M07 Rev04 Unlocked-Compressed PDF

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Module 7
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MAINTENANCE PRACTICE
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Module 7 – Maintenance Practices
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Copyright © 2015 by Aviotrace Swiss SA
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted
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in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other electronic or
mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
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Table of contents
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7.1 Aircraft and workshop
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7.2 Workshop practices
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7.3 Tools
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7.4 Avionic General Test Equipment
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7.5 Engineering drawings, diagrams and standards
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7.6 Fits and clearances
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7.7 Electrical Wiring Interconnection System (EWIS)
7.8 Riveting
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7.9 Pipes and hoses
7.10 Inspection and testing of springs
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7.11 Bearings
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7.12 Transmissions
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7.13 Control cables
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7.14 Material Handling
7.15 Welding, brazing, soldering and bonding
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7.16 Aircraft Weight and Balance
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7.17 Aircraft Handling and Storage
7.18 Disassembly, Inspection, repair and assembly techniques
7.19 Abnormal events
7.20 Maintenance procedures
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Chapter 07.01
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AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP
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EASA
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The European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) is an agency of the
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European Union (EU) with offices in Cologne, Germany, which has been
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given regulatory and executive tasks in the field of civilian aviation safety.
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• It was created on 15 July 2002, and it reached full functionality in 2008,
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taking over functions of the JAA (Joint Aviation Authorities)
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• EFTA (European Free Trade Association) countries have been granted
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participation in the agency.
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EASA rules concerning Part 145
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The EASA rules concerning Part 145, imposes specific requirements for
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structures dedicated to aircraft maintenance, including:
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• Proper structures to each type of work providing protection from
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weathering and from possible contamination.
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• Adequate office space dedicated to management, planning and quality
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control.
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• Environments suitable for work, to not compromise the staff efficiency.
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Accidents: ICAO annex 13
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The definition of Accident is reported in ICAO Annex 13
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• “An occurrence associated with the operation of an aircraft which takes
place between the time any person boards the aircraft with the intention of
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flight until such time as all such persons have disembarked.
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By removing the dangers, the risks can be reduced by finding a safer alternative:
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• Isolate the dangers
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• Protect the personnel
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• Train the personnel
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Risks
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The risk is presented by the multiplication of the consequences C of a specific
accident and the probability of occurrence (φ) of the event:
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R=C*φ
R Risk
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C Consequences
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Φ Probability of occurrence
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Most of the risks and hazards occur on the workplace, such as slippery floors,
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low lighting, blocked exits or excessive noise.
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-Safety regulations establish that employers are obliged to permit a recognized
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trade union to appoint a safety representative among the employees who is to
be consulted on all safety matters. He has the authority to investigate potential
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hazards and all dangerous occurrences at work.
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Airport areas
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Each airport has a series of specific areas:
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• The airside represents the area of the airport which access is restricted only to authorized
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personnel.
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• The apron is the area where aircraft parks to load passengers and baggage, to refuel and
to perform maintenances.
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• Manoeuvrings area is the area where all ground aircraft manoeuvres are performed, as
take-off and landing, with runways and taxiways.
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• The movement area is the part of an aerodrome intended for the surface movement of
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aircraft, including the manoeuvring area, aprons.
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• Inside ramps and manoeuvring areas the drivers of all vehicles must have a specific
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driving license, called airport license, to exhibit anytime requested. This license can be
green, to permit the access only to the apron, or red, to grant the access also to
manoeuvring area.
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Airport areas
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Safety areas around the aircraft
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The major risk for personnel with engine running is the noise:
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to be protected, the personnel, working close to aircraft, have
to use appropriate protections, as headphones or earplugs.
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Around a working reaction aircraft can be identified different
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areas, according to the distance from the aircraft, where
damages to the hearing can be more or less serious:
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1. An area called “circle of safety” exists around all aircraft.
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Vehicles or people must not enter this area unless directed by
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the flight crew. “Circle of safety” is defined as the area around
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a parked aircraft extending 10 feet beyond the wingtips, nose
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and tail, within which no vehicle may be operated except as
required for servicing, loading or unloading of aircraft. If an
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engine or engines are turning, this area is increased to 50 feet,
in the semi-circle from abeam the wingtip, around the aircraft
tail to abeam the opposite wingtip.
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2. The danger zones due to engine air outlets and inlets
depend on the jet engine operation. In case of an engine at
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minimum power, or IDLE power, the danger zone is
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extended up to 3 systems.
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This is a typical case of a standstill aircraft in the apron, with
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the engine just turned on. In that case it's possible to access
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and exit the aircraft without danger, because can be
detected a safety path. With engines at maximum power,
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the danger zone moves forwards of other 4.5 meters and
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backwards of 450 meters starting from the exhaust engine
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system. This condition is common in take-off phase.
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4. The danger zones due to the High Frequency communication system depend on
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the type of equipment. The HF can cause serious burns from direct contact when the system
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is transmitting.
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- The RF output terminal on the antenna coupler, the antenna lead-in wire, the insulated
feed through, or the antenna itself has not to be touched. It is not possible to operate the
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Airborne Weather Radar during refueling of the aircraft nor when within 300 feet of other
refueling operations.
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- It is not possible to operate the AWR within 15 feet of ground personnel or containers
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holding flammable or explosive material.
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Safety areas around the helicopter
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Working around rotary winged aircraft (helicopters) can be very
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dangerous. Two major danger areas can be considered:
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1. Tail rotor blades: this is unprotected and very difficult to see, due to
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its high rotational speed. It has an arc of approximately 1.5 meters
and reaches down to only one meter above ground level. The tail
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rotor is the major hazard area;
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2. Main rotor blades: the main rotor can tilt to below head height
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during normal operations. This clearance may be even less when
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working over uneven or sloping ground, or during gusty wind
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conditions. Care should be taken after the engine has been shut
down until the rotors have been stopped. While the main rotor is
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slowing, it can be affected by gusty winds, forcing the rotor blades to
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tilt close to the ground.
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Gas and cylinders
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Using compressed gasses during maintenance practices, requires specific cautions, due to
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cylinder high pressures and to their particular characteristics of stability and flammability.
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Cylinders containing different gasses must be easily identifiable, therefore, to each gas and
so to each cylinder is associated a specific colour, in order to avoid a wrong use. Anyway the
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type of gas must be checked and the exposition to excessive heat must be avoided.
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The most used gasses in aeronautical field are:
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•
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Compressed air
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•
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Nitrogen
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• Oxygen
• Acetylene
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• Helium.
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Lubricants and hydraulic fluids
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• The lubricants, in every type of engine, have the function to avoid the direct contact
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between moving surfaces. in the aeronautical field there is a great variety of oils:
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• Turbine engine lubricants have low viscosity and they contain only a series of synthetic-
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base compounds, very toxic.
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• Pistons engine lubricants have high viscosity, and are not compatible with turbine’s ones.
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• Hydraulic fluids commonly used on aircraft can be mineral or synthetic base.
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• Early fluid power systems used water as the hydraulic medium. Because of its corrosive
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effect on the metallic parts and lack of lubricity, water was replaced by petroleum-based
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oil. The petroleum-based fluids are mineral oil and water-in-oil emulsion fluids.
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Chemical substances
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• In the aeronautical field are often used chemical substances which require particular
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attention due to the risks of their use. Chemical substances can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
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Flammable substances : are substances catch fire if in contact with a spark or a heat source.
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The point of flammability, called flash point, which represents the lowest temperature value at
which the substance vaporizes enough to form with the air a flammable mix.
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• Upper Limits of Flammability (UFL): too much air and not enough vapor for ignition totake
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place
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•
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Lower Limits of Flammability (LFL): too much vapor and not enough air for ignition to take
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• Explosive Range of Flammability (EF): the vapor and the air are sufficiently mixed
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Chemical substances
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Toxic substances
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• Toxic substances are able to damage organisms, they get in touch with. According to the
substance, a toxic one can have anesthetic, narcotic or lethal proprieties. They can damage
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the central nervous system, internal organs and the immune system.
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• Precautions required in presence of toxic substances, depend mainly on exposure time and
are described in the user instructions that have to be present with every substance in the
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work place.
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Corrosive substances
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Corrosive substances cause a degradation process in metals. They are very dangerous
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substances and any potential contact with them can cause rashes, burns and permanent
eyes damages.
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• Corrosive substances are mainly liquid, but sometimes they can be as powder and salts.
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Chemical substances
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Reactant substances
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• Reactant substances undergo a transformation if put in contact with other chemical
substances.
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The chemical reaction releases energy quantity as heat, more or less high. According to the
reactivity grade of the substance, the reaction intensity can change from a slow
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transformation to a violent explosion.
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Other chemical substances
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• The chemical substances can be collected in other characteristic groups, as: High flammable
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substances , High toxic substances, Explosive substances, Irritating substances, Harmful
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substances, Oxidant substances, Environmental dangerous substances.
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Safety Signs
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Signs are an immediate way of communication, to detect probable sources of danger, and to
provide useful indications to prevent them. Signs provided for work place safety regulations,
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are divided into the following classes:
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• Prohibition signs: circular shaped, and characterized by a white
background and red form
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Danger signs: triangular, with yellow background and dark form
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• Obligation signs: light blue, with white centred symbol
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• Emergency signs: square or rectangular, with green background
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and white centred symbol.
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• Fire signs: square or rectangular, with red background and white
centred symbol.
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Protective clothing
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The appropriate clothing depend on the nature of the danger to which one is
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subjected, doing an activity and must be used together with personal protective
equipment.
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• High-visibility clothing: wear, manufactured with yellow, red or orange colour high
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visibility fabric, with grey retro reflective bands. These clothing must keep their
fluorescence at least for 50 washing, performed according to the maintenance
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instructions. They are used mainly in rescue field or where there are moving vehicles,
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and in low lighting conditions.
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• Flame resistant clothing: work wear manufactured with flame retardant fabrics, to
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allow the worker to put off its clothes in case of flames, avoiding the accident.
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• Anti-entanglement clothing: work wear, manufactured according to specific
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indications, so that it results safe in case of entanglement hazard.
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Fires
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The fire is an uncontrolled combustion developing in time and
space. To generate a fire, three different elements are necessary:
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• The combustible (represented by any flammable material)
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• The combustive (the oxygen in the air)
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• The heat necessary to lead the combustible to its proper flash
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point.
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The propagation of a fire is always easily schematized with a triangle, called fire
triangle, whose sides represent the element necessary to generate a fire.
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In case of fire, it's necessary to follow the company fire procedures, beginning with the
raise of the alarm, using the appropriate device.
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Extinguishing devices
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Extinguishing devices work mainly on the principle of removing one of these three
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elements which lead to the fire propagation (combustible, combustive and heat), in order
to extinguish the flames.
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Extinguishers are identified by their color and labeling. Colors may vary from country to
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country, and may not even be uniform throughout any single country.
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Mainly extinguishing devices are:
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The water extinguishing, which permits to low temperature, taking away heat and so
impeding the flame sustainment;
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• Extinguishing chemical elements like carbon dioxide, foam, powders, or halogen
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hydrocarbons as Halon. These chemical agents are inert agents, which avert the
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combustive, causing the fire dousing.
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Different devices:
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• Water extinguisher: can be used for solid fires such of wood, paper, textile
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and similar fire. Water can’t be used on fire that may have live electrical
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equipment in them. This kind of extinguisher has usually a wetting agent
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and an anti-freeze added.
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• Foam extinguisher can be used for liquid fires. If water is not available they
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can be used for solid fire. They can be generated mechanically or
chemically. If mechanical generated foam is drawn into a jet engine then it
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can be cleared by an engine run. If chemical foam gets inside the engine it
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will have to be removed for strip-down.
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• Powder extinguisher can be used on all fires but is particularly suitable for
