. Good lines quality is characterized by
smoothness or writing, regularity of curves and shaded. It results from the writer‟s being
largely unconscious of the actual act of writing and concentrating instead of what is being
written. Poor line quality, on the other hand. Is the result of the writer‟s given too much
attention to the actual process of writing.
MAJUSCULE – a capital letter.
ALALIGNMENT – synonymous with the term “alignment defect”.
MICROSCOPE EXAMINATIONS – any study or examination which is made with the
microscope in order to discover the minute physical details.
MINUSCULE – a small letter.
MODEL SIGNATURE – a signature which has been used in imitation or traced forgery.
MOVEMENT – it is the most important elements of handwriting. It embodies the factor related
to the motion of the writing instrument, skill, speed, freedom, hesitation, rhythm and
emphasis. The manner in which the writing instrument is moves, that is finger movement,
hand movement, arm movement and whole movement.
NATURAL VARIATION – this are normal and natural deviation found between repeated
specimen of an individual handwriting.
NON-AQUEOUS INK – an ink which the pigment or dye is carried in any vehicle other than
water, inks of this class are found in ballpoint pens, typewriter ribbons and stamp pods and all
widely used in the printing industry.
OBLIQUE OR SIDE LIGHTING EXAMINATION – an examination with the illumination
so controlled that it gaze or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low
angle.
OBLITERATION – the blotting out or smearing over of writing to make the original invisible
or undecipherable.
OFF ITS LEGAL LANGUAGE – a condition of typeface writing heavier either one side or
corner than over the remainder of its outline.
OPINION IN LEGAL LANGUAGE – the document examiner‟s conclusion is known as an
opinion. Actually, court does not only express an opinion but demonstrated the reason for
arriving at this opinion. Opinion and conclusion are used synonymously.
PAPER ANALYSIS – the application of chemicals on the paper to determine its component
whether or not it come from the same source.
PATCHING – going back over defective writing stroke or an attempt to improve an imitation.
PEN – a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper.

PENCIL GRADE – is the quantitative description of the hardness or softness of a pencil, that is
how a dark stroke is capable of making.
PEN LIFT – an instrument in a stroke caused by removing the writing instrument from the
paper.
PEN NIBS – the two divisions or points which form the writing portion of the pen.
PERMANENT DEFECTS – any identifying characteristics of a typewriter which cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the typeface or replacing the ribbon.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – this is the process of obtaining a magnified photograph of a small
object without the use of microscope but, by using a short lens and a long below extension.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS- is a photograph made through a compound microscope or
stereoscope and may be a greatly enlarged image of minute details or of small area.
PHOTOMACROGRAPH – is a photograph with a magnification of from two to fifty times the
original size.
PHOTOMICROGRAPHY – this is the science obtaining photographic magnification of a
minute by using camera attached to a compound microscope. The camera lens is removed
because the microscope lens forms the image.
PLATEN – the cylinder which serves as the backing for the paper and which absorbs the blow
of the typeface.
PROPORTION SPACING TYPEWRITING – a modern form of typewriting which resembles
printing in that all the letters, numerals and symbols do not occupy the some horizontal space
as they do with the conventional typewriter.
QUALIFICATIONS- the professional experience, education and ability of a document
examiner combine to make-up his qualifications.
QUALITY- is a distinct or peculiar character. It is used in describing handwriting to refer to any
identifying factor, which is related to the writing movement itself.
REBOUND – is a defect in which the character prints a double impression with the lighter one
slightly offset to the right or left.
REBUTTING EVIDENCE – is that evidence that counter act, to repeal or destroy
evidence, or disproved the evidence.
RESTORATION – describes any process in which erased writing is developed or brought out
again on the document itself.
RETRACING- any stroke which goes back over another writing stroke.
RIBBON CONDITION- the degree of deterioration of the typewriter ribbons that generally
deteriorate with use.
SAFETY PAPER- these terms is applied paper which has been treated in such away to
minimize the chances of successful forgery by erasure whether mechanical or chemical being
carried out in any document which forms the basis.
SCRIPT WRITING- are characterized by writings which are not point together or
disconnected.
SECRET INKS – a material used for writing which is not visible until treated by some
developing process or substance can serve as a secret or sympathetic ink.
SEQUENCE OF STROKES – the order in which the writing strokes are placed on the paper.
SHADING – is the widening of the ink stroke due to added pressure on a flexible pen point or to
the use of a stub.
SIGNIFICANT WRITING HABIT –this term is applied to any characteristics of writing
which is sufficiently unique and well fixed to serve as fundamental point of identification.
SIGNATURE AS DEFINED BY WEBSTER- is one`s name written by himself on a document
as assign of acknowledgement.
SIMULATED SIGNATURE- a freehand drawing in imitation of a model signature.
SLANT – is an angle or inclination of the axis of the letters relative to the baseline.
SPEED OF WRITING- the motion of a writing instrument characterized by slow, moderate or
rapid. Writing speed cannot be measured precisely from finished handwriting but can be
interpreted in broad terms of slow, moderated or rapid.
SPURIOUS SIGNATURE-describes as fraudulent signature in which there was no apparent
attempt of simulation or imitation.
STANDARD – are those things whose origin are known can be proven and which can be legally
use for comparison with other things in question.
STANDARD OF COMPARISON- in questioned documents examination we mean those
things whose origins are known and can be proven and which can be legally used as example
to compare with other matters in question usually a standard consists of the known
handwriting of a person and in such case “ Standard “ has the same meaning as is
understanding by the word “ specimen” of the handwriting.
SYNTHETIC DYE INKS OR ANILINE INKS- any which consists simply of a dye
dissolved in water together with the necessary preservatives.
SYSTEM OF SIGNATURE- the combination of basic design of letters and the writing
movement as taught in school make up the writing system.
TRACED FORGERY – any fraudulent signature which was executed by actually following the
outline of a genuine signature in writing instrument.
TESTIMONIAL EVIDENCE- is the oral testimony of a man or an expert in court or written
affidavit by an ordinary witness.
TRANSITORY DEFECTS – an identifying characteristics which can be eliminated by
cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon such as clogged typefaces.
TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION- the document is viewed with the source of
illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper.
TREMORS- a writing portrayed by irregular, shaky strokes.
TWISTER LETTER – each letter and character designed to point at a certain fixed angle to the
baseline, due to wear and damage to the type bar and the type block some letters become
twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
TYPEFACE- the printing surface of the type block.
TYPEFACE DEFECTS- any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damaged to the

typeface metal.
ULTRA VIOLET EXAMINATION- is invisible and occurs in the wavelength just below the
invisible blue (light) violet ends at the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays react on some
substance as that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as florescence. Thus, ultra-
violet examination may be made visually photography by recording either the reflected ultra-
violet or invisible radiation.
ULTRA- VIOLET PHOTOGRAPHY –the utilization of ultra-violet rays in document
photography to restore or uncover writings which have been erased chemically or
mechanically or in the detection of substitution, overt writing, superimposition and secret
writing.
VERTICAL MAL ALIGNMENT - a character printing above and below is proper position.
WATERMARKS – a certain paper are marked with translucent design a watermark, impressed
in them during the course of their manufacture.
WRITING CONDITIONS – includes the circumstances under which the writing was prepared
and the factors which influence the writer‟s ability to write at the time of execution.
WRITTEN IMPRESSION – the small writing indentations completely devoid of any pigment.
They may be found on a sheet of a table paper which as immediately below the one on which
writing was done, or they may be remain after or typewriting has been erased.
WRITING OR HARDWORKING – is the visible effect or bodily movement which is almost
unconscious expression of fixed muscular habit reacting scrip form. It is the visible record of
pen or paper. Writing is the forms, which are the very visible result of metal or muscular
habits acquired by continued, painstaking of effort.
WRONG HANDED WRITING – any writing executed with the opposite hand that normally
used. Thus, the writing of a right handed person which has been executed with his left hand
accounts for the common terminology for this class of disguise in “Left handed Writing”
HISTORY OF PAPER
The earliest form of material on which writing was placed were the skins of animals
called parchment or vellum. The first artificial material was used in Egypt and called papyrus.
The inside of a glass like plant was sliced into layers that were beaten and pressed together into
sheets. The word paper comes from the papyrus. The first paper was made from rags. At first
linen rags were used and afterwards a mixture of linen and cotton or cotton only. Letters dated
A.D 874 have been found in Egypt and oldest manuscript in England on cotton paper is the year
A.D 1049. Straw was used to make paper in 1880. Paper made from wood was not attempted
until 1869 and modern type of paper called sulphite was first between 1880 and 1890. A form of
grass called esparto, grown in Libya, was first introduced in England in 1861.
The easiest way of identifying the date of manufacture of the paper is by the watermark.
This is a brand put on the paper by the manufactures. It is impressed into the paper by wires on
the rollers that make the paper. These designs are changed from time to time. All paper
manufactures keep careful of changes in their watermarks. If the watermarks of the suspected
document and the papers genuinely prepared at the same time are not the same, an inquiry should
be made to be made to the paper manufacturer. Wrong watermarks are one of the most common
mistakes of a forger.
KINDS OF DOCUMENT:
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENT – a document created, executed or issued by a public official in
response to exigencies of the public service, or in the execution of which the public
intervenes.
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS – also known as a public document, it is issued by a public
official in the exercise of his functions. It falls within the larger class called public
documents.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENT – a deed or instrument executed by a private person without the
intervention of a notary public or other persons legally authorized, and which proves some
disposition or agreement as evidenced or set forth therein.
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENT – any document defined and regulated by the Code of
Commerce.
Historical dating- this entails the verification of age and worth of document or object. It is
sometimes done by a document examiner, and can get as complicated as carbon 14 dating.
1. Fraud Investigators – their work often overlaps with of the document examiner, and
focuses on the money trail and criminal intent.
2. Paper and Ink specialists- These are public or private experts who date, type, source, and
or catalogue various types of paper, watermarks, ink, printing/copy/fax machines,
computer cartridges and the like, using chemical methods.
3. Forgery Specialists – These are public or private experts who analyze altered,
obliterated, changed, or doctored documents and photos using infrared lighting, expensive
spectrograph equipment, or digital enhancement techniques.
4. Handwriting analysts – These are usually psychology experts who assess personality
traits from handwriting samples: also called graphologists or graph analysts. Forensic stylistics
focus on semantics, spelling, word choice, syntax and phraseology.
5. Typewriting Analysts – These are experts on the origin, make and model used in
typewritten material.
6. Computer crime investigators –this is an emerging group that relates to QDE through
some common investigative and testimonial procedures.
SCIENTIFIC EXAMINATION OF HANDWRITING

1. ANALYSIS (or recognition) of characteristics
2. COMPARISON of characteristics
3. EVALUATION of characteristics
ANALYSIS involves the observation, measurement and or determination or properties or

characteristics.
COMPARISON entails the actual comparison of the properties or characteristics of an unknown
item determined thru analysis with familiar or recorded characteristics of known items.

EVALUATION means the correct interpretation of characteristics will each have certain value
of determination on determined by their like hood of occurrence. The weight or significance
of each characteristic must be considered.
The principle of identification requires that when two items contain a combination of
corresponding or similar and specifically characteristics of such number and significance as to
preclude the possibility of their occurrence by here coincidence and there are no unaccounted for
differences, then it may be concluded that they are the same, and that their characteristics are
attributed to one and the same cause.
EXAMINATION, therefore involves the recognition, comparison and correct
interpretation for all the characteristics of the handwriting.
RECOGNITION OF HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS
Before one can conduct a comparison and proper evaluation of the characteristics of
handwriting, he must be able to observed and recognized handwriting characteristics first and
foremost.
The following factors of identification commonly involved in handwriting examination
are hereunder enumerated.
1. System (form characteristics). This refers to the shape of form or design of the individual
letters. Mere similarities in form of system characteristics do not indicate identify of writer.
Further, that they studied or learned the same system or style penmanship in early formative
school days. A basic difference in form of letters indicates that different writers made the
writing. For what is SYSTEM but that particular style of writing learned when the child first
learned how to write. It is that indelible impression or influence on writing more particularly
in the form of letter forms. Another aspects relating to form would be the “regional or radial”
influence where a Filipino moving to another part of the country carried over “a regional
aspects” as his writing (from his country or regional of birth) just as his Visayan accent”
would persist throughout his long stay in another place.
Through problems in “regional of foreign” hands are few, it is well to remember. The
following principles of handwriting identification.
a. National or system characteristics are not alone sufficient on which to base a judgment of
identify.
b. National or system characteristics are strong evidence of non-identify between two
writing.
2. Skill in writing refers to one‟s ability or proficiency as skill in any other endeavor it would
readily observe that a basketball player is awkward in manner he plays because he is not a
skill as PBA player. In the same vein, we observe one‟s handwriting as good, medium or
poor, depending on the manual dexterity of the individual.
As a rule, an individual cannot write better than his “level best”. Contrariwise, anyone
writer can do a “poorer” hand than his usual best without much effort.
When two writings have done contemporaneously show that one has a higher degree of
skill than the other, then it is safe to conclude that they were not written by one and the same
hand.
However, if a questioned writing is less skillful than the specimen handwriting, identify
of two writings can not entirely be ruled out, as one intentionally distort or later his normal or
manner of writing as to be able to clock his identify.
3. Slant refers to the slope of the handwriting in relation to the base line. It is fairly a stable
characteristics and the average slant varies very slightly in writings done naturally.
4. Spacing between letters in worse between words themselves is dependent on many things.
Space between letters depends of the connecting links or strokes. Short connection result in
compact writings while long connections results in well spread extended writings.
5. Speed and movement influence spacing. As a rule, forearm movement produces writers.
Handwriting may be made with compact letters yet words are yet widely apart in the
sentences while spacing between letters may be far apart yet the words are closed together.
Speed is classified either as a (slow and drown; b) deliberate c) average or rapid.
6. Shading refers to the more obvious increase in the width of strokes, of consistency in the
variation of width attribute to variation in pressure of fine and delicate lines are correctly
termed as “unconscious emphasis” to distinguish it from perfectly evident shading.
a. Form
b. Intensity consideration and attention
c. Frequency
d. Skill
e. Exact location of shading needs special
7. Size of a hand writing as a characteristics is somewhat variable under different conditions
and may but little important when applied of only one example, or to a small quantity of
writing like a signature, unless the very divergence is very pronounced. But if a number of
signature claim to have been produce at different times are in dispute and they are alike in the
matter of size in which they differ from the admitted exemplars; then the divergence becomes
significant in proportion to its extend, the number of divergent examples and the standards.
8. Proportion of letter may refer to proportion of a part to the other part of a letter, or the
relative height of one letter of the other. This is one of the hidden features of writing as it is
unknown to the writing of another being stimulated.
The average height of a letter remains constant to that of the other letters even the size of
the writing is altered. Purposed changing the size of one‟s handwriting may be easy.
Proportion characteristics under the circumstances become a highly significant fact of
identification.
9. Pen position or pen hold can be determined from the exact of the shading as it is impossible
to hold a fountain pen in any one position so that the strokes at right angles to each other can
be smoothly shaded so that both show the distinct and separately equal tracks of both nibs.
10. Pen pressure refers to the proportion of the strokes to each other in which as affected
shading. It is one of the most personal if somewhat hidden characteristics in writing.
11. Pen lifting is one of the unconsciousness and inconspicuous writing habit an individual and
are often entirely disregarded in stimulated in writing.
Clumsy writers frequently lift the pen to read just his writing words tend to be broken
after every letter because of difficulty.
Disconnection in words is more closely related to the design of letters than with
movements, the habits having been acquired during the early of writing (when the child
first learned how to write).
Many writes lift the pen before letters a, c, d, g, and q in line of every design of
the small letters themselves requires lifting the pen.
12. Movement in handwriting differs with every writer. They may range from FINGER (applied
by clumsy illiterate writers) to FOREARM (applied by professors or teachers movement).
a. Finger Movement
b. Hand Movement
c. Forearm Movement
d. Whole arm Movement
13. Line Quality of writing refers to the visible recorded of the written strokes.
14. Initial and Terminal strokes refer to the motion of the pen that precedes the putting of the
pen on the paper indicative of flying starts as to show the stroke at the beginning to be thin
and part where the pen is actually raised away from then paper while in motion as to give a
vanishing and the stroke papers at the end.
15. Alignment is the relation of successive characters or elements of the words signature or line
to an actual imaginary base line.
SUBJECT CONSIDERED IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

