HYDROGEN POWERED VEHICLE

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Business

Communication and Ethics
Prepared By:

Roll No. Name

48 Sairaj Shelar

49 Ajinkya Shigwan

50 Aaditya Shinde

51 Chinmay Shirdhankar

53 Shivam Singh

Submitted to:
Prof. Rakhee Pillai
(Department Of Humanities)
Submitted On : 10/10/2019

Department Of Computer Engineering

Pillai College Of Engineering
New Panvel – 410 206
University Of Mumbai
Academic Year (2019-2020)
 Acknowledgement

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who are instrumental in
completion of this report. Special gratitude to our Principal Sir -Dr Sandeep Joshi
whose constant encouragement and support inspired us to do best. We would like to
thank our H.O.D of humanities, Dr Malavika Sharma, whose suggestion and
encouragement helped us in writing this report. We thank our H.O.D of Automobile
Department Dr Divya Padmanabhan who provided us the opportunity to write this
report. Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge with much appreciation the
crucial role of staff of Automobile Department, who gave the permission to use all
required equipment and necessary materials to complete the task. Furthermore, we are
indebted to our Prof. Rakhee Pillai whose constant encouragement and motivation
inspired us to do our best.

I
 Abstract

A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power. Hydrogen
vehicles include hydrogen-fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other
transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical
energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal
combustion engine, or, more commonly, by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel
cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a
key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.As of 2016, there are three models of
hydrogen cars publicly available in select markets: the Toyota Mirai, the Hyundai
Nexo, and the Honda Clarity. Several other companies are working to develop
hydrogen cars. As of 2014, 95% of hydrogen is made from natural gas. It can be
produced by thermochemical or pyrolytic means using renewable feedstocks, but that
is an expensive process. Renewable electricity can however be used to power the
conversion of water into hydrogen: Integrated wind-to-hydrogen (power-to-gas)
plants, using electrolysis of water, are exploring technologies to deliver costs low
enough, and quantities great enough, to compete with hydrogen production using
natural gas. The drawbacks of hydrogen use are high carbon emissions intensity when
produced from natural gas, capital cost burden, low energy content per unit volume at
ambient conditions, production and compression of hydrogen, and the investment
required in filling stations to dispense hydrogen.

II
 Table Of Content

Acknowledgement I

Abstract II

1 Introduction 1

2 Literature Review 3

3 Methodology 4

4 Fuel Cell 5

5 Hydrogen Production & Hydrogen Storage 11

6 Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines 15

7 Future Scope 16

8 Conclusion 17

References III

Appendix V

Index VI
 Chapter 1
Introduction

Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are zero emission and run on compressed hydrogen fed
into a fuel cell "stack" that produces electricity to power the vehicle. A fuel cell can
be used in combination with an electric motor to drive a vehicle – quietly, powerfully
and cleanly
A hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle is powered by a group of individual fuel cells,
known as a fuel cell stack.The stack is designed to contain enough cells to provide the
necessary power for the automotive application. A fuel cell stack produces power as
long as fuel is available, similar to a combustion engine. The electricity generated by
the fuel cell stack powers the electric motor that propels the vehicle.
Each fuel cell is an anode, a cathode and a proton exchange membrane sandwiched in
between. Hydrogen, from a tank onboard the vehicle, enters into the anode side of the
fuel cell. Oxygen, pulled from the air, enters the cathode side. As the hydrogen
molecule encounters the membrane, a catalyst forces it to split into electrons and
protons. The proton moves through the fuel cell stack and the electron follows an
external circuit, delivering current to the electric motor and other vehicle components.
At the cathode side, the proton and electron join again, and then combine with oxygen
to form the vehicle’s only tailpipe emission, water.
Most automakers have placed fuel cell electric vehicles with customers, and many
plan to introduce FCEVs to the early commercial market in the 2015-2017 timeframe.
A hydrogen vehicle is a vehicle that uses hydrogen fuel for motive power. Hydrogen
vehicles include hydrogen-fueled space rockets, as well as automobiles and other
transportation vehicles. The power plants of such vehicles convert the chemical
energy of hydrogen to mechanical energy either by burning hydrogen in an internal
combustion engine, or, more commonly, by reacting hydrogen with oxygen in a fuel
cell to run electric motors. Widespread use of hydrogen for fueling transportation is a
key element of a proposed hydrogen economy.