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hot metal fires. It discharges as a finite white powder and is non toxic. It
will get into everything through grills into equipment such as contactors,
fabric etc.
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Different devices:
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• Carbon dioxide extinguisher can be used for all fires except hot metal fires. It
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is stored as liquid but discharges as a very cold gas. Contact with hot metal is
therefore likely to cause violent rupture with consequent danger to
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personnel. It is not toxic but is dangerous if discharged in a confined space.
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• Halon extinguisher can be used for all fires. It discharges as a semi toxic gas.
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It is non corrosive, although corrosive acid are formed it the gas comes into
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contact with water. Also fixed rain extinguishing systems are used, with
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automatic systems of fire detection. To extinguish little fire beginning, it is
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possible to use also fire resistant blankets or sand, to use on flames, to snuff
out them, subtracting the oxygen that feeds the fire.
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Classification of fires
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Fires are conventionally divided in the following classes:
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• Class A, which includes combustion of solid combustible, as wood,
paper of fabric. The extinguishing agent for this class is the water, but
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can be used also power extinguisher;
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• Class B, where burns liquid combustible, as fuel, kerosene or oil. In these
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cases the most effective extinguishing agent is foam, but it is also
possible to use powders or carbon dioxide. Do not use water with full
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jet, but fractionated or atomized jet can be used;
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Class C, fire with gaseous combustible. To extinguish this kind of fires, it
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is recommended to use powder water jet, atomized or fractioned,
instead do not use carbon dioxide;
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• Class D, concerning flammable metals combustion, as magnesium,
manganese, sodium and potassium. Such a fire is really difficult to
extinguish, and requires trained personnel and the use of special
extinguishing agents.
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Procedures in case of fire
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In case of fire, it's necessary to follow the company fire procedures.
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An example of fire procedure is reported hereinafter:
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• Raise the alarm, using the appropriate device, if present;
• Call the fire service, before to perform any attempt to extinguish the fire;
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• Disconnect any electric or pneumatic power supply, connected to the device subjected to fire;
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• Try to extinguish the fire, using the most appropriate extinguisher;
• If the fire involves some toxic substances, evacuate the area;
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• Make sure that the personnel not involved in the extinguishing operations, move away and
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reach the area of rescue and assistance;
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• Wait for assistance.
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Procedures in case of fire
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To prepare yourself for the eventuality of a fire, follow these indications:
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• Look at the pre-fire plane;
• Look at fire extinguishers, of hydrants and other devices;
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• Memorize exit ways, and areas of rescue and assistance;
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• Get informed about the correct extinguisher to use in case of certain device fire;
•
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Get informed about the presence of particular substances, for example, toxic ones, which
require particular precautions;
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• The efficacy of a fire procedure is always improved by organizing emergency fire drills in
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order to train the personnel for the correct perform of fire procedures.
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Injuries
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• Symptoms of poisoning can be immediately after swallowed, but can show themselves
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up to 12-24 hours after.
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• As a result of accidents, even minor, may occur the onset of shock: the shock state is due
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to a decrease of the blood flow in tissues.
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• This can happen after a strong haemorrhage, both inner than external, due to a deep
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emotion, or to a burn, after a long exposition to cold or in case of allergic reaction to a
insect bite.
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• Lips, fingers and nails are cyanotic, of bluish colour are the symptoms to recognize an
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injured person in shock state.
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Chapter 07.02
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WORKSHOP PRACTICES
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Hand and Power tools
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The aircraft maintenance tasks, in aviation field, are carried out in a range of
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different work environments, but, in any case, all of these involve the use of tools
and dedicated equipment. They can be divided into two main categories:
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o Hand tools : it is a device that can be manually used employing mechanical force.
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o Power tools : it is a tool powered by an electric motor, a compressed air motor, or
a gasoline engine.
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• . Hand tools category includes, for example, hammers, wrenches,
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screwdrivers, mauls, pliers and cutting tools.
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• . Common power tools include drills, routers, grinders and pressure
washers.
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Rules using tools
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There are some common-sense rules that can be followed using tools:
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• When not in use, tools should be stored in a place that will not create problems with
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loss, corrosion, or damage through impact with other tools
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• Always, the correct sized wrenches, and screwdrivers must be used, because using the
incorrect tool, or substitute this by misusing grips and pliers, can damage either the
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part, or the tool.
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Always, tools for the purpose they were designed for must be used
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Brittle cutting tools, such as drills, reamers and files, when not in use, should be kept
separated, to avoid contact with each other.
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The best way to store tools consist in retain reamers in their individual boxes, and place
drills or files in individual partitioned magazines.
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Rules using tools
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Scribers, spring dividers and other similar tools, when out
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of use, should have their sharpened points protected
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Precision measuring instruments, when not in use, should
be kept in their special type boxes together with related
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calibration documents and retained in the store
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• The instruments should be within their prescribed
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calibration dates.
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• The striking end of impact tools, such as hand punches,
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drifts and chisels, should be inspected before use, to
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ensure that these ends are not split or burred
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• In that condition, the tool risks bits breaking off, and
entering the component on the eyes of the operator.
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Control of tools
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- In every maintenance organization, if some activities are subject to poor control of the tools, can be
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a threat to flight safety. At the end of the working day, it is always important to do a visual check of
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the working area. During this operation is convenient to check if:
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• All tools are in them proper place, into them proper boards
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• All equipment are stored correctly
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• The area around the aircraft is free of any object that could be damage the aircraft. In this case,
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this control is important to avoid accidental ingestions in the engine, or Foreign Object
Damage(FOD).
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• In case of lost tools, the procedure usually involves a check of all stores, tool boards and work
areas, followed by a deep search by a nominated team.
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Calibration operation
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• Calibration consists in making a measuring instrument in accordance with national and
international standards, as required by current rules.
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• Instrument that needs calibration must be checked before use and, following
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established deadlines, they are sent to special laboratories to be calibrated and checked.
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• Instruments calibrated by calibration laboratories, should always be accompanied by
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appropriate accompanying documents.
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• The most important document is the certificate of calibration: it is the formal document
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that certifies the proper calibration of an instrument.
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Calibration operation
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The calibration tag must contain:
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• The name of the company, which carried out the calibration.
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• The date of calibration.
• The date of next scheduled calibration, if required.
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The calibration can be:
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• Direct: the output of the instruments are compared with the standards.
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• Indirect: the standards are not available and the outputs of the instruments are
compared with the output of an instrument already calibrated.
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Traceability
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• The key element that characterizes all processes of calibration is the traceability
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of measurements.
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• Traceability is the property of a measure, to be compared with known values,
through an unbroken chain of comparisons, using reference standards.
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• Standards used in calibration laboratories are derived from primary standards
kept in worldwide metrological institutes. Moving away from primary standard
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along the chain precision of measurements decreases, because repeated
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operations of calibration generate inevitable little measurement mistakes, which
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are added together.
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Workshop consumables
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In each workshop are daily used different kinds of workshop consumables ;
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typical workshop consumables used include:
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• Products for personal care
• Oils, greases and fuels
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• Chemicals for cleaning and sealing
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• Adhesives
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Degreasers
• Paints and antirust products
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• Paper, textiles, metal wires and small metal parts.
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Products for personal care
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Creams prevent the contact between the skin and these substances, because skin
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contact may cause dermatitis.
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• Protective creams are generally kept in special containers, or in wall dispensers.
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• Others products for personal care used in a workshop are soaps, cleaning pastes and
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eye wash solutions: eye wash solution is, essentially, sterile water, used to irrigate eyes
in case of contact with a foreign object, or a dangerous liquid.
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Oil, greases and fuels
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• Oils are provided in sealed containers, according to approved specifications. Greases are
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available in jars or tubes. These include:
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• Multi-purpose greases which are used for various applications
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• Graphite greases used primarily as anti-grip for threads
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• Sealant greases used to ensure a perfect seal between metal parts.
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• Fuels may include kerosene fuel-based, such as Jet A-1, or aviation gasoline, known as
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AVGAS. Fuels are transported by tanker or through underground pipes.
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Dimensions for workmanship
a c s
The dimension can be defined as a measure of the distance between two fixed points or
r s
planes. The three dimensions of space are:
ot i
• Length
w
• Breadth
s
• Depth or thickness.
e
These three dimensions are linear and they are related to a chosen scale of measurement.
a c s
- In Anglo-Saxon measuring system the basic unit of length is the yard: in this system, there
are also commonly used other units of length, like the feet and the inch. One yard, is equal
t r i s
to 3 feet, and to 36 inches.
o w
- In the International System of Units the basic unit of length is the meter: 1m is equal to
i
about 1.0936 yards.
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Linear measuring
a c s
t r is
The linearity is the property of a instruments to give an output value that can be
o w
related linearly with the input signal.
An instrument with linear behaviour will give an output proportional to the
s
input, as shown in the following relation.
e
Gout  kGinp  o
c
• Gout is the output value
a s
• Ginp is the input signal
r s
• k is the sensitivity of the instrument
t i
• o is the output offset when the input is equal to zero
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Linear instruments: k and advantages
t ra is s
The value of k and o are normally obtained by the computation of the regression line
through the last square method starting from the values obtained by the instrument
o
calibration.
s w
The advantages of linear instruments are:
e
• They are simple to use. It is easy to make the measure reading the output of the
c
instruments
a s
• High precision. The lack of a significant deviation from the nominal characteristic
r i s
translates into a reduction of systematic errors.
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Angular measuring
a
•
c s _
r
The unit of measure, universally adopted to measure angles, is the degree. The degree is
t is
divided into 60 equal parts, the minute of arc. Minutes, in turn, are divided into 60 equal
parts, defined seconds.
o w
• In scientific works, it’s commonly used another angular measure, the radian. The radian
s
is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's
radius.
c e
• One full circle, therefore 360 degrees, is equal to 2 pi radians: considering this, it’s
s
possible to calculate every measure of angle in radians using a simple proportional
a
relation.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 44 w
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Measuring instruments
a c s
r
The typical measuring instruments used for linear measurement are used according to
t is
the type of measurement to be made, and the accuracy required
o w
Common measuring instrument are:
s
• The steel ruler used for low-precision measurements
e
• The caliper used for precision measures
• The micrometer used for high-precision measures.
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 45 w
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Angular measuring
t ra is s
o
For angular measuring, it can
w
be employ a goniometer, use
s
for generic measures, or an
inclinometer, commonly
e
employed for accurate angular
measurements, and also for
c
measurements on structures of
s
large size.
t r a i s
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 46 w
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Allowances and tolerances
ra s s
An allowance is a planned deviation, instead a tolerance is the limit of acceptable unintended
t i
deviation, from the nominal or theoretical dimension.
To understand tolerance same definitions are useful:
o s w
• Size: the size of an object or its mate is known as nominal, basic or design size
e
• Allowance: the maximum and minimum allowable dimensions are known as limit,
c
allowance, unilateral and bilateral tolerances
a s
• Fit: fit, clearance, interference, or transition fit refer to how the object fits an assembly.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 47 w
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Allowances and tolerances
a c s
t r is
Limits, allowance, unilateral tolerance, and bilateral tolerance refer
to size allowable variations:
o w
• Limits : the maximum and minimum sizes indicated by a
s
tolerance dimension. For example the limits for a hole are 1.500
and 1.501 inches and for a shaft 1.498 and 1.497 inches.
c e
• Allowance : the intentional difference between the maximum
s
material limits of mating parts. This is a minimum clearance or
a
maximum interference between mating parts.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 48 w
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Unilateral and bilateral tolerance
t ra
•
is s
Unilateral tolerance : unilateral tolerances indicate variation from the design size
in one direction
o w
• Bilateral tolerance : bilateral tolerances indicate variation form the design size in
s
both directions
e
The actual size of the object may be larger or smaller than the stated size limitation if
c
there can be equal variation in both directions
r a s
The plus and minus limitations combine to form a single value.
ot i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 49 w
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Standards of workmanship
a
•
c s _
A standard is defined as a technical specification approved by a recognized national,
t r is
international or company standardization organization, to be taken as a reference in a
specific work activity.
o w
• Standards interest materials, products, processes, inspection, installation, and many
s
other activities, in maintenance field. In the United Kingdom, the institution that issues
and controls national standards is the British Standards Institution (BSI).
c e
• In European area, there is an European Standards (EN), organization, and in the United
States there is an American Standards organization (AN).
r a ss
•
i
Most countries, worldwide, have their own national standards. The aim to bring all these
t
different national standards together, under one set of international standards, are issued
o
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
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t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.03
c e
a s
TOOLS
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 51 w
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Bench Vice
a c s _
r
The BENCH VICE is an hand tool in cast iron or steel, used
t is
to clamp object to work easily and safely.
o w
• The vice should always be cleaned after the use to remove
metal filings.
e s
• The slide and the operating screw should be kept
correctly lubricated.
c s
•
a
A variant of the bench vice is the hand vice, commonly
r
used to handle components during simple operations, like
t i s
gripping small parts, or for holding parts together while
they are being drilled.
io w
• The Bench Vice is made by only two parts
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Files
t ra
It is used to smooth and polish wood
and metal surfaces.
is s
o w
The file tang that is the uncut and
s
un-tempered tip used for mounting
e
the wood handle.
c
The shoulder that is the part
a s
connecting the tang to the body of
the file.
t r i s
The body, which is the cutting part
o w
of the file.
i
The tip, which is located at the
opposite end of the handle.
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Files
a c
Files are classified by their main features, which are:
s
r is
o Cut, Grade, Shape and Length.
ot w
CUT TYPE
• Single cut - one set teeth formed by a series of parallel cuts
s
• Double cut - two set of teeth angled at an angle to the first
e
• Dreadnought – single cut file with curved teeth
• Rasp – got only separated single teeth.
a c s
GRADE (it can also be expressed by a number between 0 and 8), it is defined by the depth
r s
and the spacing of the cutting teeth:
t i
• Bastard grade, used for roughing and smudging
• Second cut, used for normal finishing
io w
• Smooth, used for precision finishing; double sweet grade, used for high precision
finishing
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 54