A. Handwriting Examination
a. Examination of signature and initials
b. Examinations of anonymous writings
c. Hand printing examination
B. Typewriting Examination- Pica 10 – Elite – 12
C. Examination of Inks
D. Photo chemical printing processes
E. Erasures, alterations or obliteration, sequence of writings
F. Counterfeiting

Factors that affect handwriting

a. Environment
b. Education
c. Occupation
TWO KINDS OF MUSCLES OF THE HAND, WHICH FUNCTION IN HANDWRITING
A group for extensor muscles pushed up the pen to form the upward strokes and ease the
tension produced as a result of flexion by a group of muscles called the flexor muscles that
pushed by the pen to form downward strokes. These flexor and extensor muscles combine with
lumbrical muscles to form lateral strokes.
GROUP OF MUSCLES EMPLOYED IN WRITING:

Those, which operate the joints of the: a.) fingers b.) wrist c.)elbow and d.) shoulder.
Note: The delicate way in which the various muscles used in writing work together to
produce written forms is known as motor coordinator.
Development of writing:
1. Children learn writing by following the school copy or model.
2. After acquiring some degree of skill the children no longer follow the school model.
3. As speed increases, conscious design and regularity begin to break down.
4. In the course of trial and error, modifications are model; a)simplification, b)elaboration,
c)addition, and d)omissions are made or occurred.
Note: The writing pattern of each child embodies a unique combination of deviation from the
standard letter forms or school model; and becomes his personal habits.
STROKES
It is a path traced by the pen on the paper. It should be observed whether the course of the
stroke is continuous or broken. The pen stroke is the usual record of the writing movement.
QUALITIES OF STROKE
1. Expansion – whether the movement is extended or limited in its range with respect to both
vertical and horizontal dimension.
2. Coordination – whether the flow of movement is controlled or uncertain, smooth or jerky,
continuous or interrupted.
3. Speed – whether the movement has been rapid or slow and whether the pace has been steady
or variable.
4. Pressure – whether the pressure exerted in the movement has been heavy or light, flexible
and rigid.
5. Direction – leftward and rightward trends of the movement and it‟s upward and downward
reaches.
6. Rhythm – is the sequence of movements that weave the total pattern, certain similar phases
recur at more or less regular intervals.
LETTER CONNECTIONS:
1. Arcade – a rounded stroke shaped like an arch. It is a slow made of connection resulting from
controlled environment.
2. Garland – links the downward stroke to the upstroke with a flowing curve swinging from the
left to right. It is easy, effortless mode of connection, written with speed.
System of Early American Handwriting:

1. Old English Roundhand – in fact an Italian handwriting popular in 1840.
2. Modified roundhand – early edition of the Spencerian, and the Payson, Dunton, and Scriber
copybook- 1840 – 1860
3. Specerian – there is simplification by the omission of extra strokes and flourishes. And a
general tendency to word plainer letters than the preceding system, some of which were very
ornate- 1860 – 1890
4. Modern vertical writing – 1890-1900

5. The arm movement writing - the manner or method of writing, instead of the form alone is
specially emphasized.
Note: Out of these five decisions of early handwriting, the modern commercial hand
systems developed. Free movement characterizes this and the forms adopted are best suited to
easy rapid writing. These are the Zoner and Blazer system of arm movement writing and the
Palmer system of American arm movement.
Signature
A name or mark a person puts at the end of to attest that is the author or that he ratifies its
contents. Many persons who have done a lot of writings transform their name. Letters become
simplified or condensed, complex movement appears. This is now a signature. It is a mark but
this mark is now personal. It is a personal combination of strokes in which it is possible to
recognize the writer.
STANDARDS OF EXAMPLARS:
They are known writings, which indicate how a person writes. A writer manifests fixed
habits in his writing that identifies him. This fact provides the basis for an opinion or conclusion
regarding any writing identification problem. There are three classes of handwriting standards:
1. Collected exemplars – which are known handwriting of a person written in the course of
his daily life, business, social or personal affairs such as signatures and endorsements on
cancelled checks, commercial, official, public and private documents.
2. Request exemplars – are signatures or other writings written by an individual upon the
request investigation for purposes of comparison with other handwritings, hand printing and
signatures.
3. Post Litem Motam Exemplars – writings produced by the subjects after evidential writings
have come into dispute and solely for the purpose of establishing his contentions.
PROBLEMS IN COMPARING STANDARD WITH THE QUESTIONED WRITING:

1. Signatures of the careless or highly erratic writer – a group of writers who execute their
signatures without consistency. With 75 to 100 standards, examiner may still be confused.
2. Receipt signature – it has the same lack of consistency but when the writer is signing for a
delivery, such a letter or telegram, his signature is consistency uniform and superior in form.
3. Near – intelligence writer – is slow and laborious task. The signature is drawn, padding and
its design is primitive.
4. Signatures of physically impaired writer –
a. The intoxicated signature
b. Old age signature
Another problem is 5) Disguised signature or writing – if the questioned signature is
disguised, specimen written under normal condition cannot be used for comparison.
GENERAL CLASSES OF FRAUDULENT AND QUESTIONED WRITING:

Forged or simulated writings in which the attempt is made to discard one‟s own writing
and assume the exact writing personality of another person.
Those writings that are disguised and in which the writer seeks to A. hide his own
personality without adopting that of another.
CLASSES OF FORGED SIGNATURES:

Simulated Signatures – freehand drawing in imitation of model signature.
Simulated with the model before the forger – he makes an effort to obtain a reproduction
of the model signature. He works slowly, stroke by stroke.
Direct technique – forger works directly with ink
Indirect technique – forger work first with pencil and afterwards cover the pencil with ink
Simulated freehand forgery – used by forgers who have a certain skill in writing.
Traced signature – a tracing of genuine signature outline such as:

a. direct tracing, by means of transmitted light
b. indirect tracing, through a carbon paper
Types of traced signatures:

a. Carbon process
b. Indentation process
c. Transmitted light process
Kind of Tracing Processes:
Carbon Process or Carbon Outline Process - a carbon paper is placed/interleaved between the
genuine signature (which is placed on top) and the document intended to be forged (which is
at the bottom). The outline of the model signature is traced with a dry pen or sharp pointed
instrument with considerable pressure to make a carbon offset on the fraudulent document.
The carbon outline is at times passed on as the genuine signature by the forger. Other
forgers will improve it by retracing the carbon outline with suitable ink stroke before passing the
same as genuine.
Indentation Process – are indented as canal like outline of the genuine signature is produced on
the fraudulent document (which is placed at the bottom) by tracing with considerable
pressure the outline of the genuine signature with a sharp pointed instrument. The indented
outline is then directly linked and in some instances first retraced with pencil very lightly
before it is finally “inked-in”.
Projection or Transmitted Light Process – the fraudulent document is placed immediately
above the genuine signature. With strong light directed through the two sheets of papers
either from below or behind, the outline which is seen through the upper sheet is then
retraced with any suitable writing instrument.
3. Simple forgery – forger does not try to copy a model but writes something resembling what
we ordinarily call a signature.
4. Forgery by means of stamped facsimile of a genuine signature or model.
PHOTO MECHANICAL PRINTING PROCESS:

There has been an increase in the use of printing for committing crime such as
defamatory, libelous, seditious or anonymous posters, spurious certificates, falsified money
orders, etc. in order to better understand the result produced by different printing processes one
should have knowledge of the methods of printing.
METHODS OF PRINTING
Relief Printing – (Letter Press) In relief printing the image characteristics is raised above
the level of the non-printing area. The ink is applied to a raised surface, which is applied to
paper.
A. Intaglio (Gravure Printing) In intaglio printing the image characters are suited below the non
printing areas, the ink is flooded into an image which has been cut out or etched such as
engraving, etching and gravure.
B. Planographic ( Lithographic Printing)- in Planographic printing, the image characters are in
the same plane as the non- printing areas. The ink is applied to a deal level plate which has
been chemically treated such as lithographic and offset.
C. Stencil – a process where the letter or images are holes cut in a sheet is made more porous in
the area of the letters and ink is applied to paper through the holes or porous areas such as
mimeograph.
Water Mark:
Is one of the most reliable methods for determining whether or not a document is as old it
purports to be and its presence also is one of the most important features in the comparison of
papers?

It is a distinctive mark or design placed in the paper at the time of its manufacture by roll
usually covered with wire cloth and known as dandy roll and serve as a means where by the
paper can be identified as the product of a particular manufacturer.
ERASURES :
One of the common inquiries in questioned document is whether or not an erasure was
actually made on a document. In cases of this kind, the following examinations are made.
1, Physical inspection using ultra violet light, observation with light striking the surface at a
sharp angle, and observation under the microscope may be considered.
2.Fuming with iodine may cause an almost negligible strain, but in most substances not the
slightest semblance of a strain remains.
MONEY COUNTERFEITING
IDENTIFICATION OF BSP BANK NOTES AND COINS
The following are the characteristics, designs and distinct features of BSP banknotes:
PAPER – Feel the paper – The genuine note is printed on a special kind of paper which is
rough when you run fingers through it. It does not glow under the ultra – violet light. During
paper manufacture, the water marks, security threads and iridescent band are included.
WATERMARK – Examine the watermarks on the unprinted portion of the note – The
watermark is the silhouette of the portrait appearing on the face of the note is viewed against
the light. The contours of the features of the silhouette can be felt by running the finger over
the design on relatively new notes.
SECURITY FIBERS – Inspect the security fibers – Embedded red and blue visible fibers are
scattered at random on both surface of a genuine note and can be readily picked off by
means of any pointed instrument.
EMBEDDED SECURITY THREAD – View the embedded security thread – The embedded
security thread is a special thread vertically implanted off center of the note during paper
manufacture. This can easily be seen when the note is viewed against the light. It appears as
a broken line for 5‟s, 10‟s and straight line for 50‟s, 100‟s, 500‟s and 1000‟s
WINDOWED SECURITY THREAD – View the windowed security thread on the
improved version of 100’s, 500’s, and 1000 peso notes and new 200 peso notes – T
he windowed security thread is a narrow security thread vertically located like
“stitches” at the face of the note with a clear text of the numerical value in repeated
sequence and changes in color from magenta to green or green to magenta depending on the
angle of view.
IRIDESCENT BAND – Look for the iridescent band on the improved portion of 100’s,
500’s and 1000 peso notes and the new 200 peso notes – A wide glistening gold vertical
stripe with the numerical value printed in series.
PORTRAIT – Appears like-like. The eyes “sparkle”. Shading is formed by the fine lines that
given the portrait a characteristics facial expression which is extremely difficult to replicate.
SERIAL NUMBER – Composed of 1 or 2 prefix letters and 6 or 7 digits. The letters and
numerals are uniform in size and thickness, evenly spaced and well-aligned; they glow
under ultra-violet light. A banknote with six “0” digit serial number is a specimen note and
not a legal tender.
BACKGROUND/LACEWORKS DESIGN – the background designs are made up of
multicolored and well-defined lines. The lacework designs are composed of web-crossing
lines which are continuous and traceable even at the intersection.
VIGNETTE – The lines and dashes composing the vignette are fine, distinct and sharp; the
varying color gives a vivid look to the picture that makes it “stand out” of the paper.
VALUE PANEL – Check the numerals found at the four corners of the front and bank of
the note. The numerals denote the denomination of the note.
COLOR – Recognize predominant color of each denomination:
1000-peso Blue 50-peso Red
500-peso Yellow 20-peso Orange
200-peso Green 10-peso* Brown
100-peso Mauve 5-peso* Green

FLOURESCENT PRINTING – Look for the presence of the fluorescent print when the
note is exposed under the ultra-violet light – The fluorescent print is the invisible
numerical value located off of the center of the face of the note that glows when exposed to
ultra-violet light.
MICROPRINTING – Verify under the lens the presence of the microprinting on the
denominations 50’s, 100’s, 200’s, 500 and 1000 – Micropriting are the minute and finely
printed words “Banko Sentral ng Pilipinas or “Central Bank of the Philippines” located at the
face or back of the note that are clearly printed and readable.
CONCEALED VALUE – Check the optically variable ink on the 500-peso denomination –
This concealed value is located at the lower left corner of the face of the note and is
recognizable when the note is held at eye level.
OPTICALLY VARIABLE INK – Check the concealed value on the 1000-peso
denomination - It changes color from green to blue or blue to green when the note is held at
different angles.
LAWS ON FORGERY
(Revised Penal Code)
Art. 161. Counterfeiting the great seal of Government of the Philippine Islands, forging the
signature or stamp of the Chief Executive. – The penalty of reclusion temporal shall be
imposed upon any person who shall forge the Great Seal of the Government of the Philippine
Islands or the signature or stamp of the Chief Executive.
Art. 162. Using forged signature or counterfeit seal or stamp. – The penalty of prison mayor
shall be imposed upon any person who shall knowingly make use of the counterfeit seal or
forged signature or stamp mentioned in the preceding article.
Art. 163. Making and importing and uttering false coins. – Any person who makes, imports, or
utters, false coins, in connivance with counterfeiters, or importers, shall suffer:
1. Prison mayor in its minimum and medium periods and fine not to exceed P10, 000 pesos, if
the counterfeited coin be silver coin of the Philippines or coin of the Central Bank of the
Philippines of ten centavo denomination or above.
2. Prison correctional in its minimum and medium periods and a fine of not to exceed P2, 000
pesos, if the counterfeited coins be any of the minor coinage of the Philippines or of the
Central Bank of the Philippines below ten-centavo denomination.
3. Prison correctional in its minimum period and fined not to exceed P1, 000, if the
counterfeited coin be currency of a foreign country. (As amended by R.A. No. 4202,
approved June 19, 1965).
Art. 164. Mutilation of coins; Importation and utterance of mutilated coins. – The penalty of
prison correctional in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P2, 000 pesos shall be
imposed upon any person who shall mutilate coins of the legal currency of the United States
or of the Philippine Islands or import or utter mutilated current coins, or in connivance with
mutilator or importers.
Art. 165. Selling of false or mutilated coin, without connivance. – The person who knowingly,
although without the connivance mentioned in the preceding articles, shall possess false or
mutilated coin with intent to utter the same, or shall actually utter such coin, shall suffer a
penalty lower by one degree than that prescribed in said articles.
Art. 166. Forging treasury or bank notes on other documents payable to bearer; importing,
and uttering such false or forged notes and documents. – The forging or falsification of
treasury or bank notes or certificates or other obligations and securities payable to bearer and
the importation and uttering in connivance with forgers or importers of such false or forged
obligations or notes, shall be punished as follows:
1. By reclusion temporal in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P10, 000 pesos, if
the document which has been falsified, counterfeited, or altered, is an an obligation or
security of the United States or of the Philippines Islands.
The word “obligation or security of the United States or of the Philippine Islands” shall be held
to mean all bonds, certificates of indebtedness, national bank notes, fractional notes,
certificates of deposit, bills, checks, or drafts for money, drawn by or upon authorized
officers of the United States or of the Philippines Islands, and other representatives of