1
A fuel cell vehicle (FCV) or fuel cell electric vehicle (FCEV) is a type of electric
vehicle which uses a fuel cell, instead of a battery, or in combination with a battery or
supercapacitor, to power its on-board electric motor. Fuel cells in vehicles generate
electricity to power the motor, generally using oxygen from the air and compressed
hydrogen. Most fuel cell vehicles are classified as zero-emissions vehicles that emit
only water and heat. As compared with internal combustion vehicles, hydrogen
vehicles centralize pollutants at the site of the hydrogen production, where hydrogen
is typically derived from reformed natural gas. Transporting and storing hydrogen
may also create pollutants.
Fuel cells have been used in various kinds of vehicles including forklifts, especially in
indoor applications where their clean emissions are important to air quality, and in
space applications. The first commercially produced hydrogen fuel cell automobile,
the Hyundai Tucson FCEV, was introduced in 2013, Toyota Mirai followed in 2015
and then Honda entered the market. Fuel cells are also being developed and tested in
trucks, buses, boats, motorcycles and bicycles, among other kinds of vehicles.
As of 2017, there was limited hydrogen infrastructure, with 36 hydrogen fueling
stations for automobiles publicly available in the U.S., but more hydrogen stations are
planned, particularly in California. Some public hydrogen fueling stations exist, and
new stations are being planned, in Japan, Europe and elsewhere. Critics doubt
whether hydrogen will be efficient or cost-effective for automobiles, as compared
with other zero emission technologies.

2
 Chapter 2
Literature Review

Gillingham.K (2007) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: A Prudent

intermediate step or a step in the wrong direction? Stanford global climate and energy
project working paper. In this the author has described the hydrogen internal
combustion engine.
Hydrogen fuel-cell cars could be the catalyst for a clearer tomorrow, Lawrence D.
Burns, J. Byron McCormick and Christopher E. Borroni-Bird, Scientific American,
October, 2000 . The author had researched on the fuel cell and its application in
automobile. He also describes how fuel cell cars can be used in future.
Brian D. James Overview of Hydrogen Storage Technologies, Argonne National
Laboratory. In this there is information on the storage technologies used to store
hydrogen
At the beginning of 2002, the Bush Administration announced the ìFreedomCARî
initiative, an industry-government cooperative effort, to develop fuel cell vehicles.
This prompted a subcommittee of the POPA Energy and Environment Committee to
commence work on a report about fuel cells and FreedomCAR. The rationale for
preparing such a report is that the topic is an important aspect of the nationís energy
policyóa topic that physicists justifiably feel competent to discuss. Previous POPA
studies have been on nuclear energy, energy supplies, etc. Fuel cells are of interest to
the physics community and physicists are actively involved in research areas for
potential hydrogen storage, such as carbon nanotubes. The materials aspects of fuel
cells are especially within the purview of physicists. Overall systems considerations,
wells-to-wheels energy efficiency, and related issues can benefit from analysis by
physicists. In view of the high expectations for fuel-cell vehicles generated by the
FreedomCAR initiative, it seems reasonable to examine what is reality and what is
unsupported optimism. Of those who have read the Ogden article or popular-press
fuel cell articles, some will want to know more. This report is a start on a balanced
discussion that intends to educate, rather than persuade or advocate.
3
 Chapter 3
Methodology

This report has been product of constant research and a study of various technical
papers obtained by various sources such as internet, technical papers, e-books,
different books.The method of making this report was not a meticulous once but the
approach was quite simple. To gather as much information possible, analyse the
information gathered and sort it according to relevance. The information gathered had
to be from reliable resources.

