Southern Philippines College

Julio Pacana Street, Licuan, Cagayan de Oro City

In Partial Fulfillment 0f The Course Requirement

DISASTER READINESS AND RISK REDUCTION MANAGEMENT

Submitted To:

Mr. Ariel G. Vistal

ADVISER

Submitted By:

Abdul Ali, Jeremy Kate P. Bajarla, Sophia Felicity Estelle Fiona D. Balbin,

Christian Jose Casamayor, Jerick M. Meriales, Abdul Hafiz Riga, Reem T. Suma
 CHAPTER 1

(TYPHOONS)

Introduction

Typhoons are the same weather phenomenon as hurricanes, and both called

tropical cyclones. In the western Pacific they are called typhoons, while in the eastern

Pacific and Atlantic Oceans they are called hurricanes.

Typhoons and hurricanes form in the exact same way -- they get their energy

from warm tropical water in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans in the Northern Hemisphere,

tropical cyclones rotate counterclockwise and in Southern Hemisphere, tropical

cyclones rotate clockwise.

The weakest tropical cyclones are called tropical depressions if a depression

intensifies such that its maximum sustained winds reach 39 miles per hour, the tropical

cyclone becomes a tropical storm and is given a name once a tropical cyclone reaches

maximum sustained winds of 74 miles per hour or higher, it is then classified as a

hurricane, or typhoon, depending upon where the storm originates in the world unlike

hurricanes, which have five categories of strength, typhoons only have two

classifications: typhoon winds, which are 74 mph to 149 mph, and super typhoon winds,

which are 150 mph and greater. A super typhoon is equivalent to an extremely strong

hurricane, such as a Category 4 or 5.Unlike the eastern Pacific and Atlantic hurricane

seasons, which run from late May through November, typhoon season in the western
Pacific runs all year round due to the warm water of the ocean during the entire year.

The peak of typhoon season, however, is from May through October.

A typhoon is a mature tropical cyclone that develops between 180° and 100°E in

the Northern Hemisphere. This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin,

and is the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, accounting for almost one-third of

the world's annual tropical cyclones. For organizational purposes, the northern Pacific

Ocean is divided into three regions: the eastern (North America to 140°W), central

(140°W to 180°), and western (180° to 100°E). The Regional Specialized Meteorological

Center (RSMC) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan, with other tropical cyclone

warning centers for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii (the Joint Typhoon Warning Center),

the Philippines and Hong Kong. While the RSMC names each system, the main name

list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons

each year.

A typhoon differs from a cyclone or hurricane only on the basis of location. A

hurricane is a storm that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean, a

typhoon occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, and a tropical cyclone occurs in the

south Pacific or Indian Ocean.

Within the northwestern Pacific, there are no official typhoon seasons as tropical

cyclones form throughout the year. Like any tropical cyclone, there are a few main

requirements for typhoon formation and development:

i. sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures,

ii. atmospheric instability,

iii. high humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere,

iv. enough Coriolis effect to develop a low pressure center,

v. a pre-existing low level focus or disturbance, and;

vi. a low vertical wind shear.

While the majority of storms form between June and November, a few

storms do occur between December and May (although tropical cyclone

formation is at a minimum during that time). On average, the northwestern

Pacific features the most numerous and intense tropical cyclones globally.

Like other basins, they are steered by the subtropical ridge towards the west

or northwest, with some systems recurving near and east of Japan. The

Philippines receive the brunt of the landfalls, with China and Japan being

impacted slightly less. Some of the deadliest typhoons in history have struck

China. Southern China has the longest record of typhoon impacts for the

region, with a thousand-year sample via documents within their archives.

Taiwan has received the wettest known typhoon on record for the northwest

Pacific tropical cyclone basins.

Typhoon Yolanda

Birth of a Typhoon

Typhoons need warm water near the equator to form. As solar energy heats the

water, an area of low pressure forms near the ocean's surface as warm, moist air rises

from the surface. Air with a higher pressure in the surrounding area moves into the low-

pressure area. When these winds combine with forces created by the earth's rotation,

the result is a rotating storm (counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere; clockwise

in the Southern Hemisphere). As winds increase and clouds spin, a typhoon acquires

an eye -- a central low-pressure region that's clear and calm.

Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale
Effects of Typhoon

 Primary effects occur as a result of the natural disaster itself, such as the

collapse of buildings and houses, when wind and precipitation strike in

an area. The primary effect is often the most devastating because they

have immediate consequences, and fatal effects that could harm the lives

of thousands of people.

 Secondary effects occur as a result of primary effects. For example, the

loss of electricity after electrical lines have been broken down, or the

disruption of services, such as schools. These damages are headaches

for the government to fix, and often take several months to restore.

 Tertiary effects are long-term effects that usually affect the people in a

specific area for a long time. An example of a tertiary effect is the

economics impact that the storms have for the government.

1. Strong winds: This is one of the most devastating and the most consistent

negative effect of a typhoon. Strong winds can easily cause buildings to collapse,

as well as destroying roads and infrastructure. Strong winds could also damage

agriculture by blowing away seeds and plants, making the crops unable to grow.

2. Salty Water: Since typhoons occurs on ocean bodies and have very strong

winds. Typhoons often bring salty sea water that can harm the crops of the

farmlands. This can also cause leakage of electricity as salt water is really

conductive.
3. Waves: Strong waves will be created by a typhoon when it strikes. The waves

could cause shipwrecks, and even damage land because the waves could reach

as high as 20 meters. This could also cause shoreline erosion because the

waves would wash away the nutrients in the soil.

4. Torrential rain: Large amounts of precipitation will follow with the typhoon. This

could cause flooding, the damaging of crops, and many more.

5. Flood: This effect is caused by the torrential rainfall, which occurs as a direct

result of the typhoon itself. As mentioned earlier, flooding will ruin crop fields,

collapse small buildings, and can even take lives.

6. Landslide: Landslides are caused by the precipitation that is present when a

typhoon hits an area. Landslides occur when large amounts of water has settled

on mountain tops. The intense pressure of the water pressing down, causes soil

and rock to slide off from where they were.

7. Pests and Epidemic diseases:Diseases and pests are often found after floods

and further damage crops. This is another very devastating effect that threatens

the lives of the people in typhoon damaged areas. Diseases like cholera

run rampant because of the perfect conditions of spreading diseases. People

especially in poorer areas can not rid the disease because of the lack of medical

support. Furthermore, the amount of money that has to be put into buying a cure

can end up causing hundreds of thousands of dollars.

 CHAPTER 2

(FLOODINGS)

Introduction

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land that is usually dry. In the

sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods

are an area of study of the discipline hydrology and are of significant concern

in agriculture, civil engineering and public health.

Flooding may occur as an overflow of water from water bodies, such as

a river, lake, or ocean, in which the water overtops or breaks levees, resulting in some

of that water escaping its usual boundaries or it may occur due to an accumulation of

rainwater on saturated ground in an area flood. While the size of a lake or other body of

water will vary with seasonal changes in precipitation and snow melt, these changes in

size are unlikely to be considered significant unless they flood property or drown

domestic animals.

Floods can also occur in rivers when the flow rate exceeds the capacity of

the river channel, particularly at bends or meanders in the waterway. Floods often

cause damage to homes and businesses if they are in the natural flood plains of rivers.

While riverine flood damage can be eliminated by moving away from rivers and other

bodies of water, people have traditionally lived and worked by rivers because the land is

usually flat and fertile and because rivers provide easy travel and access to commerce

and industry.
 Some floods develop slowly, while others such as flash floods can develop in just

a few minutes and without visible signs of rain. Additionally, floods can be local,

impacting a neighborhood or community, or very large, affecting entire river basins.

Flood in Metro Manila (aerial View)

Predicting River Flooding

Floods can be such devastating disasters that anyone can be affected at almost

any time. As we have seen, when water falls on the surface of the Earth, it has to go

somewhere. In order to reduce the risk due to floods, three main approaches are taken

to flood prediction. Statistical studies can be undertaken to attempt to determine the

probability and frequency of high discharges of streams that cause flooding. Floods can

be modeled and maps can be made to determine the extent of the possible of flooding

when it occurs in the future. And, since the main causes of flooding are abnormal

amounts of rainfall and sudden thawing of snow or ice, storms and snow levels can be

monitored to provide short-term flood prediction.

Effects

PrimaryEffects

Again, the primary effects of floods are those due to direct contact with the

flood waters. As seen in the video last lecture, water velocities tend to be high in

floods. As discharge increases velocity increases.