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Files’ shapes
_ S
t ra is s
o sw
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 55 w
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Hacksaw
a c s _
t r is
The hacksaw is a tool used for metals-cut. It consists of an arch, sometimes
adjustable in length, with a handler and two “adjustable ankles” where the
o w
blade is fixed.
s
The blades can be “single-cut” type or “double-cut” type and they are
classified by the teeth per cm ratio (pitch):
e
• Blades with long base (from 3 to 5 teeth per cm) .
• Blades with medium base (from 7 to 9 teeth per cm).
c
• Blades with short base (from 11 to 12 teeth per cm).
r a ss
The blade is an “ acute-angled settled teeth” (that means left right bend
t i
tooth) that permits to obtain a trace larger than the blade, avoiding its lock
due to heat and drag.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 56

BLADE PATH
BLADE LINE
w
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Hacksaw: models
a c s
r s
Junior hacksaw
t i
• used for general light work
• blade with pins at each end to lock in the frame’s slot
o w
• blades: flexible, 150mm, 32 teeth per inch.
e s
a c s
r i s
Fret saw
t
• used for cutting intricate shapes in sheet metal
o
• frame is deeper than the junior hacksaw
i w
• very fine blade: 32 to 80 teeth per inch, 125mm long
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Hacksaw: models
a c s
r s
Coping saws
t i
• used for works on soft materials such as wood
• frame similar to the junior hacksaw but that can be swiveled
o w
• coarse blade: 14 teeth per inch, 165mm long
e s
a c s
r s
Tension files
t i
• used for cutting complex shapes
• cut in any direction without getting clogged
o
• blades are realized in a specially heat treated flexible
i w
steel wire, 200mm
• three grades: fine medium and coarse
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Chisels
t ra i
Chisels are tools used on metal, stone and wood manufacturing.
s s
o
In aeronautics, they are used for the manufacturing finishing.
s w
They consist of:
• a handler (made of wood, plastic or metal);
e
• a rectangular bar with rounded corner;
c
• a flat sharpen edge:
a s
The most common chisels are the flat ones with symmetrical
t r i s
sharpen edge. Chisels are usually made from high carbon steel,
hardened and tempered, or nickel alloy steel, heat treated to give
o
a lasting cutting edge.
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Sockets
a c s
Sockets are a particular type of wrenches, they are used with different
r s
type of handgrip-tool.
t i
Sockets allow to apply torque on each face of the bolt/nut and, with the
reversible handgrip-tool, do not require to disengage the mechanical
o w
element to restart the screw/unscrew operations.
s
• Standard sockets: available in all drive sizes and with four, six, eight
e
or twelve point openings. They are designed to fit over bolts and
nuts. Six and twelve point sockets are used in aeronautic field, four
c
and eight point sockets are used to turn square head pipe plugs
r a ss
• Deep sockets: they have the same principle of operation of the
t i
standard socket and are used when nut and bolt heads are too high
to ensure the correct positioning and grip of a standard socket.
io w
• The flex sockets have a pivot point between the drive handle and the
socket end.
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Screwdrivers
a c s
Screwdrivers are tools realized to fasten and unfasten screws
r s
with small diameters and shaped groove on the head.
ot i
Screw or unscrew operations are accomplished by the
w
clockwise or counter clockwise rotation of the screwdriver-
screw set: the screwdriver applies a force composed of axial
s
pressure and torsion in order to move the screw.
e
The screwdrivers points generally have 2 shapes: flat-cut and
c
cross (also known as Phillips screwdriver).
r a ss
Three-wing screwdrivers have three slotted point, while the
t i
cross screwdrivers have four slotted point .
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Pliers
a c s _
r s
Pliers are tools principally used to hold objects firmly.
ot i
There are various kinds of pliers, designed for specific functions.
s w
Their basic structure consists of two elements, linked by a pin, that
use the levers principle. The force applied to the handle is
e
transferred to the cont.
c s
Universal plier: the main purpose of universal pliers is take firmly
a
objects and to cut small size components.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 62 w
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Control instruments
a c s
ot r is
Control instruments are standard instruments used to verify if
w
components are standard and to set dimensional characteristics.
s
Some of the control instruments are: thread gauges, fixed calipers,
e
squares, surface plates and dial gauges.
c
Thread gauges are plates shaped according to the standard threads: in
a s
fact, it is possible to easily define the type of thread by coupling the
r
instrument’s shape to the thread in exam.
ot i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 63 w
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Bending machine
t ra is s
o w
The bending machine is used to bend components
s
of various materials, following geometrical rays and
predetermined angles. It can be manually activated
e
or computerized.
c
Sheets bender and tubes bender are bending
a s
machine
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 64 w
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Lathe
t raThe Lathe is an equipment used for
is s
o
component’s manufacturing.
s w
The working principle of the lathe is based on
the component’s rotation: the component is
e
locked between the self-centering chuck and
the live centre and then is put in rotation. In a
c
traditional lathe the insert is actuated manually.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 65 w
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Lathe
t ra A tool, called insert, it is actuated manually, comes in

contact with the rotating surface of the component and
is s
o w
moves on it following three-dimensional coordinates.
e s
The insert strips off the chipboard from the component
c
to obtain the right shape.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 66 w
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Milling
ra s s
•
t i
Milling can be intended like a mobile lathe. In fact, if in the lathe
the manufacture is accomplished by the rotation of the
o
component and by the stripping off the chipboard by fixed
w
inserts, in the milling the work is still based on the chipboard strip
s
but the tool moves around the component.
e
• The work is achieved by points with different shapes that permit
to obtain different shaping and finishing.
a c s
• Also in this case, there are manual models, generally with small
r s
sizes, and numerical calculation models based on movements
t i
calculated along X, Y and Z axes and the between the angles and
the axes.
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Lubricant application
t
•
ra is
Lubricant application can be performed directly on the application
areas or by injecting the lubricant in specific lubrication points
s
o
called nipples; nipples allow direct and safe coupling with the
w
equipment used.
s
• Nipples can be fixed or removable and there are various types:
e
push-on, clip-on, slide-on. Inside the nipple a check valve prevents
c
the lubricant ebb.
a s
• The application of different kinds of lubricant is done following
r s
specific procedures and using the correct equipment: each part of
t i
airplane requires an appropriate type of lubricant.
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Multimeter
a c s _
r s
• The multimeter is an instrument that includes all
t i
the requirements to measure the electrical
characteristics of a component: voltage,
o w
resistance and current.
s
• The multimeter can be analogue or digital: in both
cases, a selector allows the choice of the electrical
e
characteristic to measure and a display shows the
c
measured values.
a s
• Two pointers, in parallel or in series with the
r s
component, allow the measure of the desired
t i
value.
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Multimeter operation
a c s
t r is
• To measure the voltage it is necessary to put the
selector to "Volt", and to put the pointers in parallel
o
with the component.
s w
• To measure the resistance it is necessary to put the
selector to "Ohm", and to put the positive jack pointer
e
in the “Ohm” housing.
c s
• To measure the current intensity it is necessary to put
a
the selector to "Ampere", and to put the pointers in
r s
series with the component.
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ot r is
sw
Chapter 07.04
c e
a s
AVIONIC GENERAL TEST EQUIPMENT
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 71 w
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Avionics test equipment
a c s _
ot r •
is
Avionics test equipment has a very crucial role in assuring safety of an
w
aircraft in operation
e s
• Aircraft mechanics and avionics technicians rely on these avionics test
systems, equipment and tools in order to detect and verify the accuracy and
c
reliability of all the aircraft avionics systems.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 72 w
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Avionics test equipment
ra s s
The most used avionic test set equipment includes the following items:
t i
• Air data test set
o s w
• Transponder, DME (Distance Measuring Equipment)/TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision
Avoidance System) test set
e
•
c
VOR/ILS (VHF Omni-direction Range / Instrument Landing System) communications
Test Set
r a ss
• FDR/CVR (Flight Data Recorder/Cockpit Voice Recorder) operational checks
ot i
• Fuel capacitance / quantity test set.
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 73 w

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Air data test
a c s
r
•
s
Air data test sets can be portable or rack / table-mounted and it is a very commonly used
t i
item of test equipment.
o w
• Portable air data test set is the simplest air data test set, generally enclosed in an ABS case
wheeled case with a storable handle, rugged and rainproof for demanding flight line use.
e s
• Typically through an air data test set, it is possible to perform the following main tests :
o Static, Pitot and Mach system test
c
o Leak tests
a s
o Altitude and airspeed switch test
r s
o Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR) test
t i
o Vertical speed test.
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Air data test
t ra is s
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10.12.2018 io
PORTABLE AIR DATA TEST
Rev.04 Pag. 75 w
TABLE AIR DATA TEST
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Air data test
a c s
t r is
• Air data test sets calibration is performed by software,
it is automatic and no mechanical adjustment are
o
required
s w
• Air data test sets requires external pressure and
vacuum supplies connected via appropriate fitting
c e
• Before to start the test, is necessary to know the
s
position of the test set in relation to the aircraft
a
altitude sensors, because an altitude correction must
r s
be made to allow for the difference in height between
t i
the reference level and the aircraft altitude sensors.
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Air data test
a
•
c s _
r
Static system test can be used to check the operation of the Static system components;
t is
it allows comparing altitude values selected on the test set, with values indicated on the
static instruments.
o w
• The test set controls the rate of climb to the selected altitude, and new altitude values
s
can be entered as required and the set will control the change to each new value
e
• Pitot system test is similar to the static system test, except that the reference
c
parameter is a speed value.
a s
• When the target airspeed has been entered , and the confirm key is pressed, the
t r i s
displayed airspeed changes at a controlled rate to the target value.
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Air data test
a c s _
r s
• Concerning leak tests, the test set must be connected to the aircraft sampling point using
t i
a flexible hose.
o w
• Each leak test is different in relation to the type of test to be performed.
s
• During altitude leak test, a flexible hose is connected from the output port on the test set
e
to the static pressure port on aircraft.
c
• During airspeed leak test, the hose is connected from the output port on the test set to
a s
the Pitot probe on the aircraft
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 78 w
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Air data test
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t r a i ss
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PITOT ADAPTER KIT
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 79

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Transponder, DME/TCAS test set
a c s
t r is
Transponder, DME/TCAS ramp test sets let to test the correct operation of
important avionic devices as
o w
• Transponder
e s
• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)
c
• Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) and many others.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 80 w
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Transponder, DME/TCAS test set
t ra is s
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c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io
Rev.04
TRANSPONDER, DME/TCAS TEST SET
Pag. 81 w
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Transponder
t ra •
is s
A transponder is a receiver/transmitter that let the identification of the aircraft.
o w
• The transponder receives a ground transmitted radar signal (1030 Hz) and
s
responds to it by transmitting a signal on a different frequency that is in turn
received by the ground Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) (1090 Hz) . The
e
transponder transmits coded signals that positively identify the sending aircraft
on the screen.
a c s
• Each aircraft is allocated a four (4)-digit code (squawk) verbally by Air Traffic
r s
Control (ATC) and this is inserted into the transponder by the pilot.
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Transponder
t ra is s
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TRANSPONDER RAMP TEST: SET UP
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DME
a s
- DME is another example of a system that uses secondary
r s
radar techniques, and operates in the L-Band frequency
t i
range, from 962 to 1213 MHz.
o w
- DME measures the distance from the aircraft to a ground
station, and gives to pilot the indication in nautical miles
s
on a dedicated indicator.
e
- The ground station delays the response by 50µS, this time
c
plus the time elapsed between pulse transmission and
s
receiving a reply, is processed and displayed on the aircraft.
t r a i s
Concerning DME testing, the following tests may be typically carried out: Transmitter peak
o
power and frequency, DME distance operation (distance display mode), DME Ground
i w
Speed (GS) calculations, DME Time-To-Go (TTG) calculations, DME transmitted Pulse
Repetition Frequency (PRF), Ident tone , Channels 108.05 and 108.10 operation (repeat
above tests).
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 84

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TCAS
_ S
ra is s
The Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System
t
(TCAS) avoid collisions between aircrafts during flight.
o w
When the closure time between an intruding aircraft
s
and the interrogating aircraft poses a level of threat
(traffic-traffic), a series of visual and aural proximity
e
warnings are given(traffic-traffic), each depending on
the threat level, with a maximum range of 15 nautical
c
miles.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 85 w
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TCAS
c _
•
s
TCAS test set uses the aircraft Mode S Transponder to provide up to eight different scenarios
a
for TCAS testing. These are used to simulate an intruder in proximity to the aircraft under
r s
test.
ot i
• The TCAS display in the aircraft is checked in other to verify that the correct visual and aural
w
warnings are being triggered in response to each simulated by test set.
s
• Tests performed on TCAS generally include:
e
1. Static and dynamic target simulation
c
2. Intruder closing at, above or below configured altitudes
s
3. Intruder diving climbing or turning
t r a i s
• For TCAS testing it is necessary to set up the test set and associated directional antenna less
than or equal to 50ft
io w
• In order to test mode S transponder and TCAS functions, the aircraft must be powered with
the aircraft configured for weight off wheels
1.
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VOR System
a c s
r s
•
t i
VOR (VHF Omni-direction Range) is a navigation radio-aid that operates in VHF band.
o
•
w
The rotation speed of an antenna of a VOR beacon is of 30 Revolutions Per Seconds
(RPS): it makes a signal with a frequency of 30 Hz.
s
•
e
VOR beacons are placed in strategic location along airways and other navigational
reporting points, like holding patterns, in order to allow the flight crew to navigate
c
the aircraft along an established flight path.
a s
• Most ramp test sets have a fixed, extendable antenna that allows carrying out the
r i s
majority of line checks. the ramp test allows adjustment of the 30 Hz variable phase
t
signal, but not the 30 Hz reference phase as this is used as the benchmark for all VOR
o
tests.
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ILS System: localizer and glide-slope
a
•
c s _
ILS (Instrument Landing System) is a ground-based instrumental approach system that
r s
provides precision guidance to an aircraft approaching and landing.
t i
• ILS uses two radio signals that provide runway centreline guidance and descent path
o w
guidance to touchdown.
s
• The runway centreline radio signal is called localizer while the glide path signal is called
e
glide-slope.
c
• The localizer transmits on the VHF frequency band from 108.10 MHz to 111.95 MHz on
a s
the odd decimal frequency channels, through a large antenna
t r i s
• With most ramp test sets, the localizer, glide-slope and marker operations are tested
together.
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ILS System: marker beacons
a c s
• Generally, there are three or two marker beacons positioned along the ILS path to give an
r s
indication of distance to touch down:
t i
o The outer marker 7 Nm from runway threshold
o w
o The middle marker ½ Nm from runway threshold
s
o The inner marker
e
• All the marker beacons transmit on the same frequency of 75 MHz, but each of them
c
transmits a different identification code and tone.
a s
• With most ramp test sets, the localizer, glide-slope and marker operations are tested
r s
together. Localizer and glide-slope receivers work off VHF and UHF carrier wave
t i
frequencies respectively, modulated with a 90 Hz and 150 Hz continuous tones.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 89 w