4
 Chapter 4
Fuel Cell

A fuel cell is an energy conversion device that converts the chemical energy of a fuel
directly into electricity without any intermediate thermal or mechanical processes.
Energy is released whenever a fuel reacts chemically with the oxygen in air. In an
internal combustion engine, the reaction occurs combustivel and the energy is
released in the form of heat, some of which can be used to do useful work by pushing
a piston. In a fuel cell, the reaction occurs electrochemically and the energy is
released as a combination of low-voltage DC electrical energy and heat. The electrical
energy can be used to do useful work directly while the heat is either wasted or used
for other purposes. In galvanic (or “voltaic”) cells, electrochemical reactions form the
basis in which chemical energy is converted into electri-cal energy. A fuel cell of any
type is a galvanic cell, as is a battery. In contrast, in electrolytic cells, electrical energy
is converted into chemical energy, such as in an electrolyzer or electroplater. A basic
feature of fuel cells is that the electric current load determines the consumption rate of
hydrogen and oxygen. In an actual systems application, a variety of electrical loads
may be applied to the fuel cell.

In principle, all galvanic cells consist of two electrodes — an anode and a cathode —
and an electrolyte. The anode, or negative (fuel) electrode, is made of a substance that
is read-ily oxidized (releases electrons). The cathode, or positive (oxi-dant) electrode,
is made of a substance that is readily reduced (accepts electrons). When used together,
the anode and cathode are two halves of a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction.
In other words, the anode and cathode are at a high energy state and wish to combine
to achieve a lower energy state. For a chemical reaction to occur, the reactive
elements must be in contact with each other so that electrons can be exchanged and
bonds formed. If the anode and cathode are in direct contact, a reaction can occur
where their surfaces touch. No useful work results as the electrons pass between the
electrodes directly; all of the energy of reaction manifests itself as heat.
5
In order to take advantage of the available electrical energy, the electrodes must be
separated in such a way that electrons can flow from the anode to the cathode through
an external load while still being in some form of contact to enable the reaction to
proceed. To achieve this, the anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte. An
electrolyte is a substance that conducts ions. An ion is an atom or group of atoms that
has acquired an electrical charge through the loss or gain of one or more electrons. Ion
with a positive charge have lost one or more electrons and are known as positive ions
or “cations”. Ions with a negative charge have gained one or more electrons and are
known as negative ions or “anions”. For example, when table salt (NaCl) is dissolved
in water, it dissociates into a sodium cation (Na+) and a chlorine anion (Cl–). When
an ion moves through an electrolyte, the charge moves with it. Thus, ionic movement
imparts a form of con-ductivity to the electrolyte. Consequently salty water is more
conductive than fresh water.Although an electrolyte conducts ions, it does not conduct
electricity. Electricity is the flow of free electrons such as through a metal. If the
electrolyte were to conduct electricity in addition to ions, the anode and cathode
would be short-circuited just as if they were in full contact. It is this duality of ionic
conduction and electrical insulation that allows electrolytes to form the essential basis
of all practical galvanic cells.In practice, the anode material dissolves into the
electrolyte forming positively charged cations and leaves behind a corresponding
buildup of free electrons within the anode itself.This buildup of electrons manifests
itself as a negative charge. Conversely, the cathode material has a tendency to attract
positive cations that originate from either the anode (with which it reacts) or from the
substance of the electrolyte itself. The accumulation of cations on the cathode
manifests itself as a positive charge. Thus, an electrical potential exists between the
cathode and the anode since the former is positively charged with respect to the latter.
However, this is a static situation since the charge only builds up to a point beyond
which there is insufficient chemical attraction to generate additional ions. This charge
can be measured as the open-circuit voltage (OCV) and is a property of the chosen
electrode materials and to some extent on cell temperature. The chemical reaction
between the anode and cathode cannot move to completion as long as the electrons
remain trapped within the anode.
6
In order to release the electrons, the electrical circuit between the two electrodes must
be completed through an external flow path. If the external flow path includes a load,
the electrons do useful work on their way to the cathode. Once the anode and cathode
are connected, the surplus electrons from the anode flow into the cathode, completing
the chemical reaction. As the cathode loses its electron excess and therefore its
negative charge, more cathode ions dissolve to produce a new excess of electrons. As
the cathode gains electrons and loses its positive charge, more positive cations are
attracted to the cathode. In short, electrons flow from the anode to the cathode by way
of the external load and then join the positively charged ions that migrate through the
electrolyte. This flow continues until the anode is consumed, the electrolyte is unable
to furnish further cations, or the load path is removed. The rate of reaction is set by
the size of the load. Overall, the net chemical change that occurs within a galvanic cell
is the result of the individual reactions at the anode and the cathode, which always
remain balanced in such a way that the same number of electrons are gained and lost.
As the reaction completes, a reaction product compound is formed at the cathode. The
reaction product depends on the chemical composition of the electrodes and can be a
gas, a liquid or a solid. This product compound must be removed as it would
otherwise block the reaction sites and thereby impede further reaction.