 With higher velocities, streams are able to transport larger particles as

suspended load. Such large particles include not only rocks and sediment, but,

during a flood, could include such large objects as automobiles, houses and

bridges.
  Massive amounts of erosion can be accomplished by flood waters. Such erosion

can undermine bridge structures, levees, and buildings causing their collapse.

 Water entering human built structures cause water damage. Even with minor

flooding of homes, furniture is ruined, floors and walls are damaged, and

anything that comes in contact with the water is likely to be damaged or

lost. Flooding of automobiles usually results in damage that cannot easily be

repaired.

 The high velocity of flood waters allows the water to carry more sediment as

suspended load. When the flood waters retreat, velocity is generally much lower

and sediment is deposited. After retreat of the floodwaters everything is usually

covered with a thick layer of stream deposited mud, including the interior of

buildings.

 Flooding of farmland usually results in crop loss. Livestock, pets, and other

animals are often carried away and drown.

 Humans that get caught in the high velocity flood waters are often drowned by

the water.

 Floodwaters can concentrate garbage, debris, and toxic pollutants that can

cause the secondary effects of health hazards.

Secondary and Tertiary Effects

Remember that secondary effects are those that occur because of the primary

effects and tertiary effects are the long term changes that take place. Among the
secondary effects of a flood are:

 Disruption of services -

o Drinking water supplies may become polluted, especially if sewerage

treatment plants are flooded. This may result in disease and other health

effects, especially in under developed countries.

o Gas and electrical service may be disrupted.

o Transportation systems may be disrupted, resulting in shortages of food

and clean-up supplies. In under developed countries food shortages often

lead to starvation.

 Long - term effects (tertiary effects)-

o Location of river channels may change as the result of flooding, new

channels develop, leaving the old channels dry.

o Sediment deposited by flooding may destroy farm land (although silt

deposited by floodwaters could also help to increase agricultural

productivity).

o Jobs may be lost due to the disruption of services, destruction of business,

etc. (although jobs may be gained in the construction industry to help

rebuild or repair flood damage).

o Insurance rates may increase.

o Corruption may result from misuse of relief funds.

o Destruction of wildlife habitat.

 CHAPTER 3

(LANDSLIDES)

The term landslide or, less frequently, landslip, refers to several forms of mass

wasting that include a wide range of ground movements, such as rock falls, deep-

seated slope failures, mudflow sand debris flows. Landslides occur in a variety of

environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients:

from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater, in which case they are

called submarine landslides. Gravity is the primary driving force for a landslide to occur,

but there are other factors affecting slope stability which produce specific conditions that

make a slope prone to failure. In many cases, the landslide is triggered by a specific

event (such as a heavy rainfall, an earthquake, a slope cut to build a road, and many

others), although this is not always identifiable. A landslide is defined as the movement

of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of "mass

wasting," which denotes any down-slope movement of soil and rock under the direct

influence of gravity.

The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement: falls, topples,

slides, spreads, and flows. These are further subdivided by the type of geologic material

(bedrock, debris, or earth). Debris flows (commonly referred to as mudflows or

mudslides) and rock falls are examples of common landslide types.

Almost every landslide has multiple causes. Slope movement occurs when

forces acting down-slope (mainly due to gravity) exceed the strength of the earth

materials that compose the slope. Causes include factors that increase the effects of

down-slope forces and factors that contribute to low or reduced strength. Landslides
 can be initiated in slopes already on the verge of movement by rainfall, snowmelt,

changes in water level, stream erosion, change in ground water, earthquakes, volcanic

activity, disturbance by human activities, or any combination of these factors.

Earthquake shaking and other factors can also induce landslides underwater. These

landslides are called submarine landslides. Submarine landslides sometimes cause

tsunamis that damage coastal areas.