value, of whatever denomination, which have been or may be issued under any act of the
Congress of the United States or of the Philippines Legislature.
2. By prison mayor in its maximum period and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos, if the falsified
or altered document is a circulating note issued by any banking association duly authorized
by law to issue the same.
3. By prison mayor in its medium period and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos, if the falsified
or counterfeited document was issued by a foreign government.
4. By prison mayor in its minimum period and a fine not to exceed P2,000 pesos, when the
forged or altered document is a circulating note or bill issued by a foreign bank duly
authorized therefore.
Art. 167. Counterfeiting, importing and uttering instruments not payable to bearer. – Any
person who shall forge, import or utter, in connivance with the forgers or importers, any
instrument payable to order or other document of credit not payable to bearer, shall suffer the
penalties of prison correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine not exceeding
P6,000 pesos.
Art. 168. Illegal possession and use of false treasury or bank notes and other instruments of
credit. – Unless the act be one of those coming under the provisions of any of the preceding
articles, any person who shall knowingly use or have in his possession, with intent to use any
of the false or falsified instruments referred to in this section, shall suffer the penalty next
lower in degree than that prescribed in said articles.
Art. 169. How forgery is committed. – The forgery referred to in this section may be committed
by any of the following means:
1. By giving to a treasury or bank note or any instrument, payable to bearer or order
mentioned therein, the appearance of a true genuine document.
2. By erasing, substituting, counterfeiting or altering by any means the figures, letters, words
or signs contained therein.
Art. 170. Falsification of legislative documents. – The penalty of prison correction in its
maximum period and a fine not exceeding P6,000 pesos shall be imposed upon any person
who, without proper authority therefore alters any bill, resolution, or ordinance enacted or
approved or pending approval by either House of the Legislature or any provincial board or
municipal council.
Art. 171. Falsification by public officer, employee or notary or ecclesiastic minister. – The
penalty of prison mayor and a fine not to exceed P5,000 pesos shall be imposed upon any
public officer, employee, or notary who, taking advantage of his official position, shall
falsify a document by committing any of the following acts.
1. Counterfeiting or imitating any handwriting, signature or rubric;
2. Causing it to appear that persons have participated in any act or proceeding when they did
not in fact so participate;
3. Attributing to persons who have participated in an act or proceeding statements other than
those in fact made by them;
4. Making untruthful statements in a narration of facts;
5. Altering true dates;
6. Making any alteration or intercalation in a genuine document which changes its meaning;
7. Issuing in an authenticated form a document purporting to be a copy of an original
document when no such original exists, or including in such a copy a statement contrary to,
or different from, that of the genuine original; or
8. Intercalating any instrument or note relative to the issuance thereof in a protocol, registry, or
official book.
The same penalty shall be imposed upon any ecclesiastical minister who shall commit any of
the offenses enumerated in the preceding paragraphs of this article, with respect to any record or
document of such character that its falsification may affect the civil status of persons.
Art. 172. Falsification by private individual and use of falsified documents. – The penalty of
prison correctional in its medium and maximum periods and a fine of not more than P5, 000
pesos shall be imposed upon:

1. Any private individual who shall commit any of the falsifications enumerated in the next
preceding article in any public or official document or letter of exchange or any other kind
of commercial document; and
2. Any person who, to the damage of a third party, or with the intent to cause such damage,
shall in any private document commit any of the acts of falsification enumerated in the next
preceding article.
Any person who shall knowingly introduce in evidence in any judicial proceeding or to the
damage of another or who, with the intent to cause such damage, shall use any of the false
documents embraced in the next proceeding article, or in any of the foregoing subdivisions of
this article, shall be punished by the penalty next lower in degree.
REFERENCES:
 DR. MELY E. SORRA (2011), Forged or Genuine (A Questioned Document Handbook),

Quezon City, Philippines, Wiseman‟s Books Trading, Inc.
 DIPNI P. PAGNAS, HOMER T. DALILIS, ROSE MARIE B. CURUGAN (2003),
Handbook on Forensic Questioned Documents, Marikina City, Philippines, J.C. palabay
Entrerprises Inc.
Philippines, Wiseman‟s Books Trading Inc.
 PSupt (RET.) RODOLFO O. CASTILLO & CARLITO MAGBANUA (2008); Forensic
Document Investigation, Quezon City, Philippines; Wiseman‟s Books Trading, Inc.


CRIMINALISTICS
POLYGRAPHY
(LIE DETECTION)


POLYGRAPHY
ADMISSION – A self incriminating statement which falls short of an acknowledgement of

guilt.
ANGELO MOSSO – a pioneer who developed in 1895 a type of sphygmanometer and utilized
a scientific cradle and focus on the significance.
BALANCE ORDEAL – this existed in the 600 B.C as early as the Institute of Vishnu wherein
the practice of determining the veracity of the statement of the accused by placing him on one
scale of balance and in the other scale a counter balance. Then the accused is asked to step
down the scale while the judge delivers a catchphrase to the balance. After the exhortation, the
accused is asked to go back to the scale and if he is found to be lighter than before he was
adjudged as acquitted.
BLACK LIE – a kind of lie used by a person to deceive others.
BLOOD PRESSURE CUFF ASSEMBLY – part of the cardio component attached on the right
arm of the subject.
BOILING WATER ORDEAL – this was prevalent in Africa. This test of deception is
undertaken by asking that person suspected of committing a crime to place their right arm into
the boiling pot to the elbow, after plunging their arm they are asked to take a rest at the same
time, on one who after the next afternoon has lost some of his skin or showed a blister would
be determined as the person guilty of committing a crime.
CARD TEST – it is conducted immediately after the completion of the first test while the blood
pressure cuff is still deflated. The subject is asked to choose one from seven numbered cards,
take it and return the same without telling the examiner or otherwise identifying the chosen
number. The card is then shuffled by the examiner and instructs the subject to answer NO
concerning the cards shown. This is to single out which among the answers given by the
subject is a lie. This is undertaken to stimulate lying subjects and to specific responsiveness to
the subsequent relevant questions and to afford the lying subject and opportunity to try to
distort the polygraph examinations tracings which would results in exposing his deception
with respect to the matter under investigation.
CARDIOSPYMOGRAPH – a device which consists of blood pressure cuff and rubber pump
and is fastened around the subject‟s right arm. It records changes in pulse rate and blood
pressure.
CESARE LOMBROSO – An Italian scientist who in 1885 used hydrosphygmograph procedure
and was credited to be the pioneer who envisioned the idea of using scientific procedures to
lie detection. He is considered as the first person to use an instrument for the purpose of
detecting deception.
CHART – also referred to a polygrams, it is the combined record of the cardiospygmograph,
galvanograph and pneumograph tracings recorded from a series of questions.
CONFESSION – refers to the voluntary statement made by a person and given to proper and
given to proper authorities wherein he acknowledges himself to be guilty of an offense and
disclose circumstances of his act and participation had in the felony.
CONTROL QUESTION – Answerable by NO it is designed to produce a response from an
innocent subject.
DIACRITIC NOTCH – a short horizontal line on cardio tracing located at the middle of
diastolic stern.
DECEPTION – it is an act of misleading or deceiving usually accomplished by lying or
untruthful remarks.
DECEPTION DETECTION METHOD – it is a method of gathering and knowing information
from the subject about the crime in dispute employing the use of machine or device. Drugs or
substances and other accessory means. Most of the tests are not reliable and thus the
information gathered are not admissible in court as evidence but only important to be used for
further investigation.
DETECTION – refers to the act of discovering the existence, fact or presence of something
obscure or ambiguous.

DONKEY’S TAIL ORDEAL – this is undertaken by placing the accused and a donkey in one
room, if after sometime, the donkey cries, the accused is adjudged as guilty of the offense
charged against him.
EMOTION – an acute disturbance of an individual as a whole, psychological in origin involving
behavior conscious experience and visceral functions.
EVIDENCE CONNECTING QUESTION – intended to stimulate the subjects and focus his
attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to establish his guilt.
FEAR – refers to an emotional reaction to explicit or specific danger that appears to go beyond a
person‟s defensive power.
FINGER ELECTRODE PLATE – a part of the galvanograph assembly attached on the left
fingers of the subject.
GALVANOGRAPH – an apparatus used to record subject‟s skin resistance to a small amount
of electricity. It is made up of electrodes attached to the finger of the hand, or to the index and
ring finger of the left hand, or to the palmar or dorsal surface of the left hand.
GENERAL QUESTION TEST – consist of series of irrelevant and relevant questions asked in
a planned manner.
GUILT COMPLEX TEST – in cases where the subject is overly responsive, this test is given
which consist of a test pertaining to a purely fictitious incident of a similar nature to the one
under query. It is designed to compare the responsiveness on it with those that appeared on the
actual test record wherein questions asked are those which pertains to that which is under
investigation. This test is designed for diagnostic purpose to aid in the post examination
interrogation of a lying subject.
HEREDITY – the transmission of mental and physical traits from parents to offspring.
HAROLD BURTT – a scientist who in 1918, determined that the respiratory changes were
signs of deception and pressure changes are valuable in determining deception.
INITIAL INTERVIEW – usually conducted by the investigator handling the case or a
polygraph examiner who was given brief but significant details of the case it is designed to
obtain pertinent information necessary for the conduct of the polygraph test.
IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS – are those query that do not relate to the matter under
investigation and deals with a known fact about which the subject cannot lie.
JOHN A. LARSON – A pioneer who in 1921 developed an instrument capable of
simultaneously and continuously recording blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration. His
invention was designated as “the Bread Lie Detector”.
KEYMOGRAPH – A motorized component that pulls or drives the chart paper under the
recording pen concurrently at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per minute.
KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS – intended to probe whether the subject possesses information
regarding the identity of the offender.
LEONARD KEELER – an American Criminologist who in 1926 he invented the kymograph
machine. In 1949, the “Keeler‟s polygraph” incorporated the galvanograph with measurement,
blood pressure and respiration component and kymograph component. He also devised a
metal recoding bellow, rolled chart paper and the method of question formulation used in
polygraph examination.
LIE DETECTOR TEST – also known as “Keeler‟s Polygraph Test” is a test used to record
physiological changes associated with lying in a subject. The polygraph machine will record
the blood pressure, respiratory rate and the skin resistance to electricity on a graphing paper.
This instrument is an accurate, reliable delicately engineered used as a scientific method to
exonerate the innocent and to detect the guilty.
LYING – is the conveying or uttering of falsehood or misleading impression, with the intention
of affecting wrongfully the acts, opinion or affection to another.
MIXED QUESTION TEST – this consists of an arrangement of first and third test questions,
administered for the purpose of discounting possible factor of accidental responses and to
compare the degree of reaction between control and relevant questions.
NORMAL RESPONSE – a racing on the chart wherein the subject answered the irrelevant
questions.
NARCO ANALYSIS – also known as Narco-systhesis or Administration of truth Serum, this is
a deception method using narcotic or anesthetic drug in order to get information from the
sunject.
NORMAL TRACING – a tracing of the subject produced when no irrelevant question was
asked.
PEAK OF TENSION TEST – Answerable only by NO, this test is only made possible when
there is no widespread publicity about a crime where intimate details as to the method of
commission of certain facts of the case is only known by the actor of the crime, the victim and
the investigator.
PNEUMOGRAPH – it is a device which records the changes of respiration and breathing of the
subject, consisting of 10-inch convoluted tubes fastened together around the subject‟s
abdomen and chest.
PRE-TEST INTERVIEW – Administered by the polygraph examiner designed to condition or
prepare the subject for the actual polygraph test. Its duration usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes. At
this stage, the right of the subject are explained, his consent are obtained as well as personal
data and the determination whether the subject is mentally, physically and psychologically
prepared to undergo the polygraph test.
POLYGRAPH – refers to an instrument for recording in blood pressure respiration, pulse rate
and skin resistance as sign or indication of emotional disturbance especially lying when
questioned.
POLYGRAPH EXAMINER – the persons who administers or conduct the lie detection test by
the use of a polygraph machine.
POLYGRAPHY – it is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph
contraption.
POST TEST INTERVIEW – it is similar to the method of interrogation administered by the
polygraph examiner which is designed to obtain admission or confession of the subject. An
interview is conducted when the subject indicates an innocent response, while interrogation is
undertaken if signs of deception are indicated by the results of the actual polygraph test. In
cases wherein the polygraph result indicates that the subject is innocent, it is the duty of the
examiner to cordially release the subject and to thank the subject for giving consideration and
cooperation.
REACTION – it refers to any activity aroused in an organism by a stimulus. It is an action or
mental attitude induced by an external influence.
RED HOT IRON ORDEAL – this from of test was prevalent in India, specifically from those
living in the hill tribes of Rajhamal in the North of Bengal. The accused to prove his
innocence was asked to lick a red hot iron for nine times unless burnt sooner, if the tongue is
burned, the accused was put to death guilt was believed to make tongue dry.
RED WATER ORDEAL – this form of trial is undertaken where the accused is asked to fast
for twelve hours, and then he is asked to swallow a small amount of rice and drink dark
colored water. If this acts as an emetic and the accused rejects all of the rice, he is determined
innocent from the charges. This was based on the belief that the fetish of the victim enters the
body through the mouth with the emetic red water, it examines the heart of the accused and if
it finds him innocent brings up the rice in evidence.
RELEVANT QUESTIONS – direct query having precise and specific relation with the felony.
It is designed to produce emotional response in subject‟s trying to craft deceptive statements.
It is answerable by NO.
RESPONSE – refers to any inhibition or activity of previous motion of an organism or of
effector organ or part of the organism resulting from simulation or suggestion.
RICE CHEWING ORDEAL – In 1150 A.D. the Roman Catholic clergy had made full use of
Indian practice of ordeals specifically that of the rice chewing ordeal. Concentrated rice is the
article selected instead of cheese and bread, if the accused who asked to chew the
concentrated rice is unable to swallow a single grain he is adjudged as guilty. This was based
on the premise that a person conscious of their crime and fearful of the punishment from God
would feel a suffocating sensation in their throat, they would then on their fall on their knees
and confess the crime.
SACRIFICE QUESTION – reveals a subjects nouns and stimulus excitement level it gives us a
clue which pertains to the attitude of the subject‟s acceptance.
SECONDARY QUESTIONS – also known as weak relevant questions it is further classified as
either Sacrifice relevant knowledge or evidence connecting questions.