In a fuel cell, the fuel and oxidant gases themselves comprise the anode and cathode
respectively. Thus, the physical structure of a fuel cell is one where the gases are
directed through flow channels to either side of the electrolyte. The electrolyte is the
distinguishing feature between different types of fuel cells. Different electrolytes
conduct different specific ions. Electrolytes can be liquid or solid; some operate at
high temperature, and some at low temperature. Low-temperature fuel cells tend to
require a noble metal catalyst, typically platinum, to encourage the electrode reactions
whereas high-temperature fuel cells do not. Most fuel cells suitable for automotive
applications use a low temperature solid electrolyte that conducts hydrogen ions.In
principle, a fuel cell can operate using a variety of fuels and oxidants. Hydrogen has
long been recognized as the most effective fuel for practical fuel cell use since it has
higher electrochemical reactivity than other fuels, such as hydrocarbons or alcohols.
7
Types of fuel cells differ primarily by the type of electrolyte they employ. The type of
electrolyte, in turn, determines the operating temperature, which varies widely
between types. High-temperature fuel cells operate at greater than 1100 ºF (600 °C).
These high temperatures permit the spontaneous internal reforming of light
hydrocarbon fuels — such as methane — into hydrogen and carbon in the presence of
water. This reaction occurs at the anode over a nickel catalyst provided that adequate
heat is always available. This is essentially a steam reforming process ..
Internal reforming eliminates the need for a separate fuel processor, and can use fuels
other than pure hydrogen. These significant advantages lead to an increase in overall
efficiency by as much as 15%. During the electrochemical reaction that follows, the
fuel cell draws on the chemical energy released during the reaction between hydrogen
and oxygen to form water, and the reaction between carbon monoxide and oxygen to
form carbon dioxide. High-temperature fuel cells also generate high-grade waste heat,
which can be used in downstream processes for co-generation purposes.
High-temperature fuel cells react easily and efficiently without an expensive noble
metal catalyst, such as platinum. On the other hand, the amount of energy released by
the electrochemical reaction degrades as the reaction temperature increases.
High-temperature fuel cells suffer from severe materials problems. Few materials can
work for extended periods without degradation within a chemical environment at high
temperature. Furthermore, high-temperature operation does not lend itself easily to
large-scale operations and is not suitable where quick startup is required. As a result,
current high-temperature fuel cells applications have focused on stationary power
plants where the efficiencies of internal reforming and co-generative capabilities
outweigh the disadvantages of material breakdown and slow startup.
The most prominent high-temperature fuel cells are:
• molten carbonate
• solid oxide
Low-temperature fuel cells typically operate below 480 ºF (250 ºC). These low
temperatures do not permit internal reforming, and therefore require an external
source of hydrogen.

8
Molten carbonate fuel cells use an electrolyte that conducts carbonate ions from the
cathode to the anode. This is the opposite of many other types of fuel cells, which
conduct hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. The electrolyte is composed of
a molten mixture of lithium and potassium carbonates. This mixture is retained by
capillary forces within a ceramic support matrix of lithium alu-minate. At the fuel cell
operating temperature, the electrolyte structure is a thick paste, and the paste provides
gas seals at the cell edges.
Molten carbonate fuel cells operate at about 1200 ºF (650ºC) and a pressure of 15 to
150 psig (1 to 10 barg). Each cell can produce up to between 0.7 and 1.0 VDC.

Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of molten carbonate fuel cells are that they:

• support spontaneous internal reforming of light hydro-
carbon fuels
• generate high-grade waste heat
• have fast reaction kinetics (react quickly)
• have high efficiency
• do not need noble metal catalysts

The disadvantages are that they:

It requires the development of suitable materials that are resistant to corrosion, are
dimensionally stable, have high endurance and lend themselves to fabrication.
Corrosion is a particular problem and can cause nickel oxide from the cathode to
dissolve into the electrolyte, loss of electrolyte, deterioration of separator plates, and
dehydration or flooding of the electrodes. All of these corrosion effects result in a
decline in performance, limit cell life, and can culminate in cell failure. Use of a
platinum catalyst overcomes some of these problems, but eliminates an important
cost-saving advantage. Dimensional instability can cause electrode deformation that
alters the active surface area and may cause loss of contact and high resistances
between components.
9
It have a high intolerance to sulfur. The anode in particular cannot tolerate more than
1-5 ppm of sulfur compounds (primarily H2S and COS) in the fuel gas without
suffering a significant performance loss.
It has a liquid electrolyte, which introduces liquid handling problems
It require a considerable warmup period

Alkaline fuel cells use an electrolyte that conducts hydroxyl (OH) ions from the
cathode to the anode. This is opposite to many other types of fuel cells that conduct
hydrogen ions from the anode to the cathode. The electrolyte is typically composed of
a molten alkaline mixture such as potassium hydroxide (KOH). The electrolyte can be
mobile or immobile.
Mobile alkaline electrolyte fuel cells use a fluid electrolyte that continuously
circulates between the electrodes. The product water and waste heat dilute and heat
the liquid electrolyte but are removed from the cell as the electrolyte circulates.
Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of alkaline fuel cells are that they:
• operate at low temperature
• have fast startup times (50% rated power at ambient
temperature)
• have high efficiency
• need little or no expensive platinum catalyst
• have minimal corrosion
Disadvantages
• are extremely intolerant to CO2 (about 350 ppm maxi-mum) and somewhat
intolerant of CO. This is a serious disadvantage and limits both the type of
oxidant and fuel that can be used in an alkaline fuel cell. The oxidant must be either
pure oxygen or air that has been scrubbed free of carbon dioxide. The fuel must be
pure hydrogen due to the presence of carbon oxides in reformate.
• have a liquid electrolyte, introducing liquid handling problems.
• require complex water management
• have a relatively short lifetime
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 Chapter 5
Hydrogen Storage

In the development of fuel cell vehicles, hydrogen storage is ìthe biggest remaining
research problemî according to the January 2003 Office of Technology Policy report,
Fuel Cell Vehicles: Race to a New Automotive Future . Current hydrogen storage
systems are inadequate to meet the needs of consumers in a fuel cell vehicle. The OTP
report continues, Hydrogenís low energy-density makes it difficult to store enough on
board a vehicle to achieve sufficient vehicle range without the storage container being
too large or too heavy.î Existing and proposed technologies for hydrogen storage
include
(1) physical storage: pressurized tanks for gaseous hydrogen and pressurized
cryotanks for liquid hydrogen;
(2) reversible hydrogen uptake in various metal-based compounds including hydrides,
nitrides, and imides;
(3) chemical storage in irreversible hydrogen carriers such as methanol;
(4) cryo adsorption with activated carbon as the most common adsorbent; and
(5) advanced carbon materials absorption, including carbon nanotubes, alkali-doped
carbon nanotubes, and graphite nanofibers.

Pressurized tanks of adequate strength, including impact resistance for safety in

collisions, have been made of carbon-fiber wrapped cylinders. Compressed gas
storage in such tanks has been demonstrated at a pressure of 34 MPa (5,000 psi) with
a mass of 32.5 kg and volume of 186 L, sufficient for a 500-km range. Note, however,
that this tank volume is about 90% of a 55-gallon drum, rather large for individual
automobiles. So while the 6 wt% goal can be achieved, tank volume is problematic.
Pressures of 70 MPa (10,000 psi) have been reached, and in 2002 Germany certified
Quantum Technologyís 10,000 psi on-board storage tank . A footnote in the OTP
report cited above says, ìThe Toyota and Honda vehicles available for lease in late
2002 use hydrogen stored in high-pressure containers.
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Metal hydridation can be used to store hydrogen above room temperature and below
3 or 4 MPa. However, the metals introduce too much additional weight for most
vehicle uses. They are also expensive. Recent work by P. Chen et al. has shown that
lithium nitride can reversibly take up large amounts of hydrogen. This material takes
up hydrogen rapidly in the temperature range 170-210ºC, and achieved 9.3 wt%
uptake when the sample was held at 255ºC for 30 minutes. Under high vacuum (10-9
MPa, 10-5 mbar, or 10-5 torr) about two-thirds of the hydrogen was released at
temperatures below 200ºC. The remaining third of the 16 stored hydrogen required
temperatures above 320ºC for release. The hydrogen was taken up as lithium imide
(LiNH2) and lithium hydride (LiH). These researchers suggest that related metal-N-H
systems should be investigated to find a hydrogen storage system that works at more
practical temperatures and pressures.

