1

1 A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON THE PRECISION AND ACCURACY OF IN-LAB

2 AND ON-SITE MEASUREMENT OF PAVEMENT ACOUSTIC ABSORPTION
3
4
5 Filippo G. Praticò, Corresponding Author
6 DIIES Department, University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria
7 Via Graziella Feo di Vito, Reggio Calabria, Italy, 89122
8 Tel.: 0965.1693230 Fax: 0965.1693247; Email: filippo.pratico@unirc.it
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10 Rosario Fedele
11 DIIES Department, University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria
12 Via Graziella Feo di Vito, Reggio Calabria, Italy, 89122
13 Tel.: 0965.1693405 Fax: 0965.1693247; Email: rosario.fedele@unirc.it
14
15 Domenico Vizzari
16 DIIES Department, University Mediterranea of Reggio Calabria
17 Via Graziella Feo di Vito, Reggio Calabria, Italy, 89122
18 Tel.: 0965.1693405 Fax: 0965.1693247; Email: domenico06@hotmail.it
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20
21
22 Word count: 4,074 words text + 6tables/figures x 250 words (each) =5,574 words
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24 Submission date: 07.31.2016
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25 ABSTRACT
26 As is well known, pavement features affect traffic noise. In more detail, rolling noise depends on
27 generation factors and acoustic absorption. This latter can be assessed through in-lab
28 (ISO 10534-2) and/or on-site (ISO 13472-1; ISO 13472-2) tests but several issues arise when
29 comparing measures carried out according to different measurement methods.
30 Consequently, the objectives and scope of the study described into this paper were to compare
31 different methods to assess the acoustic properties of a pavement in order to derive information to
32 use in practical applications. The following devices were used: in-lab Kundt tube; on-site Kundt
33 tube; Adrienne device. Based on measurements, absorption spectra were derived. Analyses and
34 results focused also on composite indicators, first-pick frequencies and objective functions. In-lab
35 Kundt tube emerges as a device quite precise and accurate while on-site Kundt tube and Adrienne
36 prove to have great potential. Outcomes can benefit both practitioners and researchers.
37 Future research will address a number of issues arose during experiments and analyses in the
38 pursuit of a better understanding of phenomena and reasons which emerged from the study.
39

40 Keywords: Transportation infrastructures, acoustic absorption, bituminous mixture, pavement,

41 precision, accuracy.
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42 1. INTRODUCTION
43 As is well known, noise pollution is one of the most important environmental problems in
44 Europe (see (1), (2), (3), (4), (5)). Power unit and tire-road contact are the main sources, and in
45 the mid-to-high speed range (above 40 km/h-80 km/h) the main contributor to traffic noise is
46 rolling noise (6). These phenomena generate acoustical pressures which generate loudness (see
47 (7), (8), (9), (10)). Tire/road noise may vary more than 15 dB, based on tire and pavement type,
48 and noise reduction at the source can be more cost-effective than treatments on the buildings or on
49 the propagation path (e.g., noise barriers). Generation factors (pavement texture, tire type, etc.)
50 and acoustic absorption govern rolling noise (11). In more detail, pavement composition,
51 volumetric and surface proprieties affect generation, absorption and propagation (8), (12), (13),
52 (14), (15), (16), (17)).
53 Based on the above, road agencies require satisfactory levels of acoustic absorption, which
54 are usually quite appreciable in porous asphalt concretes.
55 Acoustic absorption can be assessed through tests which are carried out in-lab (ISO 10534-2: in–
56 lab Kundt tube, KL) or on-site (ISO 13472-1: on-site Kundt tube, KS; ISO 13472-2: Adrienne
57 device, AD). It has an outstanding importance because of health issues and because of the growing
58 diffusion of porous asphalt concretes ((18), (19), (20)). KL works on cores or samples and derives
59 the sound absorption coefficient based on normal sound incidence. The method builds on the
60 standing wave pattern of a plane wave in a tube. This latter is generated by the superposition of an
61 incident sinusoidal plane wave with the plane wave reflected from the test object. KS works
62 according to the same principle of the in-lab Kundt and it is suitable for measuring in situ. Finally,
63 the extended surface method (AD) builds on the comparison between direct and reflected sound
64 waves. It implies the use of the transfer function between the output of a signal generator and the
65 output of a microphone close to the surface under investigation.
66 There is no common agreement on the best measurement method and different methods
67 and devices can be used. Each one implies different issues, time consumption, and traffic
68 restrictions.
69
70 2. OBJECTIVES
71 Based on the above, the objectives and scope of the study described into this paper were the
72 following:
73 1. To compare three methods for assessing the acoustic absorption of a pavement: Adrienne
74 (ISO 13472-1, AD); in-lab Kundt tube (ISO 10534-2, KL); on-site Kundt tube (ISO13472-2, KS);
75 2. To study the objective (error) function that allows better comparing experimental and
76 theoretical spectra. This entails comparing the least square method and new algorithms, for the
77 three different methods;
78 3. To fit the theoretical model to experimental data, without boundary conditions, i.e.,
79 deriving tortuosity, resistivity, thickness, and porosity without imposing ranges they belong to.
80 Additionally, to carry out the fitting with boundary conditions, i.e., using as input the real
81 thickness and the effective porosity and deriving the remaining two parameters;
82 4. To identify which device (out of the three ones involved in the experiments) best fits the
83 theoretical model in terms of sound absorption spectra (accuracy).
84
85 3. DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
86 Figure 1 focuses on Tasks and provides more details on modelling process.
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Task 3: Modeling Task 1 and Task 2 (Experiments)