SILENT ANSWER TEST – this is a confirmatory test because the subject is afraid of the
unfamiliar and the unknown. It is an examination in which the subject is instructed by the
examiner to avoid audible response to the questions asked.
SPECIFIC RESPONSE – it is any variation or deviation from the normal tracing of the subject.
SPHYGMOMANOMETER – the part of the cardio component which indicates the air pressure
in the system in millimeters of mercury.
STICKER – in 1897 he worked on the galvanograph component and studied the influence and
relation of the sweat glands to skin resistance.
STIMULUS – refers to the motion or force reaching the organism and excites the receptors. It is
a force that produces the organism or any of its part to activity.
STIMULUS ASSOCIATION TEST – in this test, the subject will be interviewed, wherein a
group of stimulus words or objects or person will be presented to the subject. He will then be
instructed to answer the questions as quickly as possible. The time interval between each
relevant questions and answers were noted down as well as the reaction of the subject to the
stimulus words or object or person related to the crime in dispute. The time interval and the
reaction of the subject will be studied by the interrogator. A person presumed to be guilty will
usually make a mistake or will have long time interval in answering questions.
STRONG RELEVENT QUESTION – refers to a verbal motivation of primary importance
projected in a form of a question which overcomes the psychological excitement level and
causes three major components tracing change from the subject‟s psychological norm.
SUBJECT – also known as examinee, refers to a person undergoing a polygraph examination or
test.
TRIAL BY COMBAT – a primitive practice of detecting deception whereby controversies in
accusations are settled by means of duel, the victor will be spared from the consequences
while the loser will be pronounced guilty.
VERAGUTH – in 1907, he formulated the term Psycho-galvanic skin reflex. He claimed that
electrical phenomena are due to the activity of the sweat glands.
VITTORIO BENNUSSI – a pioneer who in1914, noted changes in inhalation and exhalation
ratio occurring during deception. He recorded the respiratory curves of the pneumograph.
WEAK RELEVANT QUESTIONS – secondary queries which is concerned with the less
important elements of the offense and deals mostly on guilty knowledge and partial
involvement.
WILLIAM M. MARSTON – the creator of the systolic blood pressure test, which lead to the
creation of the polygraph (lie detector). Because of his discovery, Marston was convinced that
women were more honest and reliable than men and could work faster and more accurately.
STATISTICAL FACTS OF THE HISTORY OF POLYGRAPH

1. In 1730, Daniel Defoe wrote an essay entitled “ An Effectual Scheme for the Immediate
Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing all other Disorders of the Night”, which
recommends taking of the pulse as a method of identifying a criminal.
2. In 1895, Cesare Lombroso M.D. an Italian Criminologist and the first person to utilized an
instrument for the purpose of detecting lie, through BLOOD PRESSURE.
3. Francis Galton- developed a word association test in 1879.
4. Vittorio Benussi, 1914., conducted experiments using the pneumograph for the detection of
deception.
5. Harold Burtt, 1918.,He considered the respiratory method of less diagnostic value than
blood pressure.
6. John Larson – constructed the instrument capable of continuously recording all the
phenomena such as blood pressure, pulse and respiration. He was the first to use more than
one recording to detect deception.
7. William Moulton Marston- used SYGMOMANOMETER attach to blood pressure. He
recorded the respiration noted through the time when the subject‟s response verbally. He
used also GALVANOMETER to record the skin resistance changes and a gripping device to
record tension.
8. Leonarde Keeler- constructed a more satisfactory instrument than the one used by Larson. In
the year 1926 the polygraph included in addition to units for recording blood pressure, pulse
and galvanic skin reflex or electrodermal response known as GSR.
9. Akamatsu, Uchida and Togawa measured the skin conductance in 1937. It was Japan`s first
reported use of psychological detection of deception.
10. Veraguth- he was the first use the term : psychogalvanic reflex” and believed that the
electrical phenomena was due to activity of the sweat glands,: China started its own
polygraph school.
11. Luigi Galvani( 1791)- He is Italian physiologist who was accorded the distinction for
developing the galvanic skin reflex ( GSR) or the galvanometer, which records electrical
bodily resistance in terms of ohms, the lowest current ever recorded. The GSR reflected
emotional changes by measuring changes in person`s skin resistance to electricity.
12. Sticker ( 1897)- He made the first suggestion for using galvanograph for detecting deception
based on the works of several predecessors. He theorized that galvanic skin reflex is
influenced by existing mental impression and that will have no effect upon it.
13. The International Society for the Detection Deception began issuing memberships in 1948.
Dick Arthur was first winner of the Wastl, Srf. Award from the AAPP in 1990.
14. In 1959, Ivan Babic, head of the forensic laboratory in Zagreb, Croatia, conducted the first
experimental polygraph tests in the Republic of Croatia and Yugoslavia.
15. H. Victor Cohen of the Government of Israeli police officer attended the Reid College of
Detection of Deception in 1959 which marked the beginning of the use of polygraph in
Israel.
16. Korea began its use of polygraph in the 1950`s. Its first examiners were trained by U>S.
Army polygraphers stationed there. There are approximately 70 active forensic psycho
physiologists in Korea today working with the military or the government.
17. Reid- the present authors, he then devised an instrument as Reid Polygraph. In the year 1945
he introduced a completely revised polygraph technique, the most significant feature of
which was the utilization of a control question known as the Reid control question
technique.
18. Sir James Mackenzie- famous English heart specialist. He first described the instrument in
the article entitled “ The Ink Polygraph” which appeared in a 1908 number of a British
Medical Journal. Its invention, however, was not for lie- detection purpose but for medical
researchers and polygraphs specifically in the inking system, chart- driving and pen
conglomerating simultaneous operating system and the pen centering adjustment system.
19. The Polygraph was first introduced to the Philippines in 1945 by the Crime Laboratory of
the Military Police. The Crime Laboratory sent several people including Mr. Jose Navarro
and Conrado Dumlao to the U. S for polygraph training. In 1950 the national Bureau
Investigation sent Mr. Agustin Patricio to train at the keeler Polygraph Institute. Lawyer
Manuel C. Roura also trained their after he succeeded Mr. Patricio as chief of the Polygraph
Division of the NBI Crime Lab Personnel trained in Polygraph were Ernesto Lucena, Ms.
Tessie Logan and Artemio Panganiban Jr.
POLYGRAPHY- from the word “Poly” means Many or More, “Graphos” means Writings
or Graphs.
POLYGRAPHY – is the scientific deception detection with the use or aid of a Polygraph.
POLYGRAPH – is an instrument or device capable of recording internal bodily changes, such
as blood-pressure/pulse-rates, respiration, electro-dermal properties of the skin or the
Galvanic Skin-Reflex (GSR), which are indicative of emotional excitement, especially of
lying, when questioned.
LYING & DECEPTION

DECEPTION – is the act of deceiving or misleading through misrepresentation usually
accomplished by means of lying.
LYING – is the uttering or conveying falsehood or creating false impressions affecting acts,
opinions or affections of another. It is done through:
• Verbal terms spoken by the mouth ,acts, feigns or ruses through marks, signs and symbols
Signs of Lies and Deceptions
• Stammering;
• Swearing to or before God that he did not commit the crime;
• Pointing his guilt to somebody else;
• Subject refuses to answer questions thru alibis and excuses;

• He is all the time absent-minded;
• He is always requesting for repetition of questions;
• He often asks counter-questions and counter-queries;
• He often asks permissions to go to comfort-rooms, etc.
• DETECTION- is the act of discovering the existence or presence of something hidden or
obscured.
• EMOTION- is a complex state of feeling involving conscious experience, internal and
external physical responses, and power to motivate the organism to action.
• STIMULUS- is the forced or motion reaching the organism from the environment and
excites the preceptors.
• REACTION- is any activity aroused in an organism by a stimulus, which is if mental
processes.
• SPECIFIC RESPONSE- is one that is exhibited by the subject to a particular question, which
is a deviation from the norm.
• SUBJECT- refers to any person undergoing polygraph examination.
• POLYGRAPH EXAMINER / POLYGRAPHIST or EXAMINER/ EXPERT- is the one
conducting the test or examination.
• POLYGRAPH TEST or POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION- is the whole process of the
questioning or the taking of one chart from a series of questions or all of the charts and
questions sheets used in the test.
• POLYGRAPH CHART/ POLYGRAM or CHART /GRAPH- refers to the recorded tracings
of all the emotional patterns permanently on the charts or graphs from series or questions.
I. EARLY METHOD OF DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Trial by Combat
2. Trial by Ordeal
Red Hot Iron Ordeal- this kind of test was used among the Hill tribe of Rajahmal in the North
of Bengal part of India where the accused was apt to be told to prove his innocence by
applying his tongue to Red Hot Iron nine times if his tongue burn or his mouth becomes
fried he will judged as guilty.
The Boiling Water – as a test of deception this ordeal was used in modern Africa, this type of
test is the person will told to immerse his arm to a big pot with a full of water if his arm
will not burst he is innocence.
The ordeal of rice chewing- the accused will be given a concentrated rice grains and he will
told to chew and swallow the said rice if the accused not able to swallow a single grain he
will be judge as guilty and this by their belief that no person able to swallow the gift of
God.
Ordeal of the Red Water- the accused fast for twelve hours swallow the small amount of rice
grains then imbibe the dark colored water sometimes as a gallon as an emetic and if the
suspect ejects all the rice given to him he is considered innocent.
Ordeal Donkey`s Tail- the donkey will be placed to one room alone and observed if the donkey
will cried a judge of guilty will given because of the guiding principle that innocent
person always protected by his guardian angel.
Ordeal of balance- the accused was place on one scale of balance. In one other side a counter
balance the accused then stepped out of the scale listen to a judge deliver to an
exhortation to the balance and get back in if he were found to lighter than before he will
judge innocence.
II. SCIENTIFIC METHOD OF DETECTING DECEPTION
Truth Serum- it is used in testing for locating the suspect and the stolen items
Hypnotism- an act of inducing hypnosis to dazzle or overcome by suggestion.
Word Association- the basic practice is to present orally or visually a group of words each
word sufficiently separated in time from the others so that subjects response to it.
Polygraphy- a modern scientific method of detecting deception technique whether the subject is
telling the truth.
III. KINDS OF LIES

1. Benign lies
2. Black Lies – a lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause
dishonour or discredit one`s good image.
3. Red Lies- Lie that purports to destroy other ideologies by means of propaganda and brain
washing.
4. Malicious Lies- Intended to mislead or obstruct justice.
- Examples are “Perjury” and “False Testimonies” of false witnesses.
5. White lies- Intended to protect or maintain harmonious relationship.
TYPES OF LIES
• Direct Denial
• Lie of Omission
• Lie of Fabrication
• Lie of Minimization
• Lie of Exaggeration
IV. KINDS OF LIAR

1. Pathological Liar -Lie made by a person who can‟t distinguish right or wrong.
2. Professional Liar
V. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPHY

In the middle of the 19th Century, DR. HANS GROSS, an Austrian known as the “Father
of Criminalistics”, defined SEARCH FOR TRUTH as the basis and goal of all criminal
investigations. He asserted that a large part of criminal‟s work is nothing than a battle against
lies. Throughout the centuries, man continued to experiment with more scientific methods of
determining truth and detecting deception; and this search is a never-ending one.
VI. PERSONALITIES BEHIND IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF:

A. CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH COMPONENTS:
1. CESARE LOMBROSO (1895) – accorded as the first person that utilizes instrument in
detecting deception. His basis in detecting deception is by measuring the blood pressure
and pulse rate. His instrument is known as hydrosphygmograph.
2. ANGELO MOSSO – he stated that FEAR influence the heart and could be use as a basis
for detecting deception. He uses sphygmanometer and scientific radio to study fear.
3. DR. WILLIAM MARSTON (1915) - he conducted numerous tests for detecting deception
and utilizes the change in systolic blood pressure to determine deception. He also
developed Ills own method of reading systolic blood pressure.
4. JOHN A. LARSON (1921) – the “Father of Lie Detection”. The present polygraph
machine is attributed to him, became he is the one who develop and study to record at the
same time the responses of the blood pressure, pulse rate and respiration. The bread board
type is used by Larson is improved which is now the polygraph machine.
GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT
1. STICKER (1897) - he introduced the method of detecting deception from the galvanic
impression on the chart tracing. He basis his theory from the works of several predecessors
that galvanograph could detect deception.
2. VERGUTH (1907) – he uses the word PSYCHOGALVANIC reflex. He believed that
electrical phenomena are due to the activity of sweat glands, and such activity is known as
“psychogalvanic”.
B. PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT
1. VITTORIO BENUSSI (1914) – he noted changes in inhalation and exhalation ratio during
indications of deceptions. He asserts further that changes in blood pressure were valuable in
detecting deception.

MODERN POLYGRAPH COMPONENTS

1. LEONARDE KEELER (1926) – he device a metal recording bellows; rolled chart paper; in
1949 he incorporated galvanograph with measurement of blood pressure and respiration into
a portable case; he introduces also the method of questioning and installation of kymograph
which is adopted by most polygraph today.
2. JOHN E. REID( 1947)- A LAWYER FROM Chicago developed the Control Questions
Technique ( CQT) polygraph technique that incorporated control questions were designed to
be emotionally arousing for non- deceptive subjects and less emotionally for deceptive
subjects and less emotionally for deceptive subjects than the relevant questions previously
used.
3. CLEVE BACKSTER ( 1960) – building upon the Reid Control Question Technique ,
developed the Backster Zone Comparison ( ZCT), a polygraph technique which primarily
involved an alteration of the Reid question sequencing.
MODERN POLYGRAPH
Modern Polygraph- is a computer outfit with sensors. Sensors are used to measures and record
a number of physical changes that are related to the vegetative nervous system
Dr. Joseph F. Kurbis ( 1970), first researcher who used potential computer applications for the
purpose of polygraph chart analysis.
1980- research was conducted on computerized polygraph by Dr. John C. Kircher and david C.
Raskin and developed the Computer Assisted Polygraph System ( CAPS) which incorporated
the first algorithm to be used for evaluating physiological data collected for diagnostic
purposes.
1992- the polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age.
Dr. Dale E. Olsen and John Harris completed the software program called Polyscore.
2003- U.S. Department of Energy commissioned a review committee of the national Academy of
Science to study the scientific evidence on the polygraph.
VIII. PSYCHOLOGICAL & PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DETECTING

DECEPTION
 PSYCHOLOGY means the study of human behavior.
 PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS are influenced by heredity & environment.
 HEREDITY is the transmission of physical and mental traits to offspring.
 ENVIRONMENT is the sum total of dissimulation that a person acquired from the time he
was conceived.
 PHYSICAL Characteristic are influence by heredity, behavioural pattern, personality traits
and knowledge.
 STRESS is described as physiological response of the body to any demand place upon it.
 EMOTIONS are acute disturbance of the individual as a whole, psychological in origin,
involving behavior conscious experience and visceral functioning.
CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCE BY HEREDITY

1. Color of the eyes 4. Structure of the body
2. Blood type 5. Color blindness
3. Form and features
CHARACTERISTICS INFLUENCE BY ENVIRONMENT
1. Differences in health and vigor
2. Mentality
3. Behavior
PERSONALITY IS A SUM TOTAL OF MAN’S:
1. Heredity 2. Environment 3. Education
ENVIRONMENT DETERMINES THE FOLLOWING:
a. What the person sees, hears, smells, touches and tastes;
b. It can speed up or retard growth development;
c. It provides what is wanted, learned or remembered
d. It furnishes stimuli to which we react emotionally.
VARIETY OF WAYS TO MANAGE STRESS
A. Be realistic E. Keep fit

B. Establish a routine F. Enjoy life
C. Make necessary changes G. Nourish Spiritually
D. Establish priority
IX. TYPES OF RESPONSES

1. INTERNAL RESPONSES (Kind of Internal Responses)
a. Palpitation of the heart maybe rapid or slow.
b. Dryness of the mouth
c. Lump in the throat
d. Sinking feeling in the fit of the stomach
2. EXTERNAL RESPONSES
A. Facial Expressions:
1. Palling, blushing, profuse sweating on the forehead, eyebrows or chin;
2. Twitching at the corner of the lips;
3. Excessive winking, movement of the vein at the temple
4. Dilation of eyes, protrusion of the eyeball, & elevation of the upper eyelid.
B. Postural Reactions:
1. Inability of the subject (b loot; straight at the inquirer‟s eye)
2. Excessive activity of the Adam‟s apple
3. Fidgeting with the fingers, tapping or drumming on me chair or table
4. Peculiar monotype of tile voice
5. Exhibiting a state of uneasiness
Thru Facial Expression

 Blushing, paling or profuse sweating of forehead
 Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of the eyeballs and elevation of upper eyelids
 Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.)
 Twitching of the lips
 Excessive winking of eyes
 Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eye”
 Excessive activity of Adam‟s apple and the vein at the temple due to dryness of throat and
mouth
 Quivering of nose or nostrils
 A peculiar monotone of the voice
 A forced laugh
 Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another
-Color change
-Sweating
-Inability to look straight in the investigator‟s eyes
-Change in heart rate and pulse beat
-Holding of breath
-Dryness of mouth and throat
-Peculiar and unusual expression
-Unusual behavior
 is instructed to set properly;
 must listen carefully to all the questions asked;
 should answer all the questions truthfully;
 must answer all the questions definitely with either “YES” or “NO”
X. THE 4 MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH MACHINE (Its Tracing &

Interpretations)
A. PNEUMOGRAPH COMPONENT – is used to record, the changes of the breathing of the
subject. It is made up of pneumograph chest assembly made up of convoluted rubber tube
and recording unit.