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s A
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ELT System
a c s _
r s
• The ELT is an emergency self-contained and self-powered radio transmitter,
t i
designed to transmit a signal on the international emergency frequencies.
o w
• It is activated either by a strong impact or manually by the pilot from the instrument
s
panel.
e
• The ELT must be controlled according to the Maintenance Manual, the most
c
important aspect that must be controlled are:
s
1. Corrosion of the battery
a
2. The operations of the commands and collision sensors
t r i s
3. The intensity of the signal transmitted by the equipment
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ELT System
a c
Corrosion of battery: the battery must not present signs of
s _
r is
corrosion. In addition it must control that the installed battery is of
t
the approved type and it is not expired.
o w
• Operations of the commands and collision
s
• The ELT must be activated using an applied force. Some ELT can be
e
activated by fast waggle of the hand, while others are activated by
c
a fast forward movement followed by a movement in the opposite
direction
r a ss
• Intensity of the signal transmitted by the equipment.
ot i
•
w
The ELT must be activated. When test set is placed at about 6 in
i
from the ELT antenna, the audible signal is heard
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VOR / ILS / communications test set
t ra is
Tests generally performed through VOR / ILS / communications test set includes:
s
o w
• VOR operation
• Localizer operation
s
• Glide-slope operation
e
• Combined localizer and glide-slope operation
• Markers operation
c
• HF/VHF/UHF communications receiver and transmitter tests.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 92
Example of VOR/ILS / Communications
Test Set (hand-held test set)
w
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s A
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FDR/CVR System
a c s _
• The FDR (Flight Data Recorder) is designed to record features of all aircraft systems,
r s
while the CVR (Cockpit Voice Recorder) records all vocal communications in the
t i
cockpit. These devices are also commonly called black boxes.
o w
• The FDR records all data that are obtained from the various airplane sources, and
that have accurate correlation with the information displayed to the flight crew.
e s
• The most important aspects that must be controlled, executed following the
requirements detailed in the maintenance manuals, are:
c
o The control of the recording tape that change every 12 months
a s
o The substitution of the recording tape.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 93 w
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s A
c e _ S
FDR/CVR operational check
t ra •
is s
An operational check is a failure-finding task to determine if a parameter is
being recorded.
o s w
• The operational check determines that the FDR is active and recording each
parameter value within the normal operating range of the sensor.
c e
• The operational check must also verify each electrical interface to the FDR.
a s
• CVR operational checks The operational check of the CVR must be executed
r s
following the requirements detailed in the maintenance manuals.
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Fuel capacitance test set
ra s s
•
i
Modern aircraft fuel contents gauging systems are based on the measurement of capacitance.
ot
•
w
The principle is that the value of a capacitor having fixed dimensions is dependent upon the
dielectric constant of the matter between the plates of the probe.
s
• The total capacitance value from the tank units is fed to a bridge rectifier circuit, fed by AC
e
power, where its amplitude is compared with that of the reference or compensating circuit.
c
Where the bridge is unbalanced, the error signal is amplified and it is used to drive a moving
coil instrument calibrated to read fuel content.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 95 w
wi
s A
c e _ S
s
• Consequently the test set incorporates a bridge rectifier test circuit and capacitors, which are
a
used to carry out several tests, as the following :
t r is
o Measuring the capacitance values of single and several tank units.
o w
o Measuring the total capacitance of fuel probes and wiring.
o Checking compensating units
s
o Simulating capacitance output from one or more units to calibrate fuel contents gauges
e
o Measuring the insulation resistance of tank units and wiring
o Conducting fault diagnosis and isolating fuel gauging system problems.
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 96 w
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s A
e S
a
•
c s _
In modern systems, the signals of fuel quantity systems are fed to a fuel quantity processor,
t r is
where they are corrected for density and displayed on a digital fuel quantity indicator for
each tank and on a total fuel quantity indicator.
o w
• The test set used for fuel capacitance testing is usually called “Fuel capacitance test set” or
s
“Fuel quantity test set”
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 97 w
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s A
c e _ S
t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.05
c e
a s
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS, DIAGRAMS
t r i s
AND STANDARDS
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Drawing types
ra s s
• In the aeronautical sector, as in all engineering sectors, each drawing is created in
t i
order to provide information according to the purpose for which it is finalized.
o w
• The most common type of drawing is represented by design drawings, which include
s
three main classes:
e
o Detailed drawings
c
o Assembly drawings
o Installation drawings.
r a ss
• The other types of drawings include: sectional drawings, Exploded view drawings,
t i
Block diagrams, Logic flowcharts, Illustrated diagrams, Electric wiring diagrams,
o
Schematic diagrams.
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Detailed drawings
a s
• When an aircraft is designed, a detailed drawing is produces for each part/component.
t r is
• The detailed drawings provide all information necessary to build a part/component,
o w
including dimensions, materials and type of finish.
s
• If it is required, a larger section or a second drawing with a different point of view may be
added, in order to facilitate the understanding of the design.
c e
Is it possible to find three different kind of lines:
s
• Visible lines: they demarcate the visible edges of an object
r a
• Leader lines: used to connect a component with detailed information
t i s
• Hidden lines: they indicate borders or boundaries not directly visible in the drawing
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Assembly drawing
a c s
t r is
• After that the parts/components are realized, they
must be assembled together in a subgroup.
o w
•
s
The assembly drawings show the relation between
two or more parts/components, according to their
e
location during the installation.
c
• The user can understand the assembly sequence
a s
and he can have a correct idea of the shape of the
r
component to be used.
ot i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 101 w
wi
s A
e _ S
Installation drawing
a c s
t r is
• All subgroups are re-called together in an installation drawing.
o w
• The installation drawings are generally complementary to assembly drawings and
they allow the user to see the method of installing an assembly of parts/components
s
on a main frame of aircraft, car, etc.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 102 w
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s A
c e
Centre line
_ S
t ra
• The centre lines consist of alternating long and
is s
o
short dashes.
s w
• They are used to indicate the centre line of a
symmetrical component.
c e
• They are also used to indicate the centre of a
hole in a component.
r a ss
• The correct centre of the hole is indicated by
t i
the intersection of two dashes.
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Dimension lines
t ra
•
is s
The dimension lines are used to indicate the size of a component between two points,
identified by the extension lines.
o w
• The measures are reported in order to be read from left to right.
e s
• The dimension lines are also used to indicate the relative size of angles, diameters and
radii.
a c s
• If there are more drawings with different views, the dimensions are indicated on each
r s
drawing in order to shows all details.
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Dimension lines
a c s _
r s
• These lines are interrupted in the centre.
ot i
• The dimensionless value is inserted in the
w
brief interruption of the line.
s
• Normally, at the ends of the dimension lines,
e
arrows are drawn. The arrows touch the
c
extension line.
a s
• The Visible and extension distance
r i s
correspond to 1/16 inch
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View Types
a
•
c s
In order to draw a part/component, different methods can be used, according to the
r s
orientation of the item respect to its visualization in the plan. The most common
t i
methods of representations are:
o w
o Orthographic projections
s
o Isometric projection (30 degrees)
o Oblique projection also called cavalier projection (45 degrees angle)
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 106 w
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Isometric and oblique projections
a c s
r s
•
t i
The isometric projection is the most widespread method of representation used for
parts/components and sketches in the aeronautical field
o w
• In this method of representation the abject is rotated so that three of its sides are visible
s
•
e
In the isometric projection the vertical reference isn’t changed, while the other directions
are projected with an angle of 30.
c s
•
a
The oblique projection is an isometric protection in which a face of the object is parallel
to the plane of representation.
t r i s
• In these drawings two axes are perpendicular each other, in respect to the front face of
o w
the object. Instead the depth axis is inclined at a specific angle.
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Block diagrams
a c s
• In order to simplify the scheme of these complex systems the block
r s
diagrams are used.
t i
•
o
A block diagram is composed of individual blocks, representing the
w
various components of a system.
s
• These blocks are connected by lines or arrows that often underlie
e
operations or auxiliary connections involved in the logical chain of
the plant.
a c s
• The block diagram allows easily identifying and locating the
r s
component or sub-system to be analysed during the inspections and
t i
maintenance.
io w
• The component that receives the input but doesn’t give an output
must be removed and substituted.
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 108

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c e
Logic flowchart
_ S
t
•
ra
The logic flowcharts are a logical derivation of block
diagrams.
is s
o w
• A number of blocks are linked together by a sequence
s
of actions and results that allow scrolling the chart in
one or more directions based on the results obtained.
c e
• In other words the logic flowcharts give information
s
about the mechanical or electrical functioning of a
a
system/sub-system, without analysing the design and
r s
the construction.
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Schematic diagrams
_ S
ra s s
• The schematic diagrams are drawings that show the operational principle of a
t i
system or show the detail of the installations, omitting the actual path of the
connection and all connecting element.
o w
• For these reasons the schematic diagrams don’t represent how the parts really
s
appear, but only their real locations. In other words the schematic diagrams are
used to illustrate the relationships between the various components of a system.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 110 w
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s A
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Illustrated diagrams
a c s
r s
• The illustrated diagrams are commonly included in pilot manuals and training manuals.
ot i
• These diagrams are commonly used for hydraulic and electrical systems.
s w
• In the illustrated diagrams the images of the system’s components replace the electrical
conventional symbols used in the schematic diagram.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 111 w
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s A
e S
Grid
a
•
c s _
Since the technical drawings can reach large sizes (especially in the length sense), in
t r is
order to identify an apparatus or an assembly of components on them, the use of a
positioning grid is recommended.
o w
• The grid is obtained dividing the edges of the drawings in different intervals, spaced of
s
12 inches both vertically and horizontally.
e
• The presence of a grid allows mapping the location of a particular component through
c
the use of coordinates.
a s
• The coordinates usually consist of a combination of letters and numbers.
t r i s
• The number is generally put in the horizontal direction, while the letters in the vertical
o w
sense.
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Water, station and buttock line.
a c s _
t r is
The location of an aircraft component is
specified by three references: station lines
o
(or stations), buttock lines and water lines.
s w
These references are based on coordinates
indicating the distances in inches of the
e
component from a zero point of reference.
c s
Generally these lines are plotted on the
a
drawings in order to facilitate the location of
r s
components and parts.
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Stations and water lines
a s
• In order to identify the locations of components along the aircraft longitudinal axis,
r s
the STATIONS are employed.
t i
• They start from a zero point determined by the designers and they deploy along
o w
the entire length of the aircraft.
s
• Generally, the zero point of the stations (or datum) is located on the bulkhead in
e
front of the cockpit.
c
• In order to identify the positions of components on the aircraft vertical axis, the
a s
WATER LINES (or waterline) are employed
t r i s
• The aircraft are divided into levels, starting from a zero plane, with positive values
going up to the top of the airplane and with negative values down to the ground
io w
• Generally, the zero floor is the floor of the aircraft cabin.
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Tolerances and offset
_ S
ra s s
• Some components can have a maximum permitted sized and a minimum
t i
one and so all dimensions between them are permitted.
o w
• The difference between the nominal measure and the maximum or
s
minimum permitted value is defined as tolerance.
e
• The difference between the maximum permitted value and minimum one is
c
defined as offset.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 115 w
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s A
c e
Air Transport Association – ATA 100
_ S
t ra is s
ATA 100 specification is the nomenclature system of aircraft components and
materials.
o w
The general division of ATA chapters are as follows:
• 1 to 4 : reserved for use by operators
s
• 5 to 19: General aircraft (Aircraft General)
e
• 20 to 49: Aircraft Systems (Airframe Systems)
• 50 to 59: Aircraft Structures (Airframe Structures)
c
• 60 to 69: Propellers and Rotors (Propellers)
a s
• 70 to 89: Installing engine (Power Plant)
r s
• 90 to 99: General (General)
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t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.06
c e
a s
FITS AND CLEARANCES
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 117 w
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s A
Drill
c e _ S
ra s
A drill bit is composed of a cylindrical shaft which is
t is
locked in the chuck, a body with helical grooves and
then from a point located at the opposite end of the
o
stem, provided with two faces sharpened with a
w
characteristic angle calculated according to the
s
material being drilled.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 118 w
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s A
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Drill
c s
Depending on the diameter of the hole required, the size of the tip used is determined.
ra
There are:
t is
• Points with 90 ° angle for softer materials such as plastics and kirksite.
• Points with an angle of 118 °used for aluminium, magnesium and mild steel.
o w
• Points with an angle of 135 °for very hard materials such as stainless steel and titanium.
e s
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 119 w
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s A
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Types of coupling
a s
• Clearance: it is a fit that enables a clearance between the hole and shaft in the coupling.
r s
The lower size of the hole is greater or at least equal to the upper size of the shaft. The
t i
two components can be combined freely
o w
• Transition: it is a fit where both clearance and interference may occur in the coupling.
s
Tolerance zones of the hole and shaft partly or completely interfere. The result is that the
two components can be combined freely or mechanical forces.
e
•
c
Interference: it is a fit ensuring some interference between the hole and shaft in the
coupling. The upper limit size of the hole is smaller or at least equal to the lower limit size
a s
of the shaft. The components can be coupled solely by mechanical forcing.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 120 w
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s A
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Production standards
c s _
• Various standard fits have been constructed around the world in order to ensure
a
consistent specifications. The British Standard System derived by the British Standard
r s
Institute (BSI) has a comprehensive system designed to carter for all classes of work;
t i
from 0BA to 16BA.
o w
• The standard Whitworth is divided into four categories characterized by the degree of
s
precision mating:
o The first category includes the couplings to external low tolerance, used in the
e
production of high quality
c
o The second includes the inner and outer pairs of medium quality, which would include
a s
most of the screws replaced
t r i s
o The third category contains the common external couplings and includes most of the
o
bolts normally sold
i w
o The fourth includes the pair that contains the internal standard commercial bolts used on
the bolts of the second and third class.
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Limits for ovality
t ra is
The difference between the limits is the manufacturing tolerance.
s
o w
The ovality can occur as a result of the surface wearing, through friction or linear
movement.
s
The ovality test has to be made before the bow test.
e
Ovality can be applied to holes and to shafts.
c
Holes may be tested for ovality using such instruments as Go/No-Go gauges, internal
a s
micrometres, or calipers.
t r i s
The purpose of the go/no go rings is to check the compliance planning on the shaft.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 122 w