Landslides occur when the slope (or a portion of it) undergoes some processes

that change its condition from stable to unstable. This is essentially due to a decrease in

the shear strength of the slope material, to an increase in the shear stress borne by the

material, or to a combination of the two. A change in the stability of a slope can be

caused by a number of factors, acting together or alone. Natural causes of landslides

include:

 saturation by rain water infiltration, snow melting, or glaciers melting;

 rising of groundwater or increase of pore water pressure (e.g. due to aquifer recharge in

rainy seasons, or by rain water infiltration);

 increase of hydrostatic pressure in cracks and fractures;

 loss or absence of vertical vegetative structure, soil nutrients, and soil structure (e.g.

after a wildfire – a fire in forests lasting for 3–4 days);

 erosion of the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves;

 physical and chemical weathering (e.g. by repeated freezing and thawing, heating and

cooling, salt leaking in the groundwater or mineral dissolution);

 ground shaking caused by earthquakes, which can destabilize the slope directly (e.g. by

inducing soil liquefaction), or weaken the material and cause cracks that will eventually

produce a landslide;

 volcanic eruptions;

Landslides are aggravated by human activities, such as:

 deforestation, cultivation and construction;

 vibrations from machinery or traffic;

 blasting and mining;

 earthwork (e.g. by altering the shape of a slope, or imposing new loads);

 in shallow soils, the removal of deep-rooted vegetation that binds colluvium to bedrock;

 agricultural or forestry activities (logging), and urbanization, which change the amount of

water infiltrating the soil.

Effects of Flood

Earthflow

The Costa della Gaveta earthflow in Potenza, Italy. Even though it moves

just some and is hardly visible, this landslide causes progressive damage to the

national road, the national highway, a flyover and several houses that were built

on it.

A rock slide in Guerrero, Mexico

 An Earthflow is the downslope movement of mostly fine-grained material.

Earthflows can move at speeds within a very wide range, from as low as 1 mm/yr

(0.039 in/yr) to 20 km/h (12.4 mph). Though these are a lot like mudflows, overall

they are more slow moving and are covered with solid material carried along by

flow from within. They are different from fluid flows which are more rapid. Clay,

fine sand and silt, and fine-grained, pyroclastic material are all susceptible to

earthflows. The velocity of the earthflow is all dependent on how much water

content is in the flow itself: the higher the water content in the flow, the higher the

velocity will be.

Debris slide

A debris slide is a type of slide characterized by the chaotic movement of

rocks, soil, and debris mixed with water and/or ice. They are usually triggered by

the saturation of thickly vegetated slopes which results in an incoherent mixture

of broken timber, smaller vegetation and other debris. Steep coastal cliffs can be

caused by catastrophic debris avalanches. These have been common on the

submerged flanks of ocean island volcanos such as the Hawaiian Islands and

the Cape Verde Islands.

Debris slides generally start with big rocks that start at the top of the slide

and begin to break apart as they slide towards the bottom.

Blockade of Hunza River

Rock avalanche

A rock avalanche, sometimes referred to as sturzstrom, is a type of large

and fast-moving landslide. It is rarer than other types of landslides and therefore

poorly understood. It exhibits typically a long run-out, flowing very far over a low

angle, flat, or even slightly uphill terrain. The mechanisms favoring the long

runout can be different, but they typically result in the weakening of the sliding

mass as the speed increases.

Shallow landslide

Shallow landslides can often happen in areas that have slopes with high

permeable soils on top of low permeable bottom soils. The low permeable,

bottom soils trap the water in the shallower, high permeable soils creating high

water pressure in the top soils. As the top soils are filled with water and become

heavy, slopes can become very unstable and slide over the low permeable

bottom soils. Say there is a slope with silt and sand as its top soil and bedrock as

its bottom soil. During an intense rainstorm, the bedrock will keep the rain

trapped in the top soils of silt and sand. As the topsoil becomes saturated and

heavy, it can start to slide over the bedrock and become a shallow landslide. R.

H. Campbell did a study on shallow landslides on Santa Cruz Island, California.

He notes that if permeability decreases with depth, a perched water table may

develop in soils at intense precipitation. When pore water pressures are sufficient

to reduce effective normal stress to a critical level, failure occurs.

Deep-seated landslide

Landslide of soil and regolith in Pakistan

Deep-seated landslides usually involve

deep regolith, weathered rock,

and/or bedrock and include large slope failure

associated with translational, rotational, or

complex movement. This type of landslide potentially occurs in an tectonic active

region like Zagros Mountain in Iran. These typically move slowly, only several

meters per year, but occasionally move faster. They tend to be larger than

shallow landslides and form along a plane of weakness such as

a fault or bedding plane. They can be visually identified by concave scarps at the

top and steep areas at the toe.