PRACTICAL RESEARCH: PERFORMANCE TASK

I. DEFINE THE FOLLOWING AND GIVE ONE EXAMPLE

1. Exploratory Data Analysis
 Exploratory data analysis (EDA) is used by data scientists to analyze and investigate
data sets and summarize their main characteristics, often employing data visualization
methods. It helps determine how best to manipulate data sources to get the answers you
need, making it easier for data scientists to discover patterns, spot anomalies, test a
hypothesis, or check assumptions.
Example: Multidimensional scaling is an EDA that uses visual representations of
distances or similarities between sets of objects; It’s up to the user to interpret exactly
what the distances represent.
https://www.ibm.com/cloud/learn/exploratory-data-analysis
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/data-analysis/
2. Descriptive Data Analysis
 Descriptive statistics are used to describe the basic features of the data in a study. They
provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures. Together with simple
graphics analysis, they form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysis of data.
Example: If we had the results of 100 pieces of students' coursework, we may be
interested in the overall performance of those students. We would also be interested in
the distribution or spread of the marks. Descriptive statistics allow us to do this.
https://conjointly.com/kb/descriptive-statistics/
https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/descriptive-inferential-statistics.php

MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

a) Mean
 The mean, often called the average, of a numerical set of data, is simply the sum of the
data values divided by the number of values. This is also referred to as the arithmetic
mean. The mean is the balance point of a distribution.

Mean=
∑ of the values
the number of values
Example: Stephen has been working on programing and updating a Web site for his
company for the past 15 months. The following numbers represent the number of hours
Stephen has worked on this Web site for each of the past 7 months: 24, 25, 31, 50, 53,
66, 78
What is the mean (average) number of hours that Stephen worked on this Web
site each month?
Step 1: Add the numbers to determine the total number of hours he worked.
24 + 25 + 33 + 50 + 53 + 66 + 78 = 329
Step 2: Divide the total by the number of months.
329
=47
7
FOR GROUPED DATA
a) The Weighted Mean
 A weighted mean is a kind of average. Instead of each data point contributing
equally to the final mean, some data points contribute more “weight” than
others. If all the weights are equal, then the weighted mean equals the
arithmetic mean (the regular “average” you’re used to). Weighted means are
very common in statistics, especially when studying populations.
 To get the weighted mean, multiply each weight w by its matching value x, sum
that all up, and divide by the sum of weights.

Weighted Mean=
∑ wx
∑w
Example:
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/statistics-
definitions/weighted-mean/
b) Median
 The median is the number that falls in the middle position once the data has been
organized. Organized data means the numbers are arranged from smallest to largest or
from largest to smallest. The median for an odd number of data values is the value that
divides the data into two halves. If n represents the number of data values and n is an
n+1
odd number, then the median will be found in the position.
2
Example: Find the median of the following data: 12, 2, 16, 8, 14, 10, 6
Step 1: Organize the data, or arrange the numbers from smallest to largest.
2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16
Step 2: Since the number of data values is odd, the median will be found in the n plus
1 over 2 position.
n+1 7 +1 8
= = =4
2 2 2
Step 3: In this case, the median is the value that is found in the fourth position of the
organized data.
2, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16
c) Mode
 The mode of a set of data is simply the value that appears most frequently in the set.
Example: Find the mode of the following data:
76, 81, 79, 80, 78, 83, 77, 79, 82, 75
The number 79 appears twice, but all the other numbers appear only once. Since
79 appears with the greatest frequency, it is the mode of the data values.

https://www.riosalado.edu/web/oer/WRKDEV100-20011_INTER_0000_v1/
lessons/Mod05_MeanMedianMode.shtml
MEASURE OF DISPERSION
 a) The Range
 It is simply the difference between the maximum value and the minimum value
given in a data set.
Example: 1, 3,5, 6, 7 => Range = 7 -1= 6

b) Average (Mean) Deviation

c) Standard Deviation
d) Interpretation of the Standard Deviation
3. Inferential Analysis
a) Test of Significance of Diffirence (T-TEST)
b) Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
c) Test of Relationship

4. QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS IN EVALUATION

a) Nominal Scale
 Nominal Scale, also called the categorical variable scale, is defined as a scale used
for labeling variables into distinct classifications and doesn’t involve a quantitative
value or order. This scale is the simplest of the four variable measurement scales.
Calculations done on these variables will be futile as there is no numerical value of
the options.
Example: Gender, Political preferences, Place of residence
b) Ordinal Scale
 Ordinal Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale used to simply depict the
order of variables and not the difference between each of the variables. These
scales are generally used to depict non-mathematical ideas such as frequency,
satisfaction, happiness, a degree of pain, etc. It is quite straightforward to
remember the implementation of this scale as ‘Ordinal’ sounds similar to ‘Order’,
which is exactly the purpose of this scale.
Example: Status at workplace, tournament team rankings, order of product
quality, and order of agreement or satisfaction
c) Interval Scale
 Interval Scale is defined as a numerical scale where the order of the variables is
known as well as the difference between these variables. Variables that have
familiar, constant, and computable differences are classified using the Interval
scale. It is easy to remember the primary role of this scale too, ‘Interval’ indicates
‘distance between two entities’, which is what Interval scale helps in achieving.
Example: What is your family income?
What is the temperature in your city?
d) Ratio Scale
 Ratio Scale is defined as a variable measurement scale that not only produces the
order of variables but also makes the difference between variables known along
with information on the value of true zero. It is calculated by assuming that the
 variables have an option for zero, the difference between the two variables is the
same and there is a specific order between the options.
Example: What is your daughter’s current height?
What is your weight in kilograms?