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Limits for bow
_ S
t ra •
is s
It is really important that the centreline of the complete shaft of tube is
o w
straight; the absence of warping is verified with a ruler.
s
• An item is bowed if the centreline of the shaft is not straight
e
•
c
The vibration risk arises in the bowed state when the shaft or tube is
rotating, especially at a high speed
r a ss
• This risk can load to mechanical failures, loosening of fasteners and fatigue.
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c eLinearity check
_ S
ra s s
• Shafts, bearings and other components require periodic inspections to verify the correct
t i
condition and operation
o w
• This verification can be done by measuring the component with a gauge with a special
s
compass.
e
• As mentioned, these tests should be performed using the appropriate instruments
c
• A gauge to measure an outside diameter or thickness, a ruler to verify the absence of
a s
warping of a shaft, etc.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 124 w
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s A
c e _ S
t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.07
c e
a s
ELECTRICAL WIRINGS
t r i s
INTERCONNECTION SYSTEM (EWIS)
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Continuity Techniques and Testing
a c s
t r is
• A short circuit describes an abnormally low
resistance path, which can be the path between
o w
two adjoining circuits, the path across a
component in a circuit or between a circuit and
s
earth
e
• In case of short circuit, resistance instantaneously
c
drops and current increases. The current
s
increasing may cause overheating or sparking,
a
and, in some cases, may blow the circuit fuse.
t r i s
• A continuity tester can be used to detect a break
o
in a cable or in a connection.
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Insulation techniques and testing
a
•
c s
If the circuit is isolated, an ohmmeter can be used to detect a resistor that has a short
r s
circuit across it, so the ohmmeter will register zero when placed in parallel across the
t i
shorted resistor.
o w
• An open circuit can be caused by a failure of a component or a short circuit in the net.
s
• If the resistor is connected a part of a parallel circuit, it must be isolated from the other
e
paths, because if it is not isolated the ohmmeter will indicate the resistance of them.
c
•
s
Insulation tests are typically carried out in the following cases:
a
o After any circuit installation;
r i s
o Where specified in the aircraft maintenance manual
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Insulation testing
a c s _
r
•
s
For correct operation, any insulation tester must have an output voltage equal or higher (that
t i
is preferable) than the working voltage of the tested circuit. Equipment installed in an aircraft
is generally tested using a 250 Volt insulation tester, which has a maximum voltage control in
o
order to prevent that the test voltage exceeding 300 Volt.
s w
• In case of fault: corrections on the circuit, a further insulation test is done. It is also important
to keep in mind that insulation resistance is affected by humidity and temperature; if the
e
aircraft has been in damp conditions before the test, lower than normally expected readings
c
may be obtained.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 128 w
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Preparation to Insulation testing
a s
• Disconnect the system from the aircraft battery and any other external power supply.
t r is
• Close circuit breakers and switches.
o w
• Set the power selection switch to the normal in-flight position.
s
•
e
Set dimmer switches to the minimum resistance position.
c
• Any ancillary systems (as for example generators, actuators, capacitors, capacitive
a s
filters, voltage regulator coils, instruments) that may be connected to the system
under test should be disconnected from it.
t r i s
• Cut-outs, relays and all disconnected components connected in series normally
o w
opened should be bridged in order to ensure continuity.
i
• Set system component controls to the positions specified in the test procedure.
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Bonding techniques and testing
a s
Bonding is the electrical interconnection of metallic aircraft parts to enable the safe
r s
distribution of electrical charges and currents, or to provide a low resistance path for
t i
electric current in earth return systems.
o w
The aim of bonding is to reduce risk of electric shocks and electro-magnetic interference
and to dissipate static and electrostatic charges.
e s
A replacement made of the same material as the original but with a larger cross-sectional
area is necessary in case of renew of a bonding connection without specification of the
c
original conductor.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 130 w
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s A
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Bonding techniques and testing
_ S
t ra
Aircraft bonding conductors are classified as follows:
is s
o w
• Primary conductors, designed to carry and
dissipate lightning strikes, with cross-section not
s
less than 0.0045 inch² (0.25 inch wide by 26 SWG)
for copper.
c e
• Secondary conductors, which serve the remaining
s
bonding functions, with cross-section not less
a
than 0.001 inch² (44 strands of 39 SWG) for
r s
copper.
ot i
• Additional copper conductors, used to provide or
i w
to supplement the primary bonding path through
the whole aircraft structure or equipment; with
cross-section not less than 3 mm² (0.0045 inch²)
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 131

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Wire types
t ra is s
Cables are usually identified by a size number. This number typically approximates to
the AWG (American Wire Gauge) size of the conductor. In addition, some commercial
o w
cables employ a number that refers to the square millimetres of a conductor cross
section.
s
Another used standard is the British Standard Wire Gauge (SWG), used in Britain.
c e
In AWG only even numbers are used: small wires have higher numbers (typically
s
beginning at AWG 24), while larger wires have lower numbers (down to AWG 0000)
t r a i s
For example AWG size 0 is approximately 0.0325 inches in diameter
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Connector pin removal and insertion
_ S
ra s s
The procedure for the pin and socket contacts is the same so we will refer to them as the
t i
contacts. Insertion and extraction tools can be metal tools and disposable plastic ones. They
o
are normally colour coded, in order to correspond to the size of contact.
w
Plastic tools for example have different coloured tips at each end to indicate whether they
s
are for insertion or extraction and the colours relate to contact sizes. The extraction end tip is
normally white, although the insertion end colour relates to the contact size.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 133 w
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s A
c e
Co-axial cables
_ S
a s
• Co-axial cables are widely used in avionics because most of the radio transmitters and receivers
t r is
are connected to antennas through them.
o
•
w
A co-axial cable is a concentric twin wire line, which consists of a central axial solid conductor
wire that is encased in dielectric insulator, which is sheathed with a metal braid outer conductor
s
covered by a protective jacket.
e
• Properly matched co-axial cables are characterized by low characteristic impedance. On the
c
other hand, a mismatched cable suffers a large power loss in relation to its length.
a s
• We can measure the co-axial cable losses with a TDR (Time-domain reflectometer) unit, which
r i s
display the attenuation of energy along the cable length, whilst comparing it with the
t
attenuation in a theoretically perfect cable.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 134 w