Modelling of absorption coefficient On-site tests (AD, KS)

(a0S)
Objective functions (frequencies, type)

Coring
In-lab tests (tex, Ωex)
Model implementation using MATLAB

Program execution (a0, a0tr) Acoustic in-lab tests

(a0S, KL)

No
Analyses / Assessment
(a0, a0tr, a0s)

Yes Task 4

Legend and symbols:

 tex: actual thickness of the layer.
 Ωex: actual porosity of the layer;
 a0S: spectrum of the absorption coefficient as per measurements carried out through a device
(e.g., KL);
 a0: spectrum of the absorption coefficient derived according to the theoretical model,
through an optimization process in which the four main variables were set “free”, i.e.,
without constrains;
 a0tr: spectrum of the absorption coefficient derived according to the theoretical model,
through an optimization process in which two out of the four main variables were
constrained (t=tex; =ex);
 AD: Adrienne device (ISO 13472-1, see also (21));
 KS: on site Kundt device (ISO 13472-2, method for reflective surfaces);
 KL: in-laboratory Kundt device (ISO 10534-2, see also (22)).
87 FIGURE 1 Main Tasks.
88
89 Task 1 focused on on–site investigations according to ISO 13472-1 and ISO 13472-2. A
90 motorway, located in Southern Italy was investigated (20 sections, 3 devices). Measurements were
91 carried out on the hard shoulder lane and on the inside lane, but not on the outside (overtaking)
92 lane. On average, the surface layer main characteristics were the following: nominal maximum
93 aggregate size: 16 mm; asphalt binder content (percent, by total weight of mixture): 4.7 %; air
94 voids content: 20 %; clogging not noticed. For each device, operating time and performance were
95 analysed. In Task 2, after core extraction (from the sections corresponding to the on-site
96 measurements described above), cores were labelled and transported to the laboratory. There, each
97 core was preliminary cleaned, swept and controlled (for imperfections on the lower face).
98 Afterwards it underwent non-destructive tests (in-lab Kundt ISO 10534-2; effective porosity
99 ASTM D6752-11; thickness EN 12697-36:2003). Note that in Figure 1 on site and in-lab tests are
100 described. They allowed deriving absorption spectra (aos), pavement porosity (Ωex) and thickness
101 (tex). Task 3 dealt with data analysis (absorption spectra). The overall modelling (tire-pavement
102 interaction, see (23)) and the modelling of the absorption coefficient (based on material properties,
103 see (24)) were carried out. Afterwards, the following phases were carried out: i) modelling of
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104 objectives function (which allow data fitting through the minimization of the errors); ii) software
105 implementation; iii) program execution.
106 Finally, in Task 4 experimental spectra were compared with the ones derived from the theoretical
107 model.
108
109 4. MODELING, IMPLEMENTATION AND PRELIMINARY ANALYSES
110 In terms of theoretical modelling, note that the sound pressure level depends on the acoustic
111 absorption coefficient based on the Van der Pol formula (8). For the absorption coefficient, note
112 that the main parameters that define the acoustic coupling between the two phases that comprise a
113 porous material (i.e., porous asphalt concrete ) are: porosity (Ω, dimensionless), resistivity (Rs,
114 Ns/m4), tortuosity (q2, dimensionless), thickness (t, e.g., m), and viscous and thermal factors.