While having potential weight and volume advantages, cryo adsorption with activated
carbon as adsorbent requires liquid nitrogen temperatures and 2 MPa (300 psi) to hold
the physically adsorbed hydrogen. It does not appear to be suitable for vehicle use.

The status of hydrogen storage in advanced carbon materials is still unclear. In this
subsection, we review briefly the status of carbon nanotube storage, both
single-walled and double-walled, and graphite nanofiber stack storage. Other
carbon-based storage technologies that have been proposed include alkali-doped
graphite, fullerenes, and activated carbon. High surface area and abundant pore
volume in the nanostructured materials make these especially attractive as potential
absorption storage materials. Some early work gave tantalizing results for hydrogen
storage in carbon nanotubes. Ogden reported various conflicting, some excessively
optimistic, results . A query by this subcommittee to Prof. Mildred Dresselhaus of
MIT about the achievable wt% (6.5 wt% has been suggested) brought this response
1. It is hard to say what is a reliable estimate of the hydrogen uptake number because
of the differences in the reported levels by different groups, presumably doing similar
measurements. The reasons for the different results between groups are not
understood.
12
2. The 6.5% value is not yet achievable in my opinion.
3. The problem seems to be hard to me, arguing from a theoretical standpoint.
However I would not discount the possibility of a breakthrough that might change the
situation dramatically. So far it doesn't seem to me that there is yet much available
carefully controlled work. A 2001 review of carbon nanostructure storage research,
sponsored by the German Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF),
found that follow-up work ìhas been unable to reproduce any of the high-capacity
results.î They concluded ìIn view of todayís knowledge, it is unlikely that carbon
nanostructures can store the required amount of hydrogen. In any case, this calls into
doubt whether carbon nanostructures would have any advantage over high-pressure
tank storage.

Hydrogen has a reputation for being explosive and therefore raises concerns about the
safety of carrying a substantial quantity of H2 in a vehicle fuel tank. However,
because H2 is the lightest gas, it has a tendency to diffuse away quickly in case its
container is breached and consequently may represent less of a hazard than gasoline.
The simplest way to carry hydrogen fuel in a car or other vehicle is as a high-pressure
gas 3-10 kpsi (21-69 MPa) in metal or composite-reinforced (fiberglass, carbon fiber,
Kevlar) tanks. This is similar to the way compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles
operate. There is an interesting report on H2 for energy use by the Norwegian
environmental organization Bellona with useful safety information in Chapter 5.
These authors conclude that ìhydrogen is no more or less dangerous than any other
energy carrier and furthermore that hydrogen has properties that in certain areas make
it safer than other energy carriers: it is not poisonous, and has the ability to dissipate
quickly into the atmosphere because of its lightweight compared to air.î They describe
tests by Lockheed and Arthur D. Little that indicated that H2 is, if anything, safer than
gasoline or jet fuel. There are a number of references to crash testing by BMW that
say BMW demonstrated the safety of H2 fuel for cars. Regarding the Hindenburg
accident, a recent study concluded that the paint on the dirigible skin was extremely
flammable and was the true cause of the disaster.

13
There was no explosion. ìThe fire of the hydrogen from the gas cells lasted only less
than one minute, and there is no evidence that anybody was directly hurt by itî . Dr.
Michael Swain at the University of Miami set fire to two cars, one carrying gasoline
and the other hydrogen . The gasoline car had a 1/16 puncture in a fuel line. The
hydrogen car had a leaking hydrogen connector. The gasoline-filled car was
completely destroyed in an intense fire and the hydrogen car was essentially
undamaged.