B. CARDIOSPHYGMOGRAPH COMPONENT – this is used to record the changes of the

blood pressure and pulse rate of the subject. It is composed of the blood pressure cuff
assembly, pump bulb assembly, sphygmanometer (BP) vent, resonance control, and the
recording unit.
C. GALVANOGRAPH COMPONENT – this is used to detect irregularities in skin resistance
detected by a very small amount of electricity. It is composed of finger or palm electrode
assembly, amplifier unit, and the galvanometer-recording unit.
D. KEYMOGRAPH COMPONENT – Keymograph component is a motor that pulls or drives
the chart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at the rate of 6 to 12 inches per
minute. Chart must travel at a uniform speed to facilitate valid interpretations. The parts
composed of the paper well writing table, paper guide rail, paper roller assembly with
sprockets, chart feed switch. AC power input connector and all 5 volt GC cycle
synchronous motor.
THE THEORY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

The conscious mental effort of a mentally normal person to lie cause physiological
changes within his body that could be recorded by the polygraph instrument and diagnosed or
can be evaluated properly by the polygraph examiner.
Preliminary Preparation
In order to conduct a satisfactory polygraph examination, it is imperative for the
polygraph examiner to obtain accurate information regarding all the available facts and
circumstances that form the basis for the suspicion and or accusation directed against the person
to be examined. In this connection, the polygraph examiner must properly observed the
requirement needed in the following :
PHASES IN CONDUCTING POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION:

1. Initial Interview with the investigator handling the case
2. The Pre-test Interview
3. The Conduct of Instrumental test with the Subject
4. Post-test Interview/Interrogation
INITIAL INTERVIEW - How conducted?

• This is usually conducted by the investigator handling the case or a polygraph examiner
who was given brief but significant details of the case & it is designed to obtain pertinent
information necessary for the conduct of the test.
• Test questions are prepared by the polygraph examiner based from the facts and
information.
Pre-test Interview
This is administered by the polygraph examiner designed to condition or prepare the
subject for the actual polygraph test. Its duration usually lasts for 20 to 30 minutes. At this stage,
the rights of the subject are explained, his consent are obtained as well as personal data and the
determination whether the subject is mentally, physically and psychologically prepared to
undergo the test.
Prior to the polygraph examination the following considerations are taken into account:
1. The subject must refrain from smoking at least two (2) hours prior to the test;
2. The patient should avoid taking medication for at least two (2) days prior to the examination;
3. The subject should not be hungry;
4. The subject must refrain from consuming alcoholic beverages for at least twelve (12) hours
prior to the actual test;
5. The subject should not be suffering from physical or emotional abuse;
6. The subject should calm down and relaxed;
7. If the female subject is pregnant or having menstruation, the test will not be undertaken;
8. The subject should not wear tight apparels or clothing as this may cause inference in the test
results;
9. The subject should have at least five (5) hours of sleep prior to the examination.
Before the actual polygraph examination is administered on the subject, the examiner
must undertake the following necessary preparations:
1. The appraisal of the subject‟s constitutional rights;
2. Obtain the subjects consent to undergo a polygraph examination;
3. Take notes of the subjects personal data;
4. Advise subjects‟ involvement about the case;
5. Evaluate subject‟s psychological preparedness;
6. Determine subject‟s suitability to undergo the test.
Actual Test
This is the stage wherein the component parts of the polygraph machine are actually
installed on the body of the subject.
The Ideal Polygraph Examination Room

1. The room must be spacious for two persons with a polygraph desk, subject‟s chair with arm
rest and an examiner‟s stool;
2. The room must be devoid of pictures, paintings, ornaments and other decors;
3. The room must be well ventilated & lighted;
4. The room must be private and 90 percent soundproof free from outside noise & distracting
influence;
5. Installed with a one way mirror and remote sound system or video device and amplifier for
monitoring and recording the test proceedings to authorized observers;
6. The polygraph machine should be tested and widely used by most Asian countries, latest
version, well maintained and in a well running condition.
Condition of the Subject before the Polygraph Test

It is important to determine first the physical condition of the subject before he / she
undergo the examination the polygraph examiner must observe the following:
 Subject must have a good night sleep prior to the test.
 Subject must refrain from smoking at least two hours prior to the test.
 The subject must not be interrogated for a prolonged period of time prior to the rest.
 Subject must not be physically and mentally torture prior to the test.
 The subject must not be suffering from any temporary illnesses prior to the test.
LIMITATION OF POLYGRAPH
1. It is an valuable investigative aid, but never a substitute for an investigation
2. It is not a lie detector, but it is a scientific diagnostic instrument
3. It does not determine facts, but it is a diagnostic reaction
4. It records responses which, the subject knows to be truth
5. It is an accurate as the examiner is competent
6. The test will not be given until enough facts of the case have established to permit an
examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable question
7. A test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject
8. No indication will be given to any person or place in any report that a person will take the
test
9. The test will not be given until the accusation, have been explained to the subject
10. No attempt to use polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person
11. No examination can be conducted to an unfit subject
Post Test Interview

A method of interrogation is administered by the examiner to obtain admission or
confession. An interview is conducted when the subject indicates innocent response while
interrogation is undertaken if symptoms of deception are indicated by the results of the actual

polygraph test. The subject, when innocent is cordially released & thanks extended by the
examiner for his/her consideration & cooperation.
The interrogatory technique is applied to secure admission or confession using the ff.
procedures:
1. Inform the subject that he cannot be cleared from his chart;
2. Convince the subject that the responses were result of his emotion & not by means of any
mechanical manipulations;
3. Use sympathetic and persuasive attitude as well as perseverance in eliciting confession or
admission;
4. Point out recorded reactions with brief explanations of their importance as objective,
tangible & concrete evidence to be used against the subject;
5. Listen attentively to any implications; pursue a line of mild interrogation to the reasons
why the criminal act was committed;
6. Rationalize the subject‟s act by offering a way to excuse his conduct or minimize the
significance or swing the blame to someone or to some situation.
7. If confession is coming allow the subject to relate it in his own version;
8. Carefully listen to specific details & write it down at first instance;
9. Never make any promise as to immunity, reward or leniency;
10. Inform the investigator on case;
11. If no confession was given, cordially release the subject;
IDEAL EXAMINATION ROOM FOR POLYGRAPH TEST

a. Spacious for two persons c. Must not be Decorated
b. Well Lighted d. Must be 90% sound proof
c. Well Ventilated e. One-way telephone
POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION- is a series of test conducted on the person involved in the

commission of a crime and referred to the polygraph branch, and the formulation of
questions which is answerable by yes or no. As general rule, the results of the polygraph test
are inadmissible as evidence.
OBJECTIVES OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. Ascertain the subject whether telling the truth or not
2. Obtain leads to the facts of the offense the location of the stolen goods and whereabouts of
wanted persons
3. Compare conflicting statements
4. Verify statements
5. Obtain the facts after the test indicates that a person lie or tried to cover what lie knew
PRINCIPAL USES OF POLYGRAPH

1. It is an aid to the investigator
2. It speeds up the process of the investigation
3. It eliminates innocent subjects
4. The investigator could concentrate to one subject to determine the truth of deception
Other Uses of Polygraph

1. Criminal Investigation
It is a valuable tool of criminal investigation. It provides fast means of eliminating innocent
suspects, gives clue about the identity of criminal suspect, verifies statement of those who are
involved and save a lot of time and effort during the process of investigation.
2. Pre- employment Screening
It is the fastest and most accurate means of verifying statement of a job applicant from
derogatory remarks by a previous employer who bears personal grudge against him.
3. Periodic Screening
It is the best way of the company to determine dishonest employees who are responsible for
company losses.
4. Promotion
There are instances wherein the company has difficulty in deciding between two or more
candidates to the promoted polygraph test helps to determine who is the most qualified as well as
employee`s future intents against the company.
MORAL QUALITY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINER

 He must be free of prejudice;
 He must have me sincere desire to become a polygraph examiner;
 He must devote himself to the polygraph profession by maintaining a high personality,
integrity, and by increasing his personal proficiency thru constant study and researches.
 He must always conduct an examination in a professional and ethical manner;
 He must always remember that he is an impartial seeker of truth;
 He must not let his personal feelings, sympathies and prejudices of or other influence as to
the results of the examination;
 He must be of good moral character;
 He must be decently dress.
TECHNICAL QUALIFICATIONS OF THE POLYGRAPH EXAMINER

1. He must have a good knowledge as to the instrument, its capabilities & limitations.
2. Must have a complete knowledge of a modern instrument.
3. He must be proficient in the conduct polygraph examination, test construction and chart
interpretation.
VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF POLYGRAPHY More than 90% reliable; it relies on two
factors, namely:
a. The competency of me examiner
b. The condition of the polygraph machine
FOUR BASIC TRACING OF A MODERN POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
A. Thoracic breathing pattern of respiration
B. Abdominal breathing pattern of respiration
C. Galvanic Skin Response (finger electrode)
D. Cardiosphygmograph tracing
WHAT IS A POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION? ANSWER: It is a series of test conducted on a

person involved in the commission of crime and referred to the Polygraph Branch, and the
formulation of question is answerable by YES or NO.
IS POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION CONCLUSIVE: ANSWER: No, it is an opinionated

because of the following instances:
a. No standard instrument used
b. No standard in the method of questioning
c. The examiner is incompetent
LEGAL ASPECTS OF POLYGRAPH
The polygraph examiners opinion, analysis and interpretation of the test chart generally
are acceptable as evidence, particularly IF STANDING ALONE. The examiner may however,
testifies in the voluntariness of any statement; admission or confession obtained after the subject
agreed to the test.
Polygraph and expert testimony relating thereto can be admissible upon stipulation to
CORROBORATE with other evidences of a defendants participation in crime charged or to
corroborate to impeach his own testimony under the following conditions:
a. The counsel of both parties and the subject all have sign written stipulation providing for
his admission to the graphs and examiner‟s opinion thereon in behalf of either the
defendants or the state.
b. That the admissibility of the result is subject to the discretion of the trial judge. If the trial
judge is not convinced that the examiner is not qualified, or the test was conducted in
improper conditions. The judge may refuse to accept such evidence.
c. That if the graphs and examiner‟s opinion are offered in evidence, the opposing party shall
have the right to cross-examine the examiner respecting the following:
a. The examiner‟s qualifications and training

b. The condition under which the test is administered
c. The discretion of the trial judge, any other matter deem pertinent to the injury
d. The limitation and possibilities for error in the technique
e. That if such evidence is admitted, the examiner‟s testimony does not tend to prove
any element of the crime that, which a defendant is charge. The test is only to
indicate that at the time of the examination subject was not telling me truth. It is the
trial judge who will determine the weight and effect of such testimony.
RULES FOR FORMULATING LIE DETECTOR QUESTIONS

1. Must be simple and direct.
2. Must not involve legal terminology such as rape, assault, murder, etc.
3. Must be answerable by yes or no only.
4. Must be short as possible.
5. Meaning must be clear and unmistakable.
6. Phrase in language is easily understood by the subject
7. Must not be in form of accusation.
8. Must never contain an inference, which presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject
9. Must refer to one offense only.
10. Must refer to element of the offense only.
GENERAL QUESTIONS FOR POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION

1. IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS. These are question, which do not relate to the matter
under investigation, and deal with a known fact about which the subject cannot lie. They
are designed to absorb the initial response as the questions sequence start, and should
produce little or no emotional change in me subject. They are generally utilized to
establish the subject‟s norm, and a place to make necessary mechanical adjustment of the
tracing.
2. RELEVANT QUESTIONS. These are questions, which are direct having specific
relationship to die crime or case on issue under consideration to include some secondary
element such as guilty knowledge or partial involvement. The relevant questions are
designed specifically to produce and emotional response attempting deception.
POLYGRAPH INTERROGATION
The instrument and polygraph technique and procedure have a very strong psychological
effect upon a guilty suspect in including him to confess. CONFESSIONS are sometimes given
at a mere suggestion of the test, upon seeing me instrument, after attachment to me instrument,
before actual test has commenced, or immediately after the test was terminated, „Some are given
without any words of inducement from the examiner, while other after the examiner pointed out
the different indices of deception.
Two opposing line of thought are in the mind of every lying subject; an image urging to
tell the truth, to confess for mental relief and comfort; and counterbalanced by the desire to avoid
the legal consequence of the crime. This factor can be utilized by the polygraph examiner in
every polygraph test, by following a subtle interrogation process throughout me test. 1.
Between Chart – Proving. After taking each chart, the examiner shows the recorded result to the
subject with a brief explanation as to the significance of any recorded reaction. He points out the
dissimilarities between reactions accompanying irrelevant and relevant question. The examiner
informs the subject that the probe being done is necessary in order for the test to be objective.
The purpose of between-chart-probing are:

a. To determine the true cause of recorded response.
b. To calm an overly-stimulated subject.
c. To clarify confusion or misunderstanding of any question or questions that may have been
created in the subject‟s mind.
d. To convince skeptical subjects who may be testing the instrument and the examiners
efficiency.
e. To re-stimulate a subject who has produced little or no response.
f. To elicit the cause or origin of a flat or unemotional chart.

g. To gain additional information pertinent to any specific-issue.
h. To set the stage of the succeeding chart by rectifying given questions that may necessitate
rephrasing.
i. To maintain a gentle psychological pressure.
j. To verity whether or not subject has been truthful in answering the question asked.
Sample Probing Questions Normally Asked:

a. Tell me, what was going on your mind when I asked you this question?
b. Did you recall of any similar incident when I asked you this question?
c. Is there something you are afraid to tell me about?
d. Can you tell me what could have caused this reaction when I asked this question?
TEST PROCEDURE
The polygraph test consist of asking the subject who is attached to the instrument through
the transducer, a list of prepared questioned in a planned sequence comprising of not more than
12 questions. At least three (3) test charts are taken; each lasting not more than four (4)
minutes, with a rest of five (5) to the (10) minutes between charts.
Polygraph test employed varies slightly with the person tested. Test questions generally
applied are of two main types. They are:
A. GENERAL QUESTION TEST. This consists of a series of relevant and irrelevant
questions asked in a planned order. In General Question test, questions are so arranged as to
make a possible comparison of responses between relevant questions and a subjects norm
made during the answering of irrelevant questions.
B. PEAK OF TENSION TEST. The valid test is only made possible when there is no
widespread publicity about the crime where intimate details as to the method of commission
or certain facts of the case is known only by the guilty perpetrator, the victim and the
investigator. Questions formulated are similar in nature and construction, only one is true.
The perpetrator who would naturally be in possession of such unpublicized knowledge will
usually exhibit a rise in me tracing up to that particular question. Followed by a decline-
thereafter.
NOTE: After the test question have been prepared, each one should be read to me
subject, and he should be asked if he fully understand them. He should then be advised
that only these questions, and no others would b asked during the test:
 WEAK RELEVANT QUESTION - it concern some secondary element of the crime or
problem and details with mostly in guilty knowledge and partial involvement.
 STRONG RELEVANT QUESTION – it is defined as verbal stimulus of primary important
projected in the form of question which overcome a psychological excitement level and
causes pheumograph, cardiosphygmograph and galvanograph tracings changes from the
subjects physiological norms.
 CONTROL QUESTIONS - they are unrelated to the matter under investigation but are of
similar in nature, do less serious or at least this answer will give him some concern with
respect to the truth & accuracy.
 EVIDENCE CONNECTING QUESTION - it is designed to stimulate me guilty subject
and focus his attention on the probability if incriminating proof that would tend to establish
the guilt of the subject.
 KNOWLEDGE QUESTION – this question is designed or began to prove whether the
subject posses information regarding the identify of the offender, the location of evidences
or items secondary element of the case.
 SPOT RESPONDER - is a person whose blood pressure tracing on his first and third test
will contain response to the same relevant question, but only to that one question on each
test.
 HEART RATE - normal heart rate among adult male is 70 to 75 beats per minute. Rate is
slightly higher among females.

