Kinds of variable

The independent variable: It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to
determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is a stimulus variable or input operates within a person
or within his environment to effect behavior. Independent variable may be called factor and its variation is called
levels.

The dependent variable: The dependent variable is a response variable or output. The dependent variable is the
factor that is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable; it is the factor that
appears, disappears, or varies as the researcher introduces, removes, or varies the independent variables.

Moderate variable: It is the factor that is measured, manipulated or selected by the experimenter to discover
whether it modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon. The term moderate
variable describes a special type of independent variable, a secondary independent variable selected to determine
if it affects the relationship between the study’s primary independent variable and its dependent variable.

Control variable: Control variables are factors controlled by the experimenter to cancel out or neutralized any
effect they might otherwise on the observed phenomena. A single study can not examine all of the variables in a
situation (situational variable) or in a person (dispositional variable); some must be neutralized to guarantee that
they will not exert differential or moderating effects on the relationship between the independent variables and
dependent variables.

Intervening variable: An intervening variable is the factor that theoretically effects observed phenomena but can
not be seen, measured, or manipulated; its effects must be inferred from the effects of the independent and
moderate variable on the observed phenomena. Consider the hypothesis Among students of the same age and
intelligence, skill performance is directly related to the number of practice trials, the relationship being particularly
strong among boys, but also holding, though less directly, among girls’. this hypothesis that indicates that practice
increases learning, involve several variables. Independent variable: number of practice trail Dependent variable:
skill performance Control variable: age, intelligence Mode

Mean, Median, Mode: Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode

Measures of Central Tendency  It is also defined as a single value that is used to describe the “center” of the
data.  Measure of central tendency provides a very convenient way of describing a set of scores with a single
number that describes the PERFORMANCE of the group.  There are three commonly used measures of central
tendency.

These are the following:  MEAN  MEDIAN  MODE

MEAN  It is also referred as the “arithmetic average”  It is the most commonly used measure of the center of
data

MEDIAN • Median is what divides the scores in the distribution into two equal parts. • It is also known as the
middle score or the 50th percentile. • Fifty percent (50%) lies below the median value and 50% lies above the
median value.

MODE Trimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of three modes or multimodal is a distribution of scores
that consists of more than two modes. The mode or the modal score is a score or scores that occurred most in the
distribution. Bimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of two modes. It is classified as unimodal, bimodal,
trimodal or mulitimodal. Unimodal is a distribution of scores that consists of only one mode.
Measures of central tendency are a key way to discuss and communicate with graphs. The term central tendency
refers to the middle, or typical, value of a set of data, which is most commonly measured by using the three m's:
mean, median, and mode. The mean, median, and mode are known as the measures of central tendency. In this
lesson, you will explore these three concepts.

The Mean, Median, and Mode

Mean, median, and mode are three basic ways to look at the value of a set of numbers. You will start by learning
about the mean.

The mean, often called the average, of a numerical set of data, is simply the sum of the data values divided by the
number of values. This is also referred to as the arithmetic mean. The mean is the balance point of a distribution.

sum of the values

Mean =
the number of values

For instance, take a look at the following example. Use the formula to calculate the mean number of hours that
Stephen worked each month based on the example below.

Example

Problem Stephen has been working on programing and updating a

Web site for his company for the past 15 months. The
following numbers represent the number of hours Stephen
has worked on this Web site for each of the past 7 months:

24, 25, 31, 50, 53, 66, 78

What is the mean (average) number of hours that Stephen

worked on this Web site each month?

Step 1: Add the numbers to determine the total number of

hours he worked.

24 + 25 + 33 + 50 + 53 + 66 + 78 = 329

Step 2: Divide the total by the number of months.

Answer
The calculations for the mean of a sample and the total population are done in the same way. However, the mean of
a population is constant, while the mean of a sample varies from sample to sample.

Example

Problem Mark operates Technology Titans, a Web site service that

employs 8 people. Find the mean age of his workers if the
ages of the employees are as follows:

55, 63, 34, 59, 29, 46, 51, 41

Step 1: Add the numbers to determine the total age of the

workers.