​Fig.1 Fuel Cell Vehicle

14
 Chapter 6
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engines

As the drawbacks of FCV'S are a cause of concern, an alternative technology or

method is of paramount importance to bridge the gap between FCV'S and
conventional SI/CI Engines. With over a century of R&D since its inception the IC
engines are most reliable and affordable but still environmentally challenging
propulsive systems. This obstacle can however overcome by usage of an alternative
source of fuel-like Hydrogen which on combustion with oxygen gives water. This is
possible because we have the existing technology of SI/CI engines and need to make
further relevant changes in order to put it actual use. An overview of design
considerations for a hydrogen fuelled IC Engine are as follows

1. Abnormal combustion: The suppression of abnormal combustion and the backfire

has been a particularly strenuous obstacle to development of hydrogen engines. Also
the design of piston should be sufficiently flat so as to allow proper mixing of
air-hydrogen mixture.
2. Air fuel mixture: Wide range of air-fuel mixtures have been tested for backfire free
operations. External mixture formation by means of a port fuel injection method
shows increased efficiency, extended lean operation and reduce NOx emissions over
direct injection method, well the possibility of backfire is almost negligible in DI
compared to PFI.
3. Load control: As we are well aware of hydrogen flammability and its flame speed
limits, it permits lean operation of engines thus the engine efficiency and NOx
emissions are responsible load control methods.
4. Hydrogen SI engines: The design and development of hydrogen engines depend on
the design of spark plugs, ignition system, piston and crevice volumes, injectors,
compression ratio, hotspots, lubrication and in cylinder turbulence to name a few.

15
 Chapter 7
Future Scope

In an automotive industry characterized by increasing competition between alternative

fuel and traditional ICE vehicles, fuel cell vehicles still have to fully demonstrate their
attractiveness to the mass market. Among FCVs’ benefits, the most recognized by the
market is the absence of CO2 emissions during vehicle operation. Besides that, other
advantages in comparison with BEVs are: shorter refueling time, longer driving
range, lower weight, less volume needed for energy storage, scalability and
sustainability. In comparison with ICE vehicles, FCV benefits are greater fuel
efficiency and lower levels of GHG production. Despite these, FCVs’ mass-market
adoption is limited by three major problems: cost of the vehicle, distribution
infrastructure and hydrogen production. In the context of increasingly stringent
automotive emissions regulations, in the future, expectations of the FCV market are
growing, but the uptake is predicted to be significant only in the long term. This is due
to significant constraints such as achievement of cost reductions by OEMs,
development of infrastructures, and identification and standardization of the most
efficient solution for hydrogen production. To promote and accelerate the adoption of
FCVs, various policy options could be put into action, but this also depends on
governments’ and industry players’ willingness to invest in hydrogen technology.

16
 Chapter 8
Conclusion

Fuel cell vehicles have made a lot of progress during the last couple of decades, and
the progress seems to be increasing again to interest from various governments. To be
a desirable power source for the future, improvements should continue to be made to
the fuel cell stack and manufacturing processes, as well as in the creation of a
non-polluting source of hydrogen that can preferably be created in-situ or close to
where it will be used.
Although considerable efforts have been spent on automotive fuel cells, major
challenges still need to be addressed before fuel cell vehicles can be massed produced.
Some of these challenges include:
• New techniques, mass fabrication methods, and materials need to be created to
lower the cost of producing fuel cells.
• If fuels other than hydrogen are used, CO poisoning of the catalyst may become an
issue. The catalyst may need to be replaced or refreshed over time.
• The size and weight of the fuel tanks.
• The lack of sufficient hydrogen infrastructure.

The largest obstacle in the introduction of fuel cell vehicles is the lack of hydrogen
infrastructure. Establishing a new fuel infrastructure is extremely costly (but not any
costlier than establishing a methanol or ethanol infrastructure). There are, however,
already over 150 hydrogen refueling stations around the world. As shown in Table 2,
Japan is leading the world with the number of hydrogen gas stations with 100,
followed by the United States with 44. Hydrogen that is produced from natural gas
can be cheaper than gasoline. Hydrogen produced from water and electricity via
hydrolysis is more expensive than gasoline using conventional methods, unless
low-cost off-peak electricity is used, or solar panels are employed.Many of these
countries currently have goals to rapidly increase the number of hydrogen gas stations
in their country by the year 2020.
17
 Reference