 EMOTIONAL OFFENDERS - persons who commit crimes in the heat of passion, anger
or revenge.
 NON-EMOTIONAL OFFENDERS - persons who commit a crime for financial gains like
theft, robbery, and killings for money,
 GUILT COMPLEX QUESTION – questions that refers to fictitious crime in which the
subject may believe that he is under equal suspicion.
 NUMBER TEST - have subject write number between a selected seven number of total
group in a piece of paper. Add padding question.
 CARD TEST – have subject select card in numerical order from ace to jack, thus add
padding question. Be sure card selected is not on either end.
 NAME TEST - have subject write a list of five (5) names including one pertinent names.
Add padding to top and bottom of the list.
AS TO NERVOUSNESS generally speaking, all persons subjected to lie detector

examination are all nervous. This nervous person creates a set of distortion. To remove this
nervousness, subject must be conditioned prior to the test by prolonging the pre-test interview.
If after conditioning the subject still set said distortion, then consider this set of distortion
as a pattern or a normal tracing.
CHART MARKING
Through the proper use of test graph marking, the examiner will be able to evaluate the
polygraph chart easily and could arrive at any conclusion right after the test. The tracings have
no meaning unless you see what occurred at its point throughout the chart. Standardize chart can
be evaluated easily by the examiner using the prescribed chart marking symbols and sign below:
1. Beginning X 12. Sigh - S
2. Stimulus -“ 13. Sniff- SN
3. Yes -+ 14 . Sneeze- SZ
4. No - - 15. Burp - B
5. Subject fail to answer- No sign 16. Yawn- Y
6. Subject talk -T 17. Deep Breathing -DB
7. Talking instruction -TI 18. Subject Laugh- L
8. Coughing -C 19. Breathing Instruction -BI
9. Mechanical Adjustment- Arrow
20. Repeat Question --R
10. (Tearing of throat) -CT 21. Paper Jump -PJ
11. Outside Noise - OSN
22. Ending - XX
23. movement - M
To facilitate evaluation and interpretation of the chart, marking are made with the use of the
above symbols & signs to enable the examiner to determine the following:
1. Exact time the test has commenced;
2. Initial and final blood pressure; galvanograph and respiratory tracing;
3. Particular point where each question ask, started and ended, corresponding identification,
type, and time of answer given to the subject;
4. Any instruction given or repetition of question made;
5. Duration in amplitude of reaction pattern;
6. Mechanical adjustment or re-adjustment made;
7. Any movement, cough, talking by the subject or outside instruction or noise that occurred.
8. Time interval repeated question.
9. Extreme factor affecting test chart and pen jump.
10. Chart number, name of subject, time and date.
GENERAL RULE IN CHART INTERPRETATION

1. There must be specific response that deviates from the subjects‟ normal tracings.

2. It must appear in at least two or more chart. The best indications of deception is the
simultaneous appearance of specific response in the pneumograph, cardiosphymograph and
galvanograph tracing on the chart.
CHART INTERPRETATION: The accuracy of instrument detection of deception is

dependent upon the examiner‟s ability to diagnose truth or deception by reading and interpreting
a subject‟s chart, and (lie good working condition of the machine.)
ZONE COMPARISON TEST

ZONE- a twenty to thirty five seconds block of polygraph chart time initiated by a question
having a unique psychological focusing appeal to a predictable group of examinees. The
color coding according to Bacster are the following:
a) Green zone- for the Control questions
b) Red zone- for the Relevant questions &
c) Black zone- for the Symptomatic questions
Five (5) Variations of the Zone Comparison Test

1) The Matte Quadri-track Zone Comparison Technique- is a polygraph technique used
exclusively for single-issue tests. It was developed by Matte after two years of research
and experimentation with fictitious crime test used in conjunction with actual test in real-
life situations. This test also employ Backster‟s basic test structure and quantification
system with some refinements and addition of another spot consisting of a control/relevant
question pair to deal with examinees “fear of error” and the guilty examinees “hope of
error”.
2) The Backster Tri-Zone Comparison Technique- forms the basis of the Quadri-Track
Zone comparison technique, therefore the definition of terms articulated there and the
methodology used in the administration of the technique is applicable. Backster permits
the use of inside track “fear of error” control question and the “hope of error”. When the
Backster zone comparison technique does not incorporate the fear/hope of error questions
the only difference remaining in the test structure between number one and number two
techniques is the position of symptomatic questions which are opposite.
3) The department of Defense Polygraph Institute (DoDPI) Bi-Spot Zone Comparison
Technique
The First zone contains the relevant questions concerning, Primary, Secondary and S-K-
Y (Suspicion Knowledge You questions.The second zone, is used when there is only one
question or issue that must be addressed in the examination.
4) Integrated Zone comparison Technique-developed in 1987 by Nathan J. Gordon,
William M. Waid and Philip M. Cocheti. This technique has the most significant departure
from the original zone comparison technique developed by Cleve Bacster.
5) The Utah Zone Comparison Technique- the structure of this technique is basically the
same for single issue test as it is for multiple issue tests. However instead of using relevant
question that embraces several facts of a crime or matter under investigation, the single
issue test uses relevant question that addressed a single issue only.
RESPONSIBILITIES OF INVESTIGATORS, POLYGRAPH EXAMINERS TO THE

SUBJECT
Responsibilities of the Investigator to the subject
In asking a person involved in a criminal case under investigation to take the polygraph test, the
investigator should;
Learn enough about the polygraph so that he can talk openly and freely to the person about the
test.
The subject may know very little or may have been misinformed about it.
Not reveal details of an offense which may be utilized in the application of a “ peak of tension”
test
Suggest the test as a means for the subject to indicate his innocence;

Stress the test`s capability for indicating through the recorded responses whether a person is
telling the truth
Assure the subject that the examiner is qualified and impartial to all persons involved in the case;
and
Avoid any claim for the instrument or examiner that is not backed up by fact;
Responsibilities of a Polygraph Examiner to his subject
1. A polygraph examiner recognize the fact that his primary responsibility must be to the person
who has voluntary submitted himself to a polygraph examination.
2.He should never conduct any examination on a person without first advising the subject of his
constitutional rights against self-incrimination .
3.He should never conduct an examination on any person unless the instrument he utilizes is in
good working condition and makes a permanent simultaneous recordings on a moving
chart of at least two physiological tracings- the cardiovascular and respiratory pattern.
4.He should never render a conclusive verbal or written opinion based on a chart analysis
without having administered at least two or more charts.
5. He should not offer testimony concerning the charts or conclusions presented by another
examiner unless he is thoroughly familiar with the techniques and procedures employed.
The Polygraph Examiner`s responsibility Specially Lies in Four Areas:
To the subject
To the organization
To the Client and
To the polygraph Profession and to himself
The polygraph examiner`s first duty and obligation is to the subject; to be fair, impartial
and objective. The cardinal rule of the polygraph examiners duty and obligation is clearly
mandatory, “ Always objectivity over subjectivity”.
REFERENCES:
Philippines, Wiseman‟s Books Trading Inc.




CRIMINALISTICS
FORENSIC MEDICINE


Forensic Medicine
INTRODUCTION
FORENSIC MEDICINE is a branch of medicine, which deals and applies the medical science
in medico-legal cases. It is then a science, which concerns with the medical aspects of
problems that confronts the court.
FORENSIC MEDICINE is medicine applied in the solution of various problems in court and
legal proceeding.
LEGAL MEDICINE is the branch of medicine that is applied to law and justice whether to
elucidate the crime or not.
MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE which defines as a branch of law which deals with the policies,
rules or regulations, ethics in the control and in the practice of the medical profession.
Differentiation between Forensic Medicine and Medical Jurisprudence

Points of Forensic Medical
Differenc Medicine Jurispruden
e ce
1. Origin Originates from Emanate
the from the
development of Acts of
medical Congress,
science. Executive
Orders,
Administrati
ve Circulars,
Customs and
Usages.
2. Nature Branch of Branch of
Medicine Law
3.Characte Deals with Deals with
ristics and medical the policies,
its knowledge that rules, or
Applicatio are applied to regulations,
ns law and and other
administration ethics that
of justice. are applied to
the practice
of medicine.
4. Coordination Subordinatio
Principle n
to follow
Differentiation between Physician and Medical Jurist or Medico-Legal Officer

Points of Medical
Differenc Physician Jurist/Médic
e o-Legal
Expert
1. Line of Medical Doctor of
Specialty Practitioner or Medicine who
specialist in specializes in
other fields of Forensic
medicine Medicine.
except

Forensic
Medicine
2. Purpose To find out the

To determine
of cause of illness
the cause for
Examinati and institute
the sake of
on treatment law and
justice
3. Body Minor lesions All lesion in
Lesions in the body are the body are
not significant significant
HISTORY OF FORENSIC MEDICINE IN THE PHILIPPINES

In the Philippines, the practice of Forensic Medicine started several years ago although
the record showed that it started sometime in 1858 during the Spanish regime. From that time up
to the present the following events in the practice of Forensic Medicine occurred with the
corresponding dates:
1858 – The first textbook in Legal Medicine and its practice by Dr. Rafael Genard y
Mas who is a Spanish chief army physician was published and is entitled “Manual de Medicina
Domestica”.
1871 – Legal Medicine was included in the curriculum of the College of Medicine in the
University of Santo Tomas.
May 31, 1876 – The “Medico Titulares” which took charge of public sanitation and
medico-legal aid for the purpose of justice was created by the King of Spain in his Royal Decree
No. 188.
1894 – The “Medico Titulares of Forensic” which is about the regulation and its practice
was established.
1895 – Medico-legal laboratory was established in Manila to handle medico-legal cases.
1898 – During the American Regime, the Spanish Forensic Medicine System was
preserved.
1901 – The provincial, insular and municipal board of health (Acts 157,307, 308) was
created by the Philippine Commission which is about the medico-legal duties of “medico
titulares” of the Spanish regime and its assignments to the health officers of respective areas.
1908 – Legal Medicine was taught in all medical schools in the Philippines.
1919 – The Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics of the University of the Philippines
was created under Dr. Sixto delos Angeles as the chief.
January 10, 1922 – The department of Legal Medicine and Ethics of the University of
the Philippines with its department head was incorporated to the Philippine General Hospital.
March 10, 1922 – The Philippine Legislature enacted Act No. 1043 which became
incorporated in the Administrative Code as Section 2465 and provides that the Department of
Legal Medicine and Ethics of the University of the Philippines became branch of the Department
of Justice.
December 10, 1937 – The creation of the Division of Investigation under the Department
of Justice was done by the Commonwealth Act 181 in which medico-legal section is under the
division with Dr. Gregorio T. Lantin as the Head.
March 3, 1939 – The Department of Legal Medicine and Ethics of the University of the
Philippines was abolished and its functions was transferred to the medico-legal section of the
Division of Investigation.
July 4, 1942 – A Medico-Legal section of Manila Police Department was created under
Dr. Pablo Anzures.
1945 – The Provost Marshall of the United States Army created the criminal
investigation laboratory with the Medical Examiner as an integral part under Dr. Mariano Lara as
the Chief Medical Examiner.
June 28, 1945 – The Division of Investigation was reactivated under Department of
Justice.

June 19, 1947 – The Bureau of Investigation was created by the Republic Act 157. Then,
The Bureau of Investigation was under the National Bureau of Investigation by the Executive
Order from the President of the Philippines. The Medico-Legal section was created under the
National Bureau of Investigation with its head Dr. Enrique V. de los Santos.
The existence of the medico-legal division in the criminal laboratory of the G-2 of the
Philippine Constabulary also occurred.
At that time, all provincial, municipal and city health officers, physicians of hospitals,
health centers, asylums, penitentiaries, became the ex-officio medico-legal officers.
In remote places, the service of a “Cirujano Ministrante” or the Sanitary Inspector may
perform the medico-legal work if a registered physician is not available.
THE MEDICO-LEGAL SYSTEM

The Medico-legal system adopted in a particular country depends upon the laws of its
country. The one commonly used are the Medico-Legal Office System, Medical Examiner
System and the Corner System. Some countries employed the three systems at the same time but
other countries preferred two or a certain system.
A. MEDICO-LEGAL OFFICE SYSTEM

This is the medico-legal system used in the Philippines at present, which is handled by a
Medical Jurist or Medico-Legal Officer who is a registered physician duly qualified to practice
medicine in the Philippines. The National Bureau of Investigation, Manila Police Department
and the Philippine Constabulary had their own medico-legal offices with their own Medico-
Legal Officers. The Medico-Legal officer is the one who investigates medico-legal cases of
death, physical injuries, rape and other sexual crimes. His duty is to examine the victim or
assailant, to make a report and to appear in court as expert witness when summoned by the
proper authorities.
In spite of several medico-legal cases in the Philippines, the medico-legal investigation is
still insufficient because of the following reasons:
1. Lack of proficiency by the physician in medico-legal work;
2. Inadequate means of transportation and communication;
3. Lack of sufficient training in medico-legal work by the police investigator and other law
enforcement agent;
a. Law enforcement agent do not appreciate the value of medical evidence in the solution of
crime;
b. Law enforcement agent rely too much on testimonial evidence;
c. Law enforcement agents do not know in what phase they need the services of a physician.
4. Insufficient Physician and Personnel to handle medico-legal cases;
5. Inadequate facilities.
B. MEDICAL EXAMINER SYSTEM

The duty of the Medical Examiner is to investigate the cause of death especially violent
death or other circumstances leading to the death of the victim. The Medical Examiner on-duty
after being informed by the police officer of a certain crime that needs to be investigated will go
to the place of the crime, interview the witnesses, examine the victim and then take specimen if
any, for examination.
During trial, the Medical Examiner will then present his medical report to the court.
C. CORONER SYSTEM
The Coroner System probably originated in England, although there are no records of its
actual origin. In Common Law, the Office of the Coroner is a very ancient one. The name
“Coroner” is probably derived from the title “Custodes Placitorum Coronae” or “Keeper of
the King’s Pleas” as mentioned in Articles of Eyre of 1194. Magna carta (1215) refers to coroner
as “Coronator”. A report of the Inquest held in 12 65 is one of the oldest reportof an English
inquest although there is evidence that coroners existed in Australia, United States and other
colonies of England.