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Co-axial cables
a c s _
r
Coaxial cables are screened; electro-magnetic fields are confined in the
t is
space between the central conductor and the braiding. Because the
braiding is earthed, no external interference can penetrate into the co-
o
axial cable circuit.
s w
Co-axial cable runs should be kept as direct and as short as possible, and
terminations are normally of the BNC type.
c e
In order to maintain a low attenuation (energy loss) and interference,
s
the following factors are very important during the installation:
r a s
•
t i
The distance between the inner and outer conductors.
• The dielectric constant and volume of the insulating material.
o w
• The capacitances are all critical.
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Co-axial cables
ra s s
Some other general rules to apply during the maintenance and the installation are
t i
the following:
o w
• When routing a cable around corners, it is necessary to keep in mind the risk of
creating kinks that will distort the dielectric, a minimum bend radius not less
s
than six times the cable diameter is needed.
e
• The co-axial cable should be supported at least every 2 ft throughout its run;
c
when clamping a cable, the clamp does not squeeze the cable and compress
s
the dielectric.
t r a i s
• Do not route co-axial cables close to sources of high electro-magnetic radiation,
or in zones where the cable may be trodden on or used as a handhold.
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Co-axial cables
ra s s
• When stripping a cable to receive a termination, it is necessary to
t i
ensure to not cut the braid strands in the outer conductor or damage
the centre conductor
o s w
• The exposed centre wire should be inserted in the connector body until
the dielectric is firmly seated against the dielectric in the connector.
e
•
c
The wire braid should make a good contact with the connector sleeve
or ferrule.
r a ss
• Special care must be taken when tightening a connector assembly in
t i
order to avoid damaging seals or washers.
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Wiring installation
a c s
t r is
The installation of electrical cabling in an aircraft may be conforming to the
requirements of the following documentation:
o w
• The aircraft maintenance manual
s
• The wiring diagram manual
e
• Any associated modification drawings.
c
The methods of wiring installation used in aircraft are the following:
r a ss
• Open loom
t i
• Ducted loom
•
o
Conduit.
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Open loom wiring installation
a c s
r s
Open loom is the quickest way and the most convenient method to install wiring. An open
t i
loom installation offers easier access for troubleshooting and maintaining individual circuits
cables that run close to each other along parallel paths are generally grouped together into
o
a bundle that is bound together by either continuous lacing cord or by binding or strapping
w
them together.
s
The disadvantage with lacing installation is that a break in the lacing will loosen the bundle;
e
for this reason, its use is not recommended in several sensible areas, including, for example,
c
the power plant.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 139 w
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Ducted loom and Conduits
ra s s
A ducted loom is bound together in a similar way to an open loom, with exception
t i
that the bundle is supported in a rectangular-sectioned duct attached to the
airframe. Some ducts may incorporate channels, that are designed to support and
o
route individual looms related to specific systems.
s w
Conduits are rigid or flexible tubes, made of metal or plastic, those are clamped to
the aircraft structure. Conduits fully enclose and protect cable looms, when they are
e
routed through areas where they are prone to crushing or chafing.
a c s
ot r i s
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Wiring installation
t ra is
Cabling must be protected against the following occurrences:
• Abrasion
s
o w
• Electromagnetic interference
• Mechanical strain
s
• Extreme ambient temperatures
e
• Heat sources
• Chemical contamination
c
• Moisture.
t r a i ss
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EWIS training program
ra s s
The objective of this EWIS (Electrical Wiring Interconnection System) training program,
t i
is to give operators and persons performing field approval modifications or repairs a
o
model for the development of their own EWIS training program, in order to ensure that
w
proper procedures, methods techniques and practices are used when performing
maintenance, preventive maintenance, inspection, alteration and cleaning of EWIS.
e s
Only trained personnel can provide EWIS inspection. Essential elements for an EWIS
training program includes:
a c s
• Initial training
r s
• Refresher training, which should be conducted in a period not exceeding two years
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Electrical Wiring Interconnection System Training
t ra is s
EASA has mandated the requirement for Electrical Wiring Interconnection System
Training and has issued the following documents:
o s w
• AMC 20-21: Program to enhance airplane Electrical Wiring Interconnection
System (EWIS) maintenance
c e
• AMC 20-22: Airplane Electrical Wiring Interconnection System Training Program
a s
• AMC 20-23: Development of Electrical Standard Wiring Practices documentation.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 143 w
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EWIS inspection system
ra is s
In particular, in the program to enhance EWIS maintenance (AMC 20-21) training syllabus,
t
module C is related to inspections of EWIS. The overview and the objectives established by
o
this regulation are following reported.
s w
Recognize typical wiring system damage, such as hot gas, fluid contamination, external
mechanically induced damage, chafing, corrosion, signs of overheating of wire, wire
e
bundles, connective and control device assemblies.
c
Damages caused by leaking, glues, fuel are called fluid contamination.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 144 w
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EWIS Inspection Criteria
t ra is s
Electrical Wiring Interconnection System (EWIS) is defined as the system that permits on a
airplane the electrical connection between two or more points, including the associated
o w
termination devices and the necessary means for its installation and identification and
excluding portable, carry-on or non-permanently mounted electrical equipment.
e s
Regarding Electrical Wiring Interconnection Systems (EWIS) inspection criteria, EASA
defines the following levels of inspection:
c s
• General Visual Inspection (GVI)
a
•
r
Detailed Inspection (DET)
t i s
• Special Detailed Inspection (SDI)
• Zonal Inspection.
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General Visual Inspection
a c s _
t r is
• The General Visual Inspection (GVI) is a visual examination of an interior or exterior area,
o
installation, or assembly to detect obvious damage, failure or irregularity
s w
• This level of inspection is made from within touching distance unless otherwise specified
e
• This level of inspection is made under normally available lighting conditions such as
c
daylight, hangar lighting, flashlight or droplight and may require removal or opening of
s
access panels or doors
t r a i s
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 146 w
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Detailed and Special Detailed Inspection
a c s
t r is
• Detailed Inspection (DET) and Special Detailed Inspection (SDI): an intensive
examination of a specific item, installation, or assembly to detect damage,
o w
failure or irregularity.
s
• Available lighting is normally supplemented with a direct source of good
e
lighting at an intensity deemed appropriate.
c
• Inspection aids such as mirrors, magnifying lenses or other means may be
a s
necessary.
t r i s
• Surface cleaning and elaborate access procedures may be required.
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Zonal Inspection
a
•
c
Zonal Inspection: a collective term comprising selected GVI
s
r s
and visual checks that are applied to each of the 8 defined
t i
zones, defined by access and area, to check system and
power plant installations and structure for security and
o w
general condition.
s
• In EWIS, zonal inspection is related to Enhanced Zonal
e
Analysis Procedure (EZAP). The main intent is to reduce or
eliminate the existence of electrical ignition sources through
c
maintenance tasks.
r a s
•
s
To test the equipment installed in an aircraft a 250 Volt
t i
insulation tester is used
o w
•
i
EWIS components installation: located in areas of known
moisture accumulation must be protected to minimize any
hazardous effect due to moisture
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Chapter 07.08
c e
a s
RIVETING
ot r i s
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Riveting
s
•
a
The most common method in aviation to obtain a permanent mechanical fastener is
obtained with the riveting.
t r is
• It is possible to identify different types of rivets, application methods and riveting
o w
equipment. The rivet choice is done according to the resistance requirements and
environmental characteristics of the installation.
s
•
e
The allowance for rivets heads are expressed in terms of diameters of the rivet shank and
depends on the material specification of the rivet and gauge of sheet being riveted. For
c
solid rivets typical values of allowance are:
a s
• Snap head 1.5 D
t r i s
• Countersunk 0.75 D
• Reaction 1.5 D.
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Types of rivets applications
a c
There are three possible types of rivets applications:
s
t r is
• Single row: the distance from the edges is at least 2
o
times the diameter of the rivet and the pitch is at
w
least 3 times the diameter of the rivet
s
• Double row: the distance from the edges and pitch
e
are equal or higher than the values reported in the
c
table.
a s
• Triple or multiple row: the distance from the edges
r s
and pitch are equal or higher than the values reported
t i
in the table.
io w
The projection length of rivets consists in multiply rivet
diameter
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Riveting operations
a c s
t r is
Drawing: is a process used on sheets with 1.291mm
maximum thickness; it consists of making the preliminary
o w
rivet lodging through plastic deformation.
e s
c
Drilling and working of metal sheets: the use of
a s
countersunk rivets requires the treatment of their
r s
insertion surface.
t i
The countersinking is carried out through special tools.
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Selection and evalutation of rivets
a c s _
In case of lack of technical specifications, generally the coupling is the
r s
following:
t i
• Sheets with thickness between 0,599 and 0,711 millimeters couple
o
"
w
with rivets of diameter3Τ32 ..
• Sheets with thickness between 0,914 and 1,219 millimeters couple
s
"
with rivets of diameter 1Τ8 .
e
• Sheets with thckness 1,626 millimeters couple with rivets of
c
"
diameter 5Τ32
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 153 w
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Cherry and Chobert rivets
a
•
c s
Cherry rivets are characterized by a small collar placed in the notch of head
t r is
rivet. This collar is driven in the throat of the stem during the application.
The stem remains blocked by the collar and stops rivet movement.
o w
• Cherry rivet identification is done through a code compose of:
s
•
e
Four numbers plus a fifth one, which indicates rivet diameter and a sixth
one, which indicates maximum thickness.
c s
•
a
Chobert rivets are used due to the ease and speed with which they can be
fitted. They are made with snap and countersunk heads.
t r i s
• The Chobert repetitive fastener equipment is actuated through
o w
compressed-air at 60 – 80 psi and doesn’t require of hydraulic pressure
i
thanks to its multiple pistons.
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Avdel rivets
a c s
t r is
• Avdel rivets distinguish themselves from Chobert rivets by the
o
presence of a proper stem inside the rivet
s w
• They are made on titanium and inox steel, they are projected so that
stem breaks really close to head rivet, making superfluous the
e
grinding.
c
•
s
The Servo-assisted fastener gun, made by Avdel, works with the
a
combination of pneumatic and hydraulic pressure at 80psi. Actuating
r s
the trigger, the compressed-air activates the pneumatic piston which
t i
at the same time activates the hydraulic piston.
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o sw
Chapter 07.09
c e
a s
PIPES AND HOSES
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 156 w
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Pipes coupling
a s
•
r
A flared coupling consists of a collar and a nut. The flared edge is designed to match
t is
the nipple of an adapter or another tube.
o w
• The use of standard couplings without flaring allows the free connections without the
use of the technique of flaring: for this type of couplings, it is essential to use the
s
correct amount of tightening on the nut. In the standard couplings without flaring the
nut is a blind nut, and it is positioned inside the seal in order to stick on the tube.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 157 w
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c e
Pipes coupling
_ S
ra s s
• The re-usable fittings are composed of a socket, which is fixed to the tube,
t i
and a nipple (nipple), which is fixed by screwing the coupling. This system
mechanically blocks the tube, between the nipple and socket, making it
o w
expands against the walls of the two components and so creating a seal
effect. It is also known as a compression seal.
e s
• After the installation a leak pressure test must be performed.
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 158 w
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Pipes coupling
a c s
The hoses can be divided according to the pressure of the system in which they are installed:
r s
low, medium or high.
ot i
• The high pressure hoses are typically used in the hydraulic system and high-pressure fuel
w
system.
s
• The low pressure hoses are used mainly in the instruments circuits. The installation of
e
these hoses happens without forcing them.
c s
Hoses maintain their flexibility for 5 years. Installation of the hoses must be done with much
a
attention: signs of line twisting should not be present and the hose should not be in tension.
r s
The pipe should have a certain degree of freedom in order to respond to possible variation
t i
caused by the fluid/pressurized gas passing in it.
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Pipe Flaring
a
•
c s _
The flaring of pipes ends used in the aeronautical field is characterized by an angle of 37°;
r s
this value is different from that used in the automobile sector (45°), in order to make them
t i
interchangeable.
o w
• The pipes flaring can be realized by two different methods:
o Single flare
s
o Double flare.
c e
• The single flare is commonly used for steel pipes with any diameter, and for light alloy pipes
with a diameter greater than ½ in. Instead, the double flare is used for light alloy pipes with a
a s
diameter equal or smaller than 3/8 in.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 160 w
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Pipes bending
a c s _
r s
• The bending is done using special equipment and tools.
ot i
• Generally, the used equipment are of type A2 (for pipes up to 7/8 inches in
w
diameter) and of type C (for tubes of 1 or 2 inches in diameter).
s
• In case of pipes with a diameter greater than 0.5 inches, or in the presence of high
e
angulated folds, a based lead alloy is used. This alloy fills the inside of the pipes.
c
• Instead, in case of pipes with a small diameter the bending must be easily done
a s
through the use of manual specific tools.
ot r i s
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t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.10
c e
a s
INSPECTION AND TESTING OF SPRINGS
ot r i s
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Inspection and testing of springs
a c s _
r s
The spring is considered usable, if it is free from defects and it respects
t i
the values of the design.
In order to verify that the dimensions and load of the spring in question
o w
are compatible with those required by the project two important tests
are done:
s
•
e
The test about the required deformation
c
• The test about the elasticity conservation.
r a ss
The first test assures that the spring deforms as required; instead, the
t i
second test checks that the spring regains its original dimensions when
the applied load ceases.
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Inspection and testing of springs
a c s
r s
• The static measurement of the size of a spring makes it possible to evaluate its
t i
mechanical properties and consequently its load capacity: for a spring in rest
conditions, a permanent deformation greater than 2 % isn’t generally accepted.
o w
•
s
The overheating of a spring causes the formation of pitting on the surface of the spring
and in some cases it causes changes in hardening of his features. Unfortunately it is
e
difficult to predict this behaviour
c
• In the engine, the deformation or breakage of engine valve spring involve a disastrous
a s
effects on the engine; to accomplish the tests of these springs, it is employed a special
r
test rig.
t i s
• If the spring fails one of these tests, it must be replaced with a new one.
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Chapter 07.11
c e
a s
BEARING
ot r i s
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Bearings
a c s _
A bearing is a device that permits constrained relative motion between two parts. It
r s
generally involves rotation but also linear movement. They allow to create rolling friction
t i
rather than sliding friction between two surfaces in contact.
o w
Bearings may be classified broadly according to the motions they allow and according to
their principle of operation. They can also classified according by the directions of
s
applied loads they can handle.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 166 w
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Ball and roller bearings
a c s
t r is
• Ball bearings can bear either axial and radial
loads; roller bearings can only bear radial loads.
o
These types of bearings can have different
w
designs: single-row bearings and double-row
s
bearings.
e
• Single-row design works with radial and thrust
c
loads. Ball bearings can also be of simple-type,
simple deep groove ball-type or matched
a s
bearing pairs-type.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 167 w
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Inspections and tests of bearings
a c s
t r is
The inspection of bearings generally involves the following items:
• Grease colour check; a darkening colour indicates the presence of metallic particles.
o
• Rotation check, to check roughness.
w
• Cage examination
s
• Rolling elements check
e
• Races examination
c
• In addition, a run test is typically performed mounting the bearing on a shaft and
a s
rotating it at 500 – 1000 RPM, applying alternately axial and radial loads in either
r
direction.
t i s
• During cleaning of bearings the rotation at high speed should be absolutely avoided,
unless lubricated.
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Lubrication
a c s _
r s
Bearings need proper lubrication to ensure that their design life is achieved. In fact a
t i
suitable bearing lubrication is required to reduce friction, and so preventing metal-to-
o
metal contact, but also to protect the bearing form oxidation and corrosion of their
w
rolling elements and to conduct heat away from the bearing.
s
To provide long life for high-speed bearings it is necessary the retention, filtration and
e
circulation of the oil.
c
It is important to keep in mind that only the lubricants specified in the aircraft
a s
maintenance manual must be used for bearing lubrication, because serious damage
r s
may result due to a wrong oil choice: check the AMM for lubrication application and
t i
lubricants properties.
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Grease
ra s s
Bearing lubricants can be divided into three main categories:
t i
• Greases
• Oils
o w
• Solid dry soft film lubricants.
s
Grease is a suitable lubricant for low rotational speeds bearings:
e
• Bearings that operate at very low speeds under light loads need a grease with low
c
consistency.
• Bearings that operate at low speeds and heavy loads need to be lubricated with high
a s
viscosity greases .
t r i s
Greases are not applied to high speed bearings due to their tendency to cause overheating
o
at high speeds. For greases there is no need of external lubrication system, consequently
i w
they it need less maintenance.
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Oil lubrication and Solid film lubricant
a c s _
r s
• The oil lubrication is considered better suited for high speed and high temperature
t i
applications, and it is very effective when the heat needs to be dissipated outside. For
this kind of high-speed applications, oil is supplied continuously, providing both cooling
o w
and lubrication. It needs a system for retention, filtration and circulation of the oil.
s
• Solid film lubricants, also known as dry films, are painted like coatings of very fine
e
particles of lubricating pigment blended with a binder and other additives. They are
used for bearings in extreme applications, as their friction does not depend on
c
temperature.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 171 w
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Defects in bearings and their causes
a c s _
r s
Some of the major faults and defects that may occur in ball and roller bearings are listed:
t i
• Brinelling is indicated by indentations on a raceway surface left by balls or rollers.
o w
The cause can be an applied load that exceed the elastic limit of the material, a
repeated shock loading or incorrect installation or removal.
e s
• Contamination is indicated by vibrations and dents/scratches in the bearing raceway.
The cause is the presence of abrasive substance.
a c s
• Pitting corrosion is indicated by small holes in the metal. Pitting corrosion causes
r
acid attack and atmospheric corrosion
t i s
.
• Fretting corrosion is indicated by powder with different colours according the
io w
material. Fretting corrosion causes: minute relative motion between heavily loaded
parts.
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 172

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a c s _
Some of the major faults and defects that may occur in ball and roller bearings are listed:
t r is
• Magnetism, it may be caused by the high-speed rolling action of the bearings under
o
variable loads or by lightning strikes. It is indicated by the movement of ferrous
w
particle and creates inclusions.
s
• Overheating, excessive heating manifests itself as a discoloration and a deformation
e
of the rings, rolling elements and cages.
c s
• Galling is indicated by a transfer of metal from one surface to another. It is cause by
a
the relative movement between heavily loaded surfaces.
t r i s
• During high speed rotation a sort of magnetism is created inside the bearing. It must
o
be degaussed before using to neutralize this magnetism.
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 173 w

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t ra is s
o s w
e
Galling Fretting corrosion Burnishing
a c s
ot r i s
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Inclusion effects Peeling
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Chapter 07.12
c e
a s
TRANSMISSIONS
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 175 w
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Gears inspection
a c s
ot r• There are different types of gears: their
is
w
design is generally related to the type of
use.
e s
• Teeth always have a toe (located on the
smaller gear diameter) and a heel (located
c
on the largest gear diameter).
r a s
•
s
In order to guarantee a correct functioning
t i
of the transmissions, two controls are
important: pattern and backlash
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Pattern and backlash
a c s _
The pattern is the print shape that a gear leaves on another gear during the coupling.
t r is
• The common method to check the pattern is to spread with Prussian blue ink the teeth of only
o
one wheel of the gear. In this way, when the wheel is in rotation, it leaves an imprint on the
w
teeth of the other wheel.
s
• The backlash is the amount of clearance between mated gear teeth. If teeth are too close
e
there is a no-lubrication danger. Instead, if the teeth are too distant, the contact surfaces are
c
too small and the teeth may break-down. The backlash can be easily detected in manual way.
a s
• In this case a wheel is put in rotation while the other is moved forwards and backwards. Then,
r s
using a centesimal comparator the tangential displacement of the teeth can be measured.
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Gears kind of damages
ra s
•
s
Rust - it is one of the most common damages that can occur on
t i
ferrous-made gear, especially when the components are exposed to
water and/or are subjected to high temperatures. The rust can be
o w
removed with appropriate procedures, tools and chemical products.
s
• Wear- it is a normal consequence of use. However the wear can be
accentuated by a loss of lubrication. If the wear area is wide, it requires
e
the replacement of the gear with a new one and a functional check of
c
the mechanism (tolerances and lubrication).
a s
• Dent - on a gear, the damage (break-down or deformation) of one or
r s
more teeth can be caused by an excessive load or by a foreign object in
t i
the teeth coupling zone during the rotation.
io w
• Fracture of teeth - it consists in a loss of one or more teeth from the
gear for different reasons (damage, fabrication defect, advanced
corrosion, etc.) and it can be a possible consequence of the dent.
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Belts and pulleys
a c s _
The pulleys must be checked in order to guarantee the correct fixing, the free of rotation and
r
the absence of corrosion and wear signs. The belt and pulleys must be checked for:
t is
• tension value, the belts can be affected by an excessive tension caused by incorrect
o w
working operations.
s
• alignment, that characterizes the contact between the belts and the pulleys and must be
e
checked.
c
• general conditions (wear, thickness), the wear of the belts is caused by the working time.
r a ss
• contamination, it can be caused by deposits of oil or greases.
ot i
The instruments used for these tests can be a tensiometer, a dynamometer and a
i w
dynamometric wrench.
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Chains, sprockets and end fittings.
a c s _
r s
A correct tension value must be guarantee in the chain
t i
installation in order to avoid an excessive extension of the chain.
o w
Compared to belts and pulleys, chains and sprockets transmit
s
more power and they are more thought.
e
The wear of the chain is generally caused by the wear of the
c
joints of the meshes. If the chain presents signs of corrosion or
when the extension measured is more than 2%, the replacement
a s
of the chain is absolutely necessary.
t r i s
End fittings are those components that generally joint the
o
controls to the system. The ball jointed end fittings are made in
i w
light alloy and they are machined to fit over the balls end.
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t ra is s
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Chapter 07.13
c e
a s
CONTROL CABLES
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 181 w
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End fitting
a c s
t r is
The most common method to secure a metal
o
end fitting to the end of a cable is based on the
w
plastic deformation of the hollow shank of the
s
same fitting. This process is called swaging.
e
In order to perform the dimensional checks of
the terminal, pass and not pass gauges or
c
micrometres are used.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 182 w
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Wear of cables and correct value of tension
t ra is s
The areas, which are the most subjected to corrosion problems, are those where an
o w
accumulation of moisture or chemical fumes can occur or where the control cable runs
on the pulleys and other elements. A cable must be substituted when the number of
s
broken strands exceeds the limits established by the manufacturer. These limitations
are given as the amount of strands per unit of length. Generally the cables must be
e
replaced when the external surface is worn of about 40%.
c
To guarantee the maximum life of control cables, a correct value of tension must be
a s
applied. This value is specified in the manufacturer maintenance manual. The value of
r s
tension can be controlled using a tensiometer and can be adjusted acting on the
t i
turnbuckles installed on the system.
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Standard inspections
a c
Main aspects concerning control cables that require attention and
s _
t r is
care are:
o
•
w
Handling
• Cutting
s
• Cleaning
e
• Corrosion
• Wear
c
• Value of tension
a s
• Abnormal use
t r i s
The standard inspections of control cables must be done annually
or alternatively every 100 hours of flight. The cable must be tested
io w
using a load equal to 60% of the value of tensile strength
(nominal).
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Inspections of control cables
a c
Corrosion of cables
s
t r is
They vary according to the material used in the construction of the cable:
• Tin-plated steel wires request that an anti rust oil is spread over them and the
o w
excess of product is removed.
s
• Carbon steel cables require two diverse treatments:
1. MIL-C-16473 compound is applied by brush, spray or cloth; it penetrates
e
deeply into the structure of the cable. The drying time is 24 hours at 25° 𝐶
c
2. MIL-C-11796 compound is applied immersing the cable in the composite
s
at 77° 𝐶 for 30 seconds, then the lubricant in excess is removed.
r a
• Stainless steel wires don’t require any treatment.
ot i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 185 w
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Common type of cables
a s
The cables can be divided into three main categories, according to their
r
construction:
t is
• Non-flexible cables: used in areas where it is not possible to install
o w
pulleys. They consist of a single strand made up of seven individual
wires or single strand composed of 19 individual wires, according to
s
diameter requested.
e
• Extra-flexible cables: permit the directional changes on pulleys of
c
small diameters. Extra-flexible cables are installed for main flight
s
controls. The most common size is 7x19. They can have a size up to 1/8
a
in
t r i s
• Flexible cables: used where the runs are straight and they permit the
o
directional changes on pulleys of large diameters. They are commonly
i w
composed of 7 strands consisting of 7 filaments (or wires), but they can
be available in other structures: Cables composed of 3 strands
consisting of 7 filaments and cables of 6 strands consisting of 19
filaments. Typical dimensions are 1/16 inches and 3/32 inches
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 186