Bibliography
Gillingham.K (2007) Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles: A Prudent
intermediate step or a step in the wrong direction? Stanford global climate and energy
project working paper.
Neiva,l.s,gama,l , A study on the characteristics of the Reforming of Methane; A
review, Brazil journal of petroleum and Gas,V.4n.3,P.119-127,(2010),ISSN
1982-0593.
Brian D. James Overview of Hydrogen Storage Technologies, Argonne National
Laboratory
VVN Bhaskar et.al/International Journal of Innovative Technology and Research,
Vol. 1, Issue 1, Dec-Jan(2013),046-053
Hydrogen: The Fuel of the Future?î Joan M. Ogden, Physics Today, April 2002
Progress Towards Environmentally Friendly Vehicles,î American Physical Society,
March 19, 2002 by Bob Culver, Executive Director USCAR.
Future Wheels: Interviews with 44 Global Experts On the Future of Fuel Cells for
Transportation And Fuel Cell Infrastructure AND A Fuel Cell Primer,î Northeast
Advanced Vehicle Consortium, M.J. Bradley and Associates, November 2000.
Fuel Cell Handbook (Fifth Edition), EG&G Services, Parsons, Inc.,Science
Applications International Corporation, October 2000. Available to the public from
the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Commerce, 5285
Port Royal Road, Springfield, VA 22161; phone orders accepted at (703) 487-4650.
Future U.S. Highway Energy Use: A Fifty Year Perspective, Dept. of Energy, May,
2001.
Jeep Commander 2,Automotive Engineering International, July 2002,
Hydrogen fuel-cell cars could be the catalyst for a clearer tomorrow, Lawrence D.
Burns, J. Byron McCormick and Christopher E. Borroni-Bird, Scientific American,
October, 2000

III
Toyota`s lease on fuel cells, Automotive Engineering International, Jan. 2003
Fuel-cell commercialization,Kevin Jost, Automotive Engineering International,
September, 2002

Webliography

Retrived From:
https://www.fuelcellstore.com/blog-section/fuel-cell-vehicles-automobiles
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_vehicle
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell_vehicle
http://www.cartech.doe.gov/freedomcar/technical-goals.html
http://www.eere.energy.gov/hydrogenfuel
http://www.epa.gov/newsroom/headline_021103.htm
http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/FuelCellToday/EducationCentre/EducationCentreExter
nal/EduCentreDisplay/0,1748,FCImages,00.html
https://www.driveclean.ca.gov/Search_and_Explore/Technologies_and_Fuel_Types/
Hydrogen_Fuel_Cell.php

IV
 Appendix

The Toyota Mirai (from Mirai (未来), Japanese for "future") is a mid-size hydrogen
fuel cell car manufactured by Toyota, one of the first such sedan-like vehicles to be
sold commercially. The Mirai was unveiled at the November 2014 Los Angeles Auto
Show.
As of December 2017, global sales totalled 5,300 Mirais. The top-selling markets
were the U.S. with 2,900 units, Japan with 2,100 and Europe with 200.
Under the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) cycle, the 2016
model year Mirai has a total range of 502 km (312 mi) on a full tank, with a combined
city/highway fuel economy rating of 66 mpg​‑US (3.6 L/100 km; 79 mpg​‑imp​) equivalent
(MPG-equivalent), making the Mirai the most fuel-efficient hydrogen fuel cell vehicle
rated by the EPA, and the one with the largest range.
Sales in Japan began on 15 December 2014 at ¥6.7 million (~US$57,400) at Toyota
Store and Toyopet Store locations. The Japanese government plans to support the
commercialization of fuel-cell vehicles with a subsidy of ¥2 million
(~US$19,600).Retail sales in the U.S. began in August 2015 at a price of US$57,500
before any government incentives. Deliveries to retail customers began in California
in October 2015. ​Toyota scheduled to release the Mirai in the Northeastern States in
the first half of 2016. ​As of June 2016, the Mirai is available for retail sales in the UK,
Denmark, Germany, Belgium, and Norway. Pricing in Germany starts at €60,000
(~US$75,140) plus VAT (€78,540).

V
 Index

Air fuel mixture 20

Catalyst 15

Composite reinforced 18

Efficiency 21

Electrolyte 8,9,12

Emission 21

Hydrogen fuel cell 5

Internal combustion engine 5

VI