Coroner System is handled by the Country Coroner or a Borough Coroner who maybe a
barrister, solicitor or legally qualified medical practitioner of not less than five (5) years standing
in his profession and is Elected by the Country Council or Borough Council.
In spite of the role played by the Coroner, there is a gradual disappearances or phasing
out of this system because of the following reasons:
1. Insufficient medico-legal training of the Coroner;
2. Tenure of office of the Coroner is short;
3. Insufficient payment or salary of the Coroner;
4. Overlapping of duties of the Coroner with Medico-Legal Officer and the Medical
Examiner.
Some Principles Governing the Application and Effects of Law

1. Principle of Stare Decisis
The principle of law, that, when the court had once laid down the principle of Law as
applied to a certain state of facts, it will adhere to that principle and apply it to all future cases
where the facts are substantially the same.
2. “Ignorancia Legis Nominem Excusat”
ZIgnorance of the law, excuses no one from the compliance therewith. (Art. 3 Civil
Code)
Golden Rule
A principle applicable in law which states as: “Don’t do unto others what you don’t want
others do unto you”.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
A. Medical – it is something that refers to medicine pertaining to its origin, nature and
characteristics.
B. Medicine – it is a science and an art which deals with the prevention and treatment of
diseases or illness.
1. Internal Medicine – it is a branch of medicine which deals illnesses that can be prevented or
cured by the use of drugs or medicines.
2. Surgery – a branch of medicines which deals with affections of the body that needs drugs and
operative techniques in order to alleviate or remedy the illness or defects.
3. Pathology – it is the study of diseases affecting the body including the parts of the body
affected.
4. Gynecology – a branch of medicine pertaining to diseases of woman.
5. Obstetrics – a branch of medicine which deals with the pregnant woman and her fetus before,
during and after delivery.
C. Legal – It refers to law regards to its origin, nature and its meaning.
D. Law – it is a rule of conduct, just, obligatory, laid down by legitimate power for the common
observance and benefit.
1. Criminal Law – a branch of law which deals with crimes, its nature and the corresponding
punishments.
2. Civil Law – a mass of precepts that determines or regulates the relation of assistance,
authority and obedience between members of a family and those that exist between members
of a society for the protection of private interests.
3. Remedial Law – a branch of law which deals with the rules concerning pleadings, practices
and procedures in all courts of the Philippines.
DECEPTION AND DETECTION

Knowledge of truth is important in the administration of justice, lies solely in the ability
to evaluate the statement given by the suspect or witness.
METHODS OF DECEPTION DETECTION:

1. Devices which record the psycho-physiological response:
a. Use of a polygraph or lie detector machine
b. Word association test

c. Psychological stress evaluator

2. Use of drugs that try to “ inhibit the inhibitor”
a. Administration of the truth serum
b. Narcoanalysis
c. Intoxication
3. Hypnotism
4. By observation
5. Scientific interrogation
6. Confession
IDENTIFICATION OF PERSONS
A. Ordinary methods of identification
1. Characteristics which may easily be changed:
a. Growth of hair, beard
b. d. grade of profession
c. Clothing
d. e. body ornamentation
e. Frequent place of visit
2. Characteristics that may not be easily be changed:
a. Mental memory f. hands and feet
Speech g. complexion
b. Gait h. changes in the eyes
c. Mannerism i. faces
d. Handedness-left/right j. degree of nutrition
ANTHROPOMETRY ( BERTILLION SYSTEM) Alphonse Bertillion- utilizes

anthropometrical measurement of the human body for identification.
Basis:
1. Human skeleton is unchangeable after 20 years.
2. No two human beings have exactly the same bones.
3. Use of simple instrument
Portrait Parle ( spoken picture) picturesque description of a person

Extrinsic factors in identification:
1. Ornamentation
2. Personal belongings
3. Wearing apparel
4. Foreign bodies
5. Identification by close friends, police records, photographs
SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF IDENTIFICATION

1. Fingerprinting
2. Dental identification
3. Handwriting
4. Identification of skeleton
5. Determination of sex, age
6. Identification of blood, blood stains
7. Identification of hair, fibers
1. FINGERPRINTING - Most valuable method of identification

a. No two identical fingerprints 1:64,000,000,000
b. Not changeable – 4th month formed in the fetus
DACTYLOGRAPHY: art and study of recording fingerprints.

DACTYLOSCOPY : comparison of fingerprints
POROSCOPY: study of pores found on the papillary friction ridges of skin

2. DENTAL IDENTIFICATION
- Possibility of 2 persons to have the same is remote
3. DETERMINATION OF SEX OF THE SKELETON :
a. Pelvis( lower trunk) d. femur (thighbone)
b. Skull e. humerus (upper arm)
c. Sternum( the bones to which the ribs are attached)
4. IDENTIFICATION OF SEX
Evidence of sex:
a. Presumptive evidence- general features, hair in some parts
b. Highly probable- vagina, large breast
c. Conclusive evidence- ovary in females
5. DETERMINATION OF AGE
Legal importance
a. Aid to identification
b. Determination of criminal liability
c. Determination of right of suffrage
d. Determination whether a person can exercise civil rights
e. Determination of the capacity to marriage
f. Requisite to certain crimes
6. IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD AND BLOOD STAINS

Human blood is a reddish liquid portion of the body within the blood vessels and containing
formed elements:
* red blood cells
* white blood cells
* platelets
* Plasma
Medico-legal death refers to the death of which involves in crime or medico-legal cases
to prove or disprove that a foul play had been done. Usually death from sickness in the hospital
or at home is natural death and therefore is not classified under medico-legal death because there
is no foul play or crime involved.
Medico-legal Importance of Determining Death:

1. Basis for immediate removal of vital organs and for transplantation.
2. Civil personality of natural person is extinguished from death.
3. Property of a person is transferred among the heirs at the time of death.
4. Criminal liability of a person is extinguished by death.
5. Civil case for claim which does not survive is dismissed upon death of the dependent.
Death – is the termination of life.

Kinds of Death:
1. Somatic death or Clinical Death
It is complete, continuous, persistent cessation of respiration, circulation and almost all
brain functions of an organism. It is usually pronounce by a physician or other members of the
family.
Clinical types of death

a) Sociological death
It is a type of death wherein the withdrawal and separation from the patient by the others
producing a sense of isolation and abandonment. It can last for years if the patient is abandoned
by the family, unvisited and left alone to die.
b) Psychic death
The condition of death wherein the patient regresses, gives up or surrender, accepting
death prematurely and refuses to continue living. It occurs prematurely if the patient has
excessive fear of his illness and views it as leading to immediate death.

c) Biologic death
The type of death characterized by the absence of cognitive function or awareness,
although artificial support system may maintain organ functioning.
d) Physiologic death
A type of death when all the vital organs have ceased to function.
2. Molecular Death ( 3 TO 6 hours after cessation of life)
3. Apparent death or state of suspended animation- transient loss of consciousness in

hysteria, uremia and electric shock.
SIGNS THAT DEATH HAS OCCURRED:

 Early Signs of Death
o Cessation of blood flow
o Dilated and un reactive pupil
o Loss of reflexes
o Cessation of breathing
o Loss of ocular tension
o Muscles become flaccid
o Pallor( pale)
o Loss of bladder tone
o Semen may be emitted
o Gastric contents may be regurgitate( reiterate)
 Late Signs of Death
o Livor mortis
o Algor Mortis ( cooling of the body)
o Rigor Mortis
o Decomposition
@ LIVOR MORTIS
 Settling the blood due to gravity
 Starts 3 to 6 hours after death
 Fully developed at 12 hrs
@ MUSCLES CHANGE AFTER DEATH
1. Stage of Primary Flaccidity
= occurs immediately after death
= Due to complete relaxation of
muscles
2. Rigor Mortis or Stage of Post-Mortem Rigidity
= due to entry of calcium causing
contraction of muscles
= most rapid in small facial muscles and
follows a head to toe order
3. Stage of Secondary Flaccidity
= muscles start to decompose or
putrefy
CONDITIONS SIMULATING RIGOR MORTIS

1. Heat Stiffening
A condition characterized by hardening of the muscles due to coagulation of muscle
proteins when the dead body is exposed to intense heat as burning or immersion in a hot liquid.
The muscle fiber will undergo shortening more than in rigor mortis and this will result to a
pugilistic attitude of the corpse characterized by flexion of the neck, elbows, thighs, and knees. It
is Rigidity of muscles when exposed to above 75C.
2. Cold Stiffening
A condition characterized by hardening of the muscles due to solidification of fats,
muscles and fluids when the dead body is exposed to extremely cold or freezing temperature. In

freezing temperature, all the body fluids will be frozen, including those in the joint so that
forcible stretching of the flexed limbs will produce a crackling sound due to breaking of the
frozen synovial fluid in the joint spaces.
3. Cadaveric Spasm or Instantaneous Rigor

It is the instant stiffening of the muscle Instantaneous rigidity of the muscles at the
moment of death. It may indicate a struggle during death.
SIGNS OF DEATH
1. Cessation of Respiration
Ordinarily a person is breathing as observed by the upward and downward movement of
the chest and abdomen. It has been observed that when a person is dying, the breathing becomes
irregular and then suddenly in gaps separated by long periods of interval until a last expiratory
movement which is usually accepted as the outward and visible sign of death which had
occurred. A person can hold his breath not longer than three and a half minutes but persistent,
continuous cessation of breathing and repeated testing for at least two minutes interval at its
testing is considered as a respiratory failure, however, a 12 hour period of treatment with
respirator is required in some cases.
The irregular types of respiration maybe seen in the following conditions:

• Cheney-stokes respiration – a respiration wherein the apnea period or interval is about
15 to 30 seconds.
• In drowning and electric shock
• In newly born infants
• In the voluntary act of respiratory suspension
Methods of detecting respiratory failure

1. Observance of the upward and downward movement of the chest and abdomen in the process
of breathing .No movement observed upon death.
2. Palpation of the respiratory movement by placing the palm of the hand on the chest and
abdomen.
There will be no feel of the movement upon death.
3. By auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the region of the chest to hear
th breath sounds. No breath sounds upon death.
4. Examination with the aid of the mirror
5. Examination with the aid of feathers or fibers
6. Examination during glass of water
7. Examination using a lighted candle, match or any material
8. Winslav Test – test of determining cessation of respiration when there is no movement of the
reflected image on the water or mercury contained in a container and placed on the chest of
a person lying on his back.
2. Cessation of Heart and Circulation
The heart is a muscular organ which performs vital function as a pump organ and
therefore distributed blood to all parts of the body in its contraction and relaxation. The heartbeat
is almost synchronous with the pulse beat although the heart beating occurs first before the pulse
beat in a fraction of a second. Upon death, the heart stops beating in a persistent and continuous
manner which cannot be revived by cardiac massage and other resuscitative measures for about a
period of five minutes. Subsequently, the pulse beat stopped and also the circulation or blood
flow to different parts of the body. In this condition, the person is pronounced to be dead. In
case of decapitation or cutting of the head and judicial hanging, the heart beat persist for fifteen
minutes to one hour.
Methods of detecting cessation of heart action and circulation

1. Palpation of the pulse and heart beat
2. Auscultation with the aid of stethoscope or placing the ear at the region of the heart in the left
chest to hear the heart sound.

3. Observance of the point of maxim impulse at the region of the left chest
4. Fluoroscopic examination
5. Electrocardiography – EKG
- Tracing of the Living Heart
- Tracing of Dead Heart
3. Cooling of the body
In Post-Mortem Caloricity, there is an increase of temperature due to a fast, early
putrefactive and chemical change in the body, which occurs in about 1-3 hours after death. Post-
mortem caloricity occurs especially in persons who died from infectious diseases and strychnine
poisoning.
LEGAL RECOGNITION OF TWO TYPES OF DEATH

a) CARDIO-RESPIRATORY DEATH
- the continuous, persistent, irreversible cessation of heart action and respiration (no
heartbeat, no breathing)
b) BRAIN DEATH
- irreversible cessation of all functions of the brain, including the brain stem (both the
cerebrum or the higher brain, and the lower brain or the brain stem are no longer
functional)
- there is absence of electrical brain activity
MEDICO-LEGAL CLASSIFICATION OF CAUSES OF DEATH

1) NATURAL DEATH
- caused by a natural disease or condition in the body
2) VIOLENT DEATH
- due to injuries inflicted in the body by some form of outside force
a) accidental d. infanticidal
b) negligent e. parricidal
c) suicidal f. murder
g. homicidal
SIGNS OF DEATH/EARLY CHANGES AFTER DEATH

1) COOLING (ALGOR MORTIS)
- caused by the absence of heat in the blood
- the rate of fall of body temperature averages about 0.9ºC or about 1.8ºF per hour
2) POST-MORTEM LIVIDITY OR LIVOR MORTIS

- the settling of blood to the lowest part of the body, causing such part to become dull-red or
purplish in color
- becomes apparent after 4-6 hours from the time of death
- becomes fully established after 12 hours
TWO STAGES OF LIVIDITY

a. HYPOSTASIS
o the blood is still in fluid form
b. DIFFUSION
o the blood is no longer in fluid form
3) PRIMARY FLACCIDITY
- immediately after death, there is complete relaxation and softening of all the muscles of
the body
- the muscles are relaxed and capable of contracting when stimulated
- there is incontinence of urination and defecation
- lasts about three to six hours after death
4) RIGOR MORTIS (POST MORTEM RIGIDITY)

- refers to the rigidity of muscles

- the whole body becomes rigid due to the contraction of the muscles
- starts after 3 to 6 hours after death, completed at 12 hours and remains so for 36 to 48
hours
- caused by heat stiffening (pugilistic attitude of the body), cold stiffening and cadaveric
spasm
CADAVERIC SPASM OR INSTANTANEOUS RIGOR

- The instantaneous rigidity of the muscles which occurs at the moment of death due to
extreme nervous tension, exhaustion and injury to the nervous system or injury to the
chest
- rare condition where there is the instantaneous rigidity of certain group of muscles
HEAT STIFFENING/PUGILISTIC ATTITUDE OF THE BODY

- extremities are flexed and hands are clenched
- caused by stiffening and contraction of the muscles
- commonly observed when the body of a person is placed in boiling fluid or when the
body is burned to death
COLD STIFFENING
- due to the solidification of fat when the body is exposed to freezing temperature
5) SECONDARY FLACCIDITY
- after the disappearance of rigor mortis, the muscle becomes soft and flaccid, due to the
dissolution of the muscle proteins which have previously been coagulated during the
period of rigor mortis
- the body becomes limp again and the muscles are no longer capable of responding to
mechanical or electrical stimulus
- signals the start of putrefaction or decomposition due to bacteria
- noted about 48 hours after death
CHRONOLOGICAL SEQUENCE OF PUTREFACTIVE CHANGES OCCURING IN

TROPICAL COUNTRY
Time since Condition of the Body

Death Rigor mortis present, hypostasis
12 hours present
24 hours Rigor mortis absent, abdomen
48 hours distended w/ gases, greenish
72 hours discoloration of abdomen &
One Week chest
Two Weeks Trunk bloated, blister present,
One Month Maggots presents
Body grossly smaller and
disfigured
Soft tissues putrefied
Soft tissues gone
Skeletonized
POST-MORTEM DECOMPOSITION
1) AUTOLYSIS
- decomposition by enzymes
2) PUTREFACTION
- decomposition by bacteria
- noted after 48 hours after death
- first appears as a greenish discoloration

- generalized swelling and reddish discoloration along the lines of the superficial veins
occur, called MARBLING
3) MUMMIFICATION
- dehydration by extreme dry heat
- the body becomes dry, brittle, dark brown
4) ADIPOCERE FORMATION OR SAPONIFICATION

- noted to occur after several months after death
- the fatty tissue of the body is replaced with a white greasy product
5) MACERATION
- softening of the body when immersed in the water
6) SKELETONIZATION
- the reduction of the body to the skeletal form
FACTORS OR CONDITIONS ENHANCING DECOMPOSITION

1) Obesity
2) Infection
3) Moderate moisture in the air
4) Running water
5) Moist, fertile soil
6) Shallow grave
7) Clothing
8) Hot environment
9) Soft or weak coffin
10) Septic air
11) Organic materials in coffin
12) Mass graves
13) Absence of light
14) Free air accessibility
FACTORS OR CONDITIONS DELAYING DECOMPOSITION
1) Skinny or emaciated body
2) sudden/violent death, no infection
3) Excessive moisture in air
4) Still water
5) Dry, sandy soil
6) Deep burial site
7) Tight clothing
8) Frozen
9) Airtight, hard coffin
Presumption of death:
Disputable presumption- not heard in 7 years
Presumption of death:
Absence of 7 years except succession 10 years
Vessel for- 4 years
Armed forces - 4 years
In danger of death 4 years
PRESUMPTION OF SURVIVORSHIP
1.under 15 y.o.- older survives
2.above 60 y.o.- younger
3. under 15, above 60 – former
4. over 15 and under 60- male , older

5. under 15, or over 60 y.o, and the other in between- latter
MEDICO-LEGAL INVESTIGATION OF DEATH