55 + 63 + 34 + 59 + 29 + 46 + 51 + 41 = 378

Step 2: Divide the total by the number of months.

Answer

Look at another approach. If you were to take a sample of 3 employees from the group of 8 and calculate the mean
age for these 3 workers, would the results change?

Use the ages 55, 29, and 46 for one sample of 3, and the ages 34, 41, and 59 for another sample of 3:

The mean age of the first group of 3 employees is 43.33 years.

The mean age of the second group of 3 employees is 44.66 years.

The mean age for a sample of a population depends upon the values that are included in the sample. From this
example, you can see that the mean of a population and that of a sample from the population are not necessarily
the same.

In addition to calculating the mean for a given set of data values, you can apply your understanding of the mean to
determine other information that may be asked for in everyday problems.

Example

Problem Two weeks before Mark opened Technology Titans, he

launched his company Web site. During those 14 days,
Mark had an average of 24.5 hits on his Web site per day.
In the first two days that Technology Titans was open for
business, the Web site received 42 and 53 hits respectively.
Determine the new average for hits on the Web site.

Step 1: Multiply the given average by 14 to determine the

total number of hits on Mark's Web site.

24.5 x 14 = 343

Step 2: Add the hits for the first two days his business was
open.

343 + 42 + 53 = 438

Step 3: Divide this new total by 16 to determine the new

average.

Answer

All values for the means you have calculated so far have been for ungrouped, or listed, data. A mean can also be
determined for data that is grouped, or placed in intervals. Unlike listed data, the individual values for grouped data
are not available, and you are not able to calculate their sum. To calculate the mean of grouped data, the first step is
to determine the midpoint of each interval or class. These midpoints must then be multiplied by the frequencies of
the corresponding classes. The sum of the products divided by the total number of values will be the value of the
mean.

The following example will show how the mean value for grouped data can be calculated.
 Example

Problem In Tim's office, there are 25 employees. Each employee

travels to work every morning in his or her own car. The
distribution of the driving times (in minutes) from home to
work for the employees is shown in the table below.

Driving Times (minutes) Number of Employees

0 to less than 10 3

10 to less than 20 10

20 to less than 30 6

30 to less than 40 4

40 to less than 50 2

Calculate the mean of the driving times.

Step 1: Determine the midpoint for each interval.

For 0 to less than 10, the midpoint is 5.

For 10 to less than 20, the midpoint is 15.

For 20 to less than 30, the midpoint is 25.

For 30 to less than 40, the midpoint is 35.

For 40 to less than 50, the midpoint is 45.

Step 2: Multiply each midpoint by the frequency for the

class.

For 0 to less than 10, (5)(3) = 15

For 10 to less than 20, (15)(10) = 150

For 20 to less than 30, (25)(6) = 150

For 30 to less than 40, (35)(4) = 140

For 40 to less than 50, (45)(2) = 90

 Step 3: Add the results from Step 2 and divide the sum by
25.

15 + 150 + 150 + 140 + 90 = 545

Answer

The mean is often used as a summary statistic. However, it is affected by extreme values (outliers): either an
unusually high or low number. When you have extreme values at one end of a data set, the mean is not a very good
summary statistic.

Example: Outliers

If you were employed by a company that paid all of its employees a salary between $60,000 and $70,000, you could
probably estimate the mean salary to be about $65,000.

However, if you had to add in the $150,000 salary of the CEO when calculating the mean, then the value of the
mean would increase greatly. It would, in fact, be the mean of the employees' salaries, but it probably would not be
a good measure of the central tendency of the salaries.

In addition to calculating the mean for a given set of data values, you can also apply your understanding of the mean
to determine other information that may be asked for in everyday problems.

The Median

What is the Median?

The median is the number that falls in the middle position once the data has been organized. Organized data means
the numbers are arranged from smallest to largest or from largest to smallest. The median for an odd number of
data values is the value that divides the data into two halves. If n represents the number of data values and n is an

odd number, then the median will be found in the position.