https://www.questionpro.com/blog/nominal-ordinal-interval-ratio/

II. PRESENTING AND INTERPRETING DATA IN TABULAR AND GRAPHICAL

FORMS

5. Textual Presentation of Data

 The data gathered are presented in paragraph form.
 Data are written and read.
 It is a combination of texts and figures.
Example: Of the 150-sample interviewed, the following complaints were noted: 27 for
lack of books in the library, 25 for a dirty playground, 20 for lack of laboratory equipment,
17 for a not well-maintained university building.
6. Tabular Presentation of Data
 Method of presenting data using the statistical table.
 A systematic organization of data in columns and rows.

https://www.slideshare.net/rubyocenar/presentation-of-data-37973327

7. Graphical Method of Presenting Data

a) LINE GRAPH
 A line graph is a kind of graph that contains two or more individual data points
connected by lines. These individual data points represent a series of information,
which usually explains the relationship between the two axes (i.e. the x and y-axis)
on the graph.
 https://www.formpl.us/resources/graph-chart/line/

b) DOUBLE LINE GRAPH

 A double line graph is a line graph with two lines. A graph that compares two
different subjects over a period of time. A double line graph shows how things
change over a period of time. The double line graph shows two-line graphs within
one chart. Double line graphs are used to compare trends and patterns between two
subjects.

https://byjus.com/maths/line-graph/

c) BAR GRAPH OR BAR CHART

 A Bar Graph (also called Bar Chart) is a graphical display of data using bars of
different heights.
 https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/bar-graphs.html

d) VERTICAL BAR GRAPH

 A vertical bar graph is the most common type of bar chart and it is also referred to
as a column graph. It represents the numerical value of research variables using
vertical bars whose lengths are proportional to the quantities that they represent.

https://www.formpl.us/resources/graph-chart/bar/
https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/geometry/horizontal-bar-graph

e) PIE CHARTS OR CIRCLE GRAPHS

 A pie chart is usually used to show how parts of a whole compare to each other
and to the whole. The entire circle represents the total and the parts are
proportional to the amount of the total they represent.

https://www.slideshare.net/mjlobetos/lesson-26-presenting-and-interpreting-
data-in-tabular-and-graphical-froms
https://www.ieltsdeal.com/introduction-to-ielts-writing-graphs-and-charts-
similarities-and-differences-with-bonus-tips/intro-pie-chart/
III. USING STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES IN ANALYZING DATA
8. The Scatter Diagram
 A scatter diagram (Also known as scatter plot, scatter graph, and correlation chart) is a
tool for analyzing relationships between two variables for determining how closely the
two variables are related. One variable is plotted on the horizontal axis and the other is
plotted on the vertical axis. The pattern of their intersecting points can graphically show
relationship patterns.

https://online.visual-paradigm.com/knowledge/data-visualization/what-is-scatter-
diagram/

9. Types of Correlation
a) Simple Correlation
b) Multiple Correlation
c) Partial Correlation
10. The Coefficient of Correlation
a) The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)
 It is derived by Karl Pearson.
 It measures the linear relationship between two variables.
 Therefore, to be able to determine linearity, it is important that a scatter diagram
be constructed prior to the computation of the Pearson r.

b) The Spearman Rank Order Correlation Coefficient (Spearman Rho)

 The statistics being used on ranks or position is the Spearman Rank Correlation
Coefficient represented here by 𝒓 𝒔. It is a measure of relationship between two
variables by ranking the items or individuals under study according to their
position. It represents the extent to which the same individuals or events occupy
the same relative position on two variables.
11. Simple Linear Regression Analysis
  Linear regression is the simplest and commonly used statistical measure for prediction
studies. It is concerned with finding an equation that uses the known values of one or
more variables, called the independent or predictor variables, to estimate the unknown
value of quantitative variable called the dependent or criterion. It is a prediction when a
variable (Y) is dependent on a second variable (X) based on the regression equation of a
given set of data.
12. Characteristics of Linear Regression
13. Calculation of the Regression Equation
14. Simple Linear Regression in SPSS
15. Chi-Square
 The Chi square is the most commonly used method of comparing proportions. It is
particularly useful in tests evaluating a relationship between nominal or ordinal data.
Typical situations or settings are cases where persons, events or objects are grouped in
two or more nominal categories such as “Yes-No” responses, “Favor-Against-
Undecided” or class “A, B, C or D”.
 Chi-square analysis compares the observed frequencies of the responses with the expected
frequencies. It is a measure of actual divergence of the observed and expected frequencies.

https://www.slideshare.net/mjlobetos/lesson-27-using-statistical-techniques-in-
analyzing-data