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t ra is s
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Chapter 07.14
c e
a s
MATERIAL HANDLING
ot r i s
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Aluminium alloy sheet metal
a c s
r s
• Due to their very thin cross-section, aluminium metal sheets are sharpen,
t i
have a high cuts risk ratio and requires safety precautions.
o w
• Their attitude to flex causes high probability of bending during storage and
s
involves a high grade of attention during handling.
e
• To avoid bending, aluminium alloy metal sheets are stored vertically (on
longest side) in dedicated wood frames: in this way metal sheets are not in
c
contact with the floor and wood frames also prevent damages and possible
a s
corrosion.
t r i s
• Inspections on metal sheet can be accomplished by visual checks or assisted
visual methods, like dye penetrant procedures.
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Composite materials
_ S
ra s
•
s
Composite materials can be modeled and realized in many different shapes. They are
t i
generally realized starting from fibrous materials cured together in a series of layers
with different pattern angulations.
o w
• While the metals are isotropic materials and have the capabilities to carry loads in all
s
directions, composites are anisotropic or quasi-isotropic: they have the capability to
carry loads only in one direction or in more than one direction but not in all directions.
c e
• Number of layers and their overlap orientation allow to obtain different characteristics,
s
such as strength, torsion resistance, shear resistance, etc.
t r a i s
• The warp clock is a circle divided in four quadrants that reflects the direction of the
rotation required of the warp fibres: the strength properties of fibrous composites are
o
maximized when the load is applied perpendicular to the fibres.
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Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP)
a c s
r s
• There are several types of composite
ot i
• The Glass Reinforced Plastic (GRP) is also called glass fiber-reinforced
w
plastic, fiberglass or glass fiber. When fiberglass is manufactured in
s
form of thin wires and/or braided with other fiberglass wires it is a very
flexible material. It becomes rigid and resistant after curing with
e
epoxies resins.
c
• GRP sheets can be modeled on specific molds and are cured in
a s
autoclave at about 120°C to 170°C (with related pressure applied).
t r i s
• GRP is widely used because resistant, light and not expensive; it is
used in the radar radome.
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Aramid fibers reinforced (Kevlar) and Carbon
c
fibers
t r
•
a Aramid fibers reinforced are commonly known as KevlarTM, a
is
yellow soft fiber, extremely light, strong and resistant to vibrations.
s
o w
• Aramid fibers are very strong and have high strength and high
s
heating resistance.
e
• Carbon fibers consist of extremely resistant and thin fibers,
c
characterized by a diameter between 0.005 and 0.010 mm.
r a ss
• Carbon fiber laminates can have infinite weave patterns and they
t i
can be molded to different shapes after curing with epoxy resin.
io w
• The principle advantage of carbon fiber components is the light
weight.
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Chapter 07.15
c e
a s
WELDING, BRAZING, SOLDERING AND
t r i s
BONDING
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Oxy-acetylene welding.
a c s
r s
• Welding is defined as the permanent joining, by fusion, of two components (generally
t i
realized in metal), based on a sequence of meltings and solidifications of the components
at the jointing point.
o s w
• The oxy-acetylene welding is based on a high temperature flame torch fired by the
mixture oxygen and acetylene gases that can reach 3150 °C. In case of non-metal
e
materials it is necessary to add a flux with a filler metal.
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 193 w
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Manual metal arc welding, TIG and MIG.
a
•
c
Manual metal arc welding uses electricity to provide
s _
r is
heat to the joint. An electric arc is established between
t
a flux-coated filler metal rod and the components to
o
joint, which heat (from 4000 °C up to 4500 °C)
w
causes the melt of the rod and the joint of the
s
components.
e
• Tungsten metal arc welding (TIG) also uses electricity:
one of the differences is that TIG uses a tungsten
c
electrode and it is also called argon arc welding
a s
because it uses the Argon as shielding gas to protect
r
the weld pool and. Usually, a filler rod is employed to
t i s
give a reinforcement to the weld.
o w
• Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG), also based on electric
i
arc and a shielding gas, uses a continuous wire as
electrode and as filler and it is generally applied where
a continuous weld is required.
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Soldering
c s
• Soldering is similar to welding but this kind of joints is accomplished at lower
a
temperatures and not contemplates the fusion/melt between the components.
t r is
• To generate the joint, a non-ferrous alloy is applied at the joint point within the heated
o
components: when the alloy cool-down, the two components are jointed together. The
w
soldering is divided into soft and hard soldering:
s
1. The hard soldering is realized at temperatures over 500 °C with the use of brass alloy as
e
filler metal.
c
2. The soft soldering is realized a lower temperatures.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 195 w
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Bonding
a
•
c s
Bonding is a procedure that requires skilled personnel and dedicated tools
r s
to ensure the right result. Pressure and heat may be required and in order to
t i
prevent contamination a purpose-built clean room is necessary.
o s w
c e
•
t r a
There are two different types of adhesive:
1. In the mechanical adhesive bonding the adhesive forms a lock by
i ss
o w
penetrating the surface and through the structure.
i
2. In the chemical adhesive bonding the adhesive is spread on the surface
and create a chemical bond.
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Chapter 07.16
c e
a s
AIRCRAFT WEIGHT AND BALANCE
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 197 w
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CG, Cp and load sheet
a
•
c s
The main purpose of weight and balance operation is related to maintain safety and to
t r is
achieve efficiency in flight. The position of loads and payloads such as passengers, baggage,
cargo, fuel and equipment will alter the position of the aircraft Centre of Gravity (CG), which
o
is the point where the total mass of an aircraft acts vertically downwards. An uncontrolled
w
movement of the Centre of Gravity (CG) becomes particularly dangerous especially during
s
take-offs and landings.
• Moreover, the total lift force generated by an aircraft acts through a point called the Centre
e
of Pressure (CP) that is normally located to the rear of the CG position.
• The load sheet must be done before each flight. It is used to evaluate the position of the CG
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 198 w
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Procedures about mass and balance
a c s _
t r is
• EU-OPS 1 subpart J specifies the general procedures about mass and balance.
o w
• The mass and CG position of each aircraft shall be re-established periodically. The
maximum interval between an aircraft weighing and the next must be defined by the
s
operator, but not exceed 4/9 year limit.
e
• The aircraft should be positioned in the weighing area several hours before weighing
c
to have it free from moisture and at a steady temperature, and the weighing
s
equipment must be must be calibrated and zeroed before every weighing operation.
t r a i s
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 199 w
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CG envelope
a
•
c
The certified CG position of the aircraft has operating
s _
t r is
margins built into calculations. These limits can be
shown in a graph called “CG envelope”, where the
o
horizontal axis shows aircraft CG arm limits in inches aft
w
of datum and the vertical axis displays the loaded
s
aircraft weight (gross weight limits).
e
• The limit allowed for CG movements is marked with a
marked line that determines the limit area on the graph
c
ok for CG movement.
r a ss
• Any movement of the CG in the marked area is allowed:
t i
before each flight a load sheet must be prepared, to
evaluate the position of the aircraft CG on the take-off
o w
and the expected position of the CG during the landing.
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Chapter 07.17
c e
a s
AIRCRAFT HANDLING AND STORAGE
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 201 w
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Aircraft taxiing and associated safety precautions
a c s _
t r is
Normally, ground movements are carried out by
qualified flight crews and usually engineering
o
technicians and engineers and mechanics are more
w
likely to be involved in towing operations.
s
In some airports, it is required a radio contact
e
between aircraft and control tower when the
c
aircraft is taxiing. In these airports, in case of radio
failure, control towers are equipped with highly
a s
directional light guns that are used to provide
r s
signals to aircraft.
ot i
A/C marshal figure: it provides visual information to
i w
the pilot when the aircraft is on ground
Steady green/red, Flashing green/white
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Aircraft jacking and associated safety precautions
a c
Aircraft have to be jacked for many reasons; small aircraft
s _
r is
must be jacked inside the hangar, while large aircraft can be
t
jacked outside, positioning the nose into the wind.
o
Common jacks configurations are the following:
w
• Tripod jacks
s
• Quadruped jacks
• Bipod jacks: designed to absorb a degree of radial
e
movement
c
• Bottle jacks.
r a s
For vertical lift only tripod or quadruped jacks are used, in
t i s
configuration with three main assemblies.
During the jacking operations we can use ballast in order to
o w
move the CG forward and not let the airplane fall down.
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Aircraft storage
a c s _
r s
• The purpose of warning flags positioned near the covers used when the aircraft is
t i
parked is to alert personnel to the fact that the covers are fitted
o w
• The ideal environment for storing an aircraft is a cool, dry hangar, protected from
s
strong sunlight, rapid temperature changes and atmospheric pollution, with
relative humidity less than 60%.
e
• The detailed steps to follow in order to protect a parked aircraft and the repeat
c
intervals are given in the aircraft storage procedure in the Aircraft Maintenance
a s
Manual
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 204 w
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Electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic ground supplies
a c s
Large aircraft generally have AC and DC electrical systems, and they are equipped with
r s
a multi-pin socket for external power connection.
ot i
• The plug and socket configuration ensures correct connection: the 28 Volt DC supply
w
has a three-pin connection : one pin longer than other two; the longer pins are the
s
supply connections, while the shorter pin acts as a safety interlock.
c e
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 205 w
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Electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic ground supplies
a c s _
r s
• The AC connection has six pins, with four pins longer than the
t i
other two; the four longer pins supply the three phases and the
neutral connection, while the short pins acts as safety interlock.
o s w
e
• The hydraulic ground power supply is typically required during
c
maintenance operations in order to operate the hydraulic
system when engines and APU are not running
r a ss
• In hydraulic power systems, due incompatibility of different
t i
hydraulic fluid types, a different hydraulic power unit must be
used with each type of fluid; in case of wrong type of fluid
io w
introduction in the aircraft hydraulic system, the whole system
must be purged and refilled with the correct and
uncontaminated fluid.
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Chapter 07.18
c e
a s
DISASSEMBLY, INSPECTION, REPAIR AND
t r i s
ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES
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Pre-flight inspection
a c s
r s
Visual inspections are fundamental. Pre-flight inspection is performed before
t i
each flight in order to detect damages on tires, brakes and other sensible
o
components of the aircraft.
s w
• In the tire tread the serviceability of tires is indicated by the depth of the
groove. The AMM gives information of what constituents a worn or
e
damaged tire. Apart from normal wear, other defects, that can affect a tire,
are cuts, blisters, creep and low pressure. Tire inflation devices consist of
c
high pressure bottles fitted with a pressure reducing valve or a simple air
a s
compressor. The pressure a tire should be inflated to depends on various
factors such as the weight of the aircraft.
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 208 w
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s A
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a
•
c s _
Impact damage from heavy landings or from items on the runway hitting the wheel
r s
rim can create defects to aircraft. Other problems can arise from corrosion starting as
t i
a result of the impact damage and the shearing of wheel bolts, which hold the two
halves of a split wheel together.
o s w
• Inspection of brake units between flights is essential to check for signs of excessive
heating and to ensure that they have not worn beyond their limits. If the pads are
e
breaking up there will be signs of debris, excessive amounts of powder and, in extreme
cases, scoring of the discs. This will require immediate replacement of the complete
c
brake unit.
r a s
•
s
Landing gear locks are normally fitted to the aircraft’s undercarriage as a safety device
t i
to prevent them inadvertently collapsing. The most likely defects will be damage to
the locking pin ball bearing device or the loss of the high visibility warning flags.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 209 w