This measure of central tendency is typically used when the mean value is affected by an unusually low number or
an unusually high number in the data set (outliers). Outliers distort the mean value to the extent that the mean
value no longer accurately depicts the set of data.

For example: If one of the houses in your neighborhood was broken down and maintained a low property value,
then you would not want to include this property when determining the value of your own home. However, if you
are purchasing a home in that neighborhood, you may want to include the outlier since it would drive down the
price you would have to pay.
Try a few examples to follow the steps needed to calculate the median.

Example

Problem Find the median of the following data:

12, 2, 16, 8, 14, 10, 6

Step 1: Organize the data, or arrange the numbers from

smallest to largest.

2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16

Step 2: Since the number of data values is odd, the median

will be found in the position.

Step 3: In this case, the median is the value that is found in

the fourth position of the organized data.

2, 6, 8, 10 , 12, 14, 16

Answer

Another way to look at the example is to narrow the data down to find the middle number.

2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16

Χ, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, Χ

Χ, Χ, 8, 10, 12, Χ, Χ

Χ, Χ, Χ, 10, Χ, Χ, Χ

Here is another example of how to calculate the median of a set of numbers.

 Example

Problem Find the median of the following data:

7, 9, 3, 4, 11, 1, 8, 6, 1, 4

Step 1: Organize the data, or arrange the numbers from

smallest to largest.

1, 1, 3, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11

Step 2: Since the number of data values is even, the median

will be the mean value of the numbers found before and

after the position.

Step 3: The number found before the 5.5 position is 4 and

the number found after the 5.5 position is 6. Now, you
need to find the mean value.

1, 1, 3, 4, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11

Answer

The Mode

What is the Mode?

The mode of a set of data is simply the value that appears most frequently in the set.

If two or more values appear with the same frequency, each is a mode. The downside to using the mode as a
measure of central tendency is that a set of data may have no mode, or it may have more than one mode. However,
the same set of data will have only one mean and only one median.

 The word modal is often used when referring to the mode of a data set.

 If a data set has only one value that occurs most often, the set is called unimodal.
  A data set that has two values that occur with the same greatest frequency is referred to as bimodal.

 When a set of data has more than two values that occur with the same greatest frequency, the set is
called multimodal.

When determining the mode of a data set, calculations are not required, but keen observation is a must. The mode
is a measure of central tendency that is simple to locate, but it is not used much in practical applications.

Example

Problem Find the mode of the following data:

76, 81, 79, 80, 78, 83, 77, 79, 82, 75

There is no need to organize the data, unless you think that

it would be easier to locate the mode if the numbers were
arranged from least to greatest. In the above data set, the
number 79 appears twice, but all the other numbers
appear only once. Since 79 appears with the greatest
frequency, it is the mode of the data values.

Answer

Example

The ages of 12 randomly selected customers at a local Best

Buy are listed below:

Problem
23, 21, 29, 24, 31, 21, 27, 23, 24, 32, 33, 19

What is the mode of the above ages?

The above data set has three values that each occur with a
frequency of 2. These values are 21, 23, and 24. All other
values occur only once. Therefore, this set of data has three
modes.

Answer

Remember that the mode can be determined for qualitative data as well as quantitative data, but the mean and the
median can only be determined for quantitative data.
 Example

Problem You begin to observe to the color of clothing your

employees wear. Your goal is to find out what color is worn
most frequently so that you can offer company shirts to
your employees.

Monday: Red, Blue, Black, Pink, Green, and Blue

Tuesday: Green, Blue, Pink, White, Blue, and Blue

Wednesday: Orange, White, White, Blue, Blue, and Red

Thursday: Brown, Black, Brown, Blue, White, and Blue

Friday: Blue, Black, Blue, Red, Red, and Pink

What is the mode of the colors above?

The color blue was worn 11 times during the week. All
other colors were worn with much less frequency in
comparison to the color blue.

Answer