Inquest officer- is an official of the state charged with the duty of inquiring into certain
matters.
- In medico –legal examination: manner and cause of death
The following officials are authorized to make death investigations:

a. Provincial and city prosecutors
b. Judges of the RTC,MTC
c. Director of NBI
AUTOPSY
- a comprehensive study of a dead body performed by a trained physician using recognized
dissection procedures and techniques, primarily to determine the true cause of death
- indicates that, in addition to an external examination, the body is opened and an internal
examination is conducted
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION
- refers to an external examination of a dead body without incision being made, although blood
and other body fluids may be collected for examination
KINDS OF AUTOPSIES
1) HOSPITAL OR NON-OFFICIAL
- done on a human body with the consent of the deceased person’s relatives for the purpose
of:
a) determining the cause of death
b) providing correlation of clinical diagnosis and clinical symptoms
c) determining the effectiveness of therapy
d) studying the natural course of disease process
e) educating students and physicians
2) MEDICO-LEGAL OR OFFICIAL
- an examination performed on a dead body for the purpose of:
a) determining the cause, manner or mode and time of death
b) recovering, identifying and preserving evidentiary material
c) providing interpretation and correlation of facts and circumstances related to death
d) providing a factual, objective medical report for law enforcement, prosecution and defense
agencies
e) separating death due to disease from death due to external cause for protection of the
innocent
NEGATIVE AUTOPSY
- an autopsy which failed to establish cause of death after all efforts have been exhausted
- an autopsy which after a meticulous examination with the aid of other examinations does
not yield any definite cause of death
NEGLIGENT AUTOPSY
- an autopsy wherein no cause of death is found on account of imprudence, negligence,
lack of skill and lack of foresight of the examiner
METHODS OF DISPOSAL OF DEAD BODIES

1) EMBALMING - the artificial way of preserving the body after death
2) GROUND BURIAL OR INHUMATION
Sec 91 P.D. 856 Code of Sanitation

Burial requirement – death certificate issued by physician
The depth of the grave must be at least 1 ½ meters deep , filled well and firmly
3) SEA BURIAL
4) CREMATION –the pulverization of the body into ashes by the application of heat

EXHUMATION (DISINTERRING)
- refers to the taking out of a body from its tomb or gravesite
- can be done only upon a lawful order, with permission from the Department of Health
- remains of persons who died of non-dangerous, non-communicable diseases may be
disinterred after three (3) years
- remains of persons who died of dangerous communicable diseases may be disinterred
after five (5) years
DEATH BY ASPHYXIA
- a condition resulting from a lack of oxygen in the air or from an obstructing mechanism
to respiration
- the general term applied to all forms of violent death which results primarily from the
interference with the process of respiration or the condition in which the supply of
oxygen to the blood or to the tissues, or both, has been reduced below normal level
TYPES OF ASPHYXIAL DEATH

1) ANOXIC DEATH
o associated with the failure of the arterial blood to become normally saturated with oxygen
2) ANEMIC ANOXIC DEATH
o due to a deceased capacity of the blood to carry oxygen
3) STAGNANT ANOXIC DEATH
o brought about by the failure of circulation
4) HISTOTOXIC ANOXIC DEATH
o due to the failure of the cellular oxidative process, although the oxygen is delivered to the
tissues, it cannot be utilized properly
TYPES OF MECHANICAL ASPHYXIA

1) STRANGULATION (THROTTLING)
- may be with the use of hands or a ligature (such as rope)
2) SMOTHERING OR SUFFOCATION
- occurs when the entrance of air through the nose and mouth is blocked or severely
restricted
3) HANGING
- the neck is tied while the body is suspended
- common form of suicide
4) CHOKING
- there is blocking of the internal airway by a foreign object inside or outside of the
victim’s body
5) CRUSH OR TRAUMATIC ASPHYXIA
- brought about by the mechanical compression of the chest by some heavy object
6) DROWNING
B. POST-MORTEM IDENTIFICATION
OSTEOLOGY
- the study of skeletons
- the examination of body remains
MEDICO-LEGAL IMPORTANCE OF OSTEOLOGY

1) determination whether the bones are of human origin or not
2) determination of sex
3) determination of race
4) determination of age
5) determination of height
6) determination of the plurality or missing bones
7) determination of the ante-mortem or post-mortem injuries

8) determination of the duration of internment
ODONTOLOGY
- the examination of dental records in determining the identity of the body
- the possibility of two persons to have the same dentition is quite remote
- the enamel of the teeth is the hardest substance of the human body
Death from starvation- cause may be due to suicidal, homicidal or accidental.
C. PHYSICAL INJURIES
PHYSICAL INJURY
- the effect of some form of stimulus on the body
WOUND
- the solution of the natural continuity of any tissue of the living body
- the disruption of the anatomic integrity of a tissue of the body
CLASSIFICATION OF WOUNDS
1) ACCORDING TO SEVERITY:
a) MORTAL WOUND
o capable of causing death immediately after the infliction or shortly thereafter
b) NON-MORTAL WOUND
o not capable of causing death immediately after the infliction or shortly thereafter
2) ACCORDING TO WEAPON OR INSTRUMENT USED:

a) WOUNDS BROUGHT ABOUT BY BLUNT INSTRUMENT/BLUNT FORCE
INJURIES
BRUISE - contusion (pasa)
HEMATOMA - bump (bukol)
ABRASION - grazes, scrape (gasgas)
LACERATED – characterized by irregular or ill-defined edges of the wound; gash, tear, cut
b) WOUNDS BROUGHT ABOUT BY SHARP INSTRUMENT

INCISED – caused by sharp-edged instrument; incision is longer
PUNCTURED – caused by sharp-pointed instrument; incision is deeper
STAB – caused by sharp-edged and sharp-pointed instrument
3) ACCORDING TO RELATION OF THE SITE OF THE APPLICATION OF

FORCE AND THE LOCATION OF THE INJURY:
a) COUP INJURY – physical injury which is located at the site of the application of force
b) CONTRE-COUP INJURY – physical injury found opposite the site of the application
of force
c) COUP CONTRE-COUP INJURY – physical injury located at the site and also
opposite the site of the application of force
d) LOCUS MINORIS RESISTENCIA – physical injury located not at the site nor
opposite the site of the application of force but in some areas offering the least resistance
to the force applied
e) EXTENSIVE INJURY – physical injury involving a greater area of the body beyond
the site of the application of force
SPECIAL TYPES OF WOUNDS

DEFENSE WOUND
- the result of a person’s instinctive reaction of self-protection
- Injuries suffered by a person to avoid or repel potential injury contemplated by the
aggressor.
PATTERNED WOUND
- Wound in the nature and shape of an object or instrument and which infers the object or
instrument causing it.

SELF-INFLICTED WOUND
- produced or caused by a person to his own self
- also called SELF-MUTILATION
GUNSHOT WOUND
- produced by the penetration of a bullet within the tissues of the body
ENTRANCE WOUND
- the wound produced by the entrance of the bullet to the body
- characteristics:
a) usually small and even smaller than the projectile itself due to the retraction of the skin and
tissues at the opening of the wound
b) the edge of the wound is inverted
c) there is the presence of contusion collar or abrasion collar due to the spinning movement
and rough surface of the projectile
d) usually, the shape is round or oval
EXIT WOUND the wound produced by the exit of the bullet from the body characteristics:
a) usually larger than the entrance wound and the projectile itself
b) the edge of the wound is averted
c) there is no contusion collar or abrasion collar
d) there is no definite shape
FACTORS AFFECTING THE APPEARANCE OF GUNSHOT ENTRANCE AND EXIT

WOUNDS
1) Kind of weapon
2) caliber of the projectile
3) shape and composition of the projectile
4) range of firing
5) direction of firing
6) part of the body involved
THERMAL INJURIES
- those caused by an appreciable deviation from normal temperature, capable of producing
cellular or tissue changes in the body
TWO TYPES OF INJURY BY HEAT

1) DRY BURN
- when the heat is dry
- also called BURN
2) WET BURN
- when the heat is caused by liquid
- also called SCALD
CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS

1) FIRST DEGREE BURN
o involves the superficial layer of the skin or tissues
o characterized by redness and pain
o peeling of the skin sets in after a few days
o example is sunburn
2) SECOND DEGREE BURN
o involves the superficial layer of the skin or tissues and nerve endings
o characterized by the formation of blisters containing fluid over the tissues
o the most painful burn because of the irritation of the nerve endings
3) THIRD DEGREE BURN
o involves the skin, nerves, muscles and bones
o usually encountered in victims of fire

o the most severe burn because the victim usually dies from loss of fluid and electrolyte in the
body and massive infection
LEGAL CLASSIFICATION OF INJURIES ( REVISED PENAL CODE)

1) SERIOUS PHYSICAL INJURIES
o a physical injury wherein the victim is incapacitated for work or requires medical attendance
for more than thirty (30) days
o when as a result of the injury, the victim:
a) becomes insane, impotent or blind
b) loses an organ of sense or locomotion
c) becomes deformed, lost portions or functions of any part of the body
2) LESS SERIOUS PHYSICAL INJURIES

for ten days or more but not more than thirty days
3) SLIGHT PHYSICAL INJURIES

for a period of one to nine days
4) MUTILATION
o the intentional act of looping or cutting off any part of the living body
DEFORMITY
- a temporary or permanent disfigurement of the body or any part of the body producing
physical ugliness
C. SEXUAL OFFENSES AND DEVIATION
VIRGINITY
- a condition of a female who has not experienced sexual intercourse and whose genital
organs have not been altered by carnal correction
KINDS OF VIRGINITY
1) MORAL VIRGINITY
o the state of not knowing the nature of sexual life and not having experienced sexual relation
o applies to children below the age of puberty and whose sex organs and secondary sex
characteristics are not yet fully developed
2) PHYSICAL VIRGINITY
o a condition whereby a woman is conscious of the nature of the sexual life but has not
experienced sexual intercourse
o applies to women who have reached sexual maturity but have not experienced sexual
intercourse
TRUE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

o a condition wherein the hymen is intact, with the edges distinct and regular, and the opening
is small to barely admit the tip of the smallest finger of the examiner even if the thighs are
separated
FALSE PHYSICAL VIRGINITY

o a condition wherein the hymen is unruptured but the orifice is wide and elastic to admit two
or more fingers of the examiner with a lesser degree of resistance
3) DEMI-VIRGINITY
o a condition of a woman who permits any form of sexual liberties as long as they abstain
from rupturing the hymen by sexual act

4) VIRGO INTACTA
o applied to women who have had previous sexual act but had not yet given birth
DEFLORATION
- the laceration or rupture of the hymen as a result of sexual intercourse
RAPE (RA 8353)
TWO MODES OF COMMITTING RAPE

1) MAN AGAINST WOMAN:
By a man who shall have carnal knowledge of a woman under ANY of the
circumstances:
a) through force, threat or intimidation
b) when the offended party is deprived of reason or unconscious
c) by means of fraudulent machinations or grave abuse of authority
d) when the offended party is under twelve years of age, or is demented, even though none of
the circumstances mentioned be present (STATUTORY RAPE)
2) PERSON AGAINST ANOTHER PERSON:

By any person who, under ANY of the circumstances mentioned above shall commit
an act of sexual assault by:
a) inserting his penis into another person’s mouth or anal orifice
b) inserting any instrument or object into the genital or anal orifice of another person
CARNAL KNOWLEDGE
- the act of a man in having sexual bodily connection with a woman
- even the slightest penetration in the sexual organ of the female by the sexual organ of the
male
CRIMES AGAINST CHASTITY

SIMPLE SEDUCTION
ELEMENTS:
1) woman who is single or a widow of good reputation
2) over twelve years but under eighteen years of age
3) committed by means of deceit
QUALIFIED SEDUCTION
ELEMENTS:
1) woman who is a virgin
2) over twelve years but under eighteen years of age
3) committed by any person in public authority, priest, homeservant, domestic, guardian,
teacher or any person entrusted with the woman’s education or custody
FORCIBLE ABDUCTION
ELEMENTS:
1) the abducted is a woman against her will
2) with lewd designs
CONSENTED ABDUCTION
ELEMENTS:
1) the abducted is a virgin
2) over twelve years and under eighteen years
3) carried out with her consent
4) with lewd designs
SEXUAL DEVIATIONS

HOMOSEXUALITY - sexual desire towards the same sex

INFANTOSEXUALITY – sexual desire towards an immature person; also known as
PEDOPHILIA
BESTOSEXUAL – sexual desire towards animals; also known as BESTIALITY
AUTOSEXUALITY – self-gratification; also known as MASTURBATION
GERONTOPHILIA – sexual desire towards an older person
NECROPHILIA – a sexual perversion characterized by erotic desire or actual sexual
intercourse with a corpse
INCEST – sexual relations between persons who, by reason of blood relationship cannot legally
marry
SATYRIASIS – excessive sexual urge of men
NYMPHOMANIA – excessive sexual urge of women
FELLATIO – the female agent receives the penis of a man into her mouth and by friction with
the lips and tongue coupled with the act of sucking initiates orgasm
CUNNILINGUS – sexual gratification is attained by licking or sucking the external female
genitalia
ANILINGUS – a form of sexual perversion wherein a person derives excitement by licking the
anus of another person of either sex
SADISM (ACTIVE ALGOLAGNIA) – a form of sexual perversion in which the infliction of
pain on another is necessary for sexual enjoyment
MASOCHISM (PASSIVE ALGOLAGNIA) – a form of sexual perversion in which the
infliction of pain by another is necessary for sexual enjoyment
FETISHISM – a form of sexual perversion wherein the real or fantasies presence of an object or
bodily part is necessary for sexual stimulation and gratification
PYGMALIONISM – a sexual deviation whereby a person has sexual desire for statutes
FROTTAGE – a form of sexual gratification characterized by the compulsive desire of a person
to rub his sex organ against some parts of the body of another
VOYEURISM – a form of sexual perversion characterized by a compulsion to peep to see
persons undress or perform other personal activities .
REFERENCES:

City, Philippines, Wiseman’s Books Trading Inc.
 DR. MANUEL G. LAGONERA (2010), Legal Medicine, Quezon City, Wiseman’s
Books Trading, Inc.

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CSC-Antipolo City Pride/What Criminologist Knows?

What Criminologist Knows?

1 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

WHAT CRIMINOLOGIST KNOWS?

ACCIDENTALS – refers to relatively small number ofpatterns too irregular in outline to be

2 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

CHIROSCOPY – is the scene or personal identification by means of friction ridge

3 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

4 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

5 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

6 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

FINGERPRINT is a positive and absolute means of identification. The use of fingerprints

7 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

8 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Rules governing the darkness or clarity of the ridge

9 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

III. The fingerprint Pattern

Types of Fingerprint impression:

Dactyloscopy- is the science of fingerprint as means of identification.

10 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

11 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Identifying the Core and Delta ( refer to index)

12 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Rules in selecting the core;

IV. The Taking of Fingerprint

13 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Printing of fingers having disabilities

14 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Ridge Counting and Tracing

Basic Rules for Ridge Tracing in Whorls

Rules for Beginning and Ending Ridge Tracing

15 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Rules in Ridge Counting

Values of Ridges in Ridge Counting

16 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Rule for the Count for key Classification

VII Formula for Fingerprint Classification

17 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Blocking fingerprints – means designating by symbols the type of pattern each

The rules of blocking fingerprints are:

The symbols used in blocking print are as follows:

In other bureaus they used the following symbols:

Pattern Index Finger Other Fingers

Steps in obtaining the primary classification

18 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Patterns that don`t have numerical value:

1st pair; right thumb and right index --------VALUE IS 16

Numerator --- Even Fingers --2, + 4, + 6,+ 8, + 10

Key Major Primary Secondary Sub-secondary

Capital Letters Group

Small Letters Group

19 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

Sub-divisions of sub-secondary classification.

The Ridge Counting Division

Index Finger / ridge count 1 to 9 - symbol is I (Inner) \ ridge count 10 or more -

The ridge Tracing Division

The Loop Division

The whorl Division

20 | P a g e CRIMINALISTICS/Charlemagne James P. Ramos R.C., J.D./2016

If both thumbs are whorl, it is indicated as I (inner), M (meeting), and O, (outer)

THE FINAL CLASSIFICATION

THE KEY CLASSIFICATION

Ridge count Symbol