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a
•
c s _
r
The function of probes is to send information to the flight deck. There are different
t is
kinds of probes. These can include the pitot/static probes and the angle of attack
probes. Electrical heating elements built into them prevents freezing and,
o
occasionally, they can become overheated. Probes need to be regularly inspected
w
for signs of physical damage or discoloration.
s
• Constant use wears handles and latches. In particular, the handles and latches of
e
cargo bays and baggage holds, which are operated every time the aircraft lands,
c
are prone to wear. Technicians have to be aware that all panel fasteners will wear
slowly and these panels must be secured in flight.
r a ss
• On the airplane there are many indicators. The blow out disc used in fire
t i
extinguishing and oxygen systems is the most common type of indicator.
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Structure classification
a c s _
r s
The aircraft structure can be divided into three classes:
t i
• On a primary structure a damage can cause the aircraft full failure with
serious consequences. These structures are sometimes coloured in red on
o w
maintenance manuals
s
• Damages on secondary structures (high stress structures) does not
e
necessarily imply the loss of the airplane. This structure can still resist and
allow continued flight to the nearest airport. On maintenance manuals,
c
secondary structures are coloured in yellow
a s
• Tertiary structures are lightly stressed components, generally coloured in
t r i s
green on maintenance manuals, that, in case of damage, will not cause a
direct problem on the aircraft.
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Types of defects and General repair methods
a c
The different kinds of damages in the structure are classified
s
r s
according to the kind or reparation operation that they
t i
require.
o
Repairs procedures generally include these four steps:
s w
• Cleaning up: it allows to determinate the type and the
severity of the damage. This operation also allows to
e
remove all the residues derivate by the damage.
c
•
s
Classification of the damage, required to undertake the
a
more suitable repair procedure.
t r i s
• Checking the repair following the correct procedure
o
given in the structural repair manual.
i w
• Completion of repair restoring the structure as original.
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Visual Inspections
a
•
c s
Non destructive inspection (NDI) techniques are used to individuate eventual failure
r is
inside the component.
t
• The visual inspection is the most important NDI technique: it include several type of
o
checks of the external and internal structure of aircraft: starting from the simple visual
w
check of the aircraft, up to boroscopic inspections, trough mirrors and magnifying
s
glasses.
• The appropriate visual inspection techniques are detailed in the relevant servicing
e
manuals but, generally, they will depend on such factors as the nature of the item being
inspected, the purpose, the location, the inspection surface, the time available and the
c
degree or depth of the inspection.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 213 w
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Mirrors, magnifying glass and boroscope
a c s _
r s
• Mirrors are used to check hidden zone where is not possible a direct view of the area.
t i
Selections of inspection mirrors are available, mounted on the end of a handle or rod.
o w
• Magnifying glasses are employed to help the technician to individuate very small
failures. The most common lenses has 8 times magnification, but the range starts
s
from x2 up to x32. Most of magnifying lenses used in maintenance operations got and
e
integrated light to help the technician in darken zones.
c
• The boroscope is an optical instrument used for inspection in very close zones or
a s
inside a component (ex. engine valve ports). It is essentially a tube composed by a
series of mirrors lenses and very fine glass fibers, all enclosed in tube of stainless
t r i s
steel. The Problem of boroscope is that they are very expensive.
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 214 w

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Penetrant Flaw Detection
a c s
r s
The Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD) is a visual inspection, that consist of application of a
t i
liquid and a white powder on a surface.
The Penetrant Fluid Detection detects the porosity of a material and allows to individuate
o w
surface discontinuities, for example cracks, on non-porous materials (ex. metals, plastics).
s
Penetrant flaw is essentially a liquid applied on a surface and let dwell.
e
It is necessary to highlight the health hazards associated with working with PFD
c
materials, like contact with the eyes, contact with the skin, ingestion and inhalation.
r a ss
PFD fluids are divided according to type and removing method.
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Penetrant Flaw Detection – Type 1 & 2
_ S
t ra is
Type 1 – fluorescent penetrant that involves the use of a “black
light” lamp to ensure a perfect view of the damage with the
s
o w
penetrant that became brilliant.
s
There are two kinds of Type 1 PFD:
e
- Water washable penetrant – includes all those penetrant liquids
c
that with an emulsion, allows to remove the oil-based liquid
a s
easily from the surface with water.
t r i s
- Post-emulsification penetrant – it has no emulsifier. This requires
the application of it on the penetrant and an “emulsification time”
o w
before removing the excess of penetrant fluid.
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Penetrant Flaw Detection Application
ra s
Type 2 – colour contrast that does not require special light: normal light or
t is
eventually a white light enhance the contrast of the liquid in the powder.
It uses solvent-removable penetrant, that requires the use of a volatile
o w
solvent to remove the penetrant fluid.
e s
Generally, the application of PFD follows these steps:
• Clean the surface.
c
• Mask the not interested adjacent areas.
a s
• Apply the penetrant flaw (wait for dwell time).
r s
• Remove the excess of penetrant on the surface.
t i
• Apply the developer (wait for the dwell time) carefully.
o
• Check the surface for damages and record theme on proper documentation.
i w
If required, use appropriate laps, or special black light to highlight the “type 1
penetrant”. Every damage must be catalogued for grade and position.
• Clean and restore the inspected area as required.
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UFD, ECFD, MPFD and RFD
a c s
• Ultrasonic Flaw Detection (UFD) methods are employed to find sub-surface defects
r s
on the majority of solid materials through a narrow beam of sound.
t i
• This technique employs the ultra-sonic frequencies from 500 kHz up to 25MHz, the
o w
speed of the sound varies from material to material. The speed difference of the
ultrasonic wave in the material allows to individuate anomalies in the material.
e s
.
a c s
ot r i s
10.12.2018 i Rev.04 Pag. 218 w
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UFD, ECFD, MPFD and RFD
a c
Eddy current flaw detection (ECFD) procedures, utilizing eddy
s _
t r is
currents, are inspection methods based on the principle of
acceptance of the current and are employed on electrically
o
conductive materials. During the ECFD the ease with which a
w
material accepts the induced current is measured.
s
• In a Magnetic Particle Flaw Detection (MPFD) a distortion of the
e
magnetic field reveal the presence of anomalies in the material.
c
The presence of abnormalities in the structure of the component
will cause a distortion of the magnetic field: this will cause a
a s
different arrangement of the metal particles .
t r i s
• The X-ray and Gamma radiation are inspections that allow to view
the internal structure of a component, trough a display or
io w
imprinted image. Due to the hazards of radiation, it will be
necessary to isolate the aircraft and to keep personnel at a safe
distance from the inspection aerea.
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 219

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Disassembly and reassembly techniques
ra s
•
s
The dismantle procedure is a process in which the aircraft is divided into several
t i
groups and then placed in a hangar.
o w
• The aircraft should be dismantled within a hangar where is necessary clearance.
s
• The instructions for the dismantling operation will be found either in the aircraft's
e
Maintenance Manual or in special dismantling procedure, issued by the manufacturer.
c
• Every component removed from the aircraft must be catalogued, cleaned and stored.
r a ss
• The replacement of major components/modules will normally be completed at a large
t i
maintenance base, where all the required equipment is available.
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s A
e _ S
Troubleshooting techniques
a c s
r s
• Troubleshooting techniques is a necessary process to determine the cause or causes
t i
of failure: in light of the results, you can choose the most appropriate remedy.
o w
• The troubleshooting method is based on a set of controls that create a logical path
s
necessary to eliminate any possibilities one by one.
e
• Almost always, the troubleshooting is done by following a flowchart which
summarizes the assumptions and step by step solutions through a series of questions
c
and answers, or with the claims.
t r a i ss
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s A
c e _ S
t ra is s
o sw
Chapter 07.19
c e
a s
ABNORMAL EVENTS
ot r i s
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e S
Abnormal Events
a c s _
During the whole aircraft operative life, it is possible to experience abnormal occurrences
r s
(like lightning strikes, overweight landing, tail strike or flight in severe turbulence condition)
t i
which need special inspection.
o w
• If any of these occurrences are reported, it is necessary to perform a special inspection,
s
reported in the aircraft maintenance manual.
e
• A lightning strike can cause a visible damage,
c
like a small circular holes on the aircraft external skin. The whole aircraft structure can be
divided in 3 risk zones.
t r a i ss
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 223 w
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c e _ S
Abnormal Events
ra s s
• Another problem is the (HIRF) High Intensity Radiated Field: high intensity radio
t i
waves is that they can create severe interference to radio receivers and on-board
o
electronic device. In HIRF maintenance, visual inspection is the first and most
w
important step that is often sufficient to find deterioration of the protective features.
s
• Examinations required following abnormal occurrences to helicopters are broadly
e
similar to those discussed for fixed-wing aircraft. However, there will be additional
dedicated inspection items related to rotor blades, rotor head, main gear box, tail
c
boom, tail rotor and transmission system.
t r a i ss
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t ra is s
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Chapter 07.20
c e
a s
MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
ot r i s
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s A
c e
Maintenance Program and Maintenance Schedule
_ S
ra s s
• The aircraft maintenance program specifies the scheduled maintenance actions and
t i
the time intervals between them.
o w
• The maintenance schedule establishes what type of standard practices must be done
s
on aircraft and the standard time in which they must be executed.
e
• This document establishes only the general rules, while the details of a particular task
are defined by the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM), written by the designer.
a c s
• The AMM contain detailed maintenance action and instruction
ot r i s
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Service Bulletin and Airworthiness Directive
a c s
r s
• The Service Bulletin (SB) is a technical publication emitted by the Type Certificate
t i
holder of the product (aircraft structure, propeller or engine…). The SB contains the
o
modifications that must be done or the additional inspections at which the
w
components must be subjected.
s
• A very urgent SB becomes an Airworthiness Directive (AD) that recommends a
e
mandatory modification. The AD is emitted by the Authority and it contains all data to
individuate and to execute the required actions, and also the expiry date within which
c
the modifications must be done. If an AD isn’t applied the aircraft airworthiness is
s
compromised.
t r a i s
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Storehouse and EASA Form 1
a c s
All approved stores must have 3 main areas:
t r is
• 1- A quarantine store, which accepts and controls all items that enter in the storehouse.
o w
• 2- A bonded store, which receives the approval items from the quarantine store and it issues
s
them to the technicians. Incoming accepted items must be recorded in the Goods Receipt
Number (GRN) book through a reference number to facilitate the traceability of the original
e
order.
c
• 3- An office or administration centre., which takes care of all documentation concerning the
a s
items. It controls and records all transactions that happen through the storehouse.
t r i s
All transactions through an aeronautical storehouse in EASA Countries are accompanied by a
EASA Form 1, a standard documents that declares the airworthiness of parts, components and
io w
materials and the work done on them. The EASA Form 1 doesn’t constitute an approval to
install the items on aircraft, but it helps to determine their airworthiness approval status.
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 228

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Certification of maintenance organization and MOE
a s
About the certification of the maintenance organization:
t r is
• Part M-Subpart G establishes the conditions and the procedures that people and
o
organizations must met in order to manage the maintenance activities.
s w
• Part M-Subpart F is authorized to execute the maintenance service and to attest the
airworthy of the aircraft in the cases of aircraft not used for commercial air transport.
c e
• Part -145 is authorized to execute the maintenance service and to attest the airworthy of
s
large commercial aircraft
r a s
•
t i
A maintenance organization approved in accordance with Part-145 must have a
Maintenance Organization Exposition (MOE) in which the organization structure, the
o
activities, the responsibilities and the maintenance procedures and release procedures
i w
are detailed. Another important aspect included in MOE is the organization chart.
10.12.2018 Rev.04 Pag. 229

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Line/Base Maintenance and Certifying Staff
a c s
t r is
Part-66 distinguishes the maintenance actions into:
• Line maintenance ( action of low level and high frequency).
o w
• Base maintenance (low frequency complex actions).
s
Certifying Staff can be divided into the following levels:
e
• Category A Line Maintenance Certifying Mechanic
c
• Category B1 Maintenance Certifying Technician - Mechanical
• Category B2
s
Maintenance Certifying Technician - Avionic
a
• Category C Base Maintenance Certifying Engineer
ot r i s
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Release to Service
a c s _
r s
• After every maintenance operations, an approved maintenance organization must
t i
emit for each aircraft a certificate called Release to Service, which must be signed by a
Certifying Staff that has the qualification for the particular aircraft.
o w
• This certificate attests that the maintenance actions done on aircraft are carried out by
s
an approval organization in accordance with the standard rule of Part-145.
e
• The respect of the maintenance program is essential in order to maintained in force
c
the Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A). The (C of A) attests that the aircraft is able to
s
fly and that it has been constructed in conformity with the approved design
t r a i s
10.12.2018 io Rev.04 Pag. 231 w
wi
s A
e S
Aircraft documents
a c s _
The Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) defines detailed maintenance actions. The most
r is
important documents for the exchange of information between the maintenance
t
technicians and the flying personnel for a commercial aircraft are:
o w
• The Technical Log Book (Tech Log)
s
• The Log Books (about aircraft, engine and propeller)
• The Modification Records
e
• The MEL (Minimum Equipment List)
c
• The CDL (Configuration Deviation List)..
r a ss
The Reliability program is a system of reporting of events occurred during the aircraft
t i
operative life.
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Audits and Follow Up
a c s _
r s
• In the quality system the audits are executed in order to monitor the compliance of the
t i
all aspects of the organization to the standard requirements, in order to ensure that
the maintenance practices provide airworthy components and airworthy aircraft.
o s w
• The results of the audits are collected and summarized in order to issue a report that
will be given to the analysed organization. The organization must be take corrective
e
and remedial actions.
c
• The follow up is the activity that concludes the cycle of the audits, in which the
a s
organization checks that the corrective actions produce improvements of the
r s
organization efficiency.
10.12.2018 iot Rev.04 Pag. 233 wi

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t ra A tool, called insert, it is actuated manually, comes in

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