115 Porosity refers to connected voids.
116 Table 1 summarizes the state of the art in terms of their effect on the resulting spectrum of the
117 absorption coefficient of dense-graded friction courses (DGFC) or porous European mixes (PEM).
118
119 TABLE 1 Main parameters: their impact and reference values
Reference values based
Input Main effect on the absorption a(f) of a on literature
Measurability
Parameter bituminous mixture
DGFC PEM
The higher the thickness is the lower the
Thickness frequency of the first maximum is. Easy to
2-4 4-6
(t, 0.01m) Absorption tends to be lower and measure
smoothed.
The higher the porosity is, the higher the
Porosity Quite easy to
absorption coefficient is. Maximum 4–8 16 - 30
(Ω, %) measure
frequency does not depend on porosity.
Resistivity The higher the resistivity, the lower the Quite difficult 1,000 - 600,000 -
(Rs, Ns/m4) maxima, the smoother the curve. to measure 60,000 30,000,000
The higher the tortuosity is, the lower the
Tortuosity frequency of maximum is. The impact Quite difficult
1 - 10
(q2) on the maximum value of absorption is to measure
usually quite negligible.
For low values of RT, the higher the
total resistance is, the higher the maxima
Total are. For RT higher than about 100
resistance Ns/m3, the behaviour is opposite. If, Ω, See above See above
(RT=Rs*t) RT, q2 are constant, the “shape” is
constant but the maximum frequency
depends on t (the lower, the higher).
120
121 Based on the values of t, Ω, q2 described above, Rs (Table 1), this implies that the first point of
122 maximum (frequency) is expected to vary from 0.4 to 1.6 kHz, while the first maximum
123 (absorption coefficient) is expected to range from 0.5 to 1.0 for PEMs and from 0.02 to 0.18 for
124 DGFCs. Given the values of t, Ω, and q2 listed above, it appears very relevant to highlight the
125 crucial role played by the product Rs·t = Rt (Ns/m3) in terms of max a0 of a wearing course.
126 For example, if t = 0.03 m, , Ω = 4-8 %, q2 = 2-6, then values of max a0 ≤ 0.2 can be obtained
127 only for Rt > 20 KN/m3, i.e., for Rs > 600 KN/m4 (see Table 1).
128 As is well known, objective functions are needed to fit functions (hereafter termed a0) to data
129 (hereafter termed a0S). For objective functions, note that when comparing theoretical and
130 experimental spectra, another issue refers to the method used, because of the well-known tendency
131 of the three measurement methods not to provide significant outputs close to the origin. For the
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132 given i-th frequency, fi, (e.g. 800 Hz), the a0 (f) derived from four main parameters (t, Ω, q2, Rs)
133 may be compared with the a0S(f) observed (measured, as mentioned above, e.g., through the on-
134 site Kundt device, KS). To this end, in the following, these definitions apply (see Figure 1):
135 i) a0S is the spectrum of the absorption coefficient as per measurements carried out through a
136 device (e.g., KL);
137 ii) a0(fi, t, Ω, q2, Rs) is the spectrum of the absorption coefficient derived according to the
138 theoretical model (24), through an optimization process in which the four main variables were set
139 “free”, i.e., without constrains;
140 iii) a0tr=a0(fi, tex, ex, q2ex, Rsex) is the spectrum of the absorption coefficient derived
141 according to the theoretical model (24), through an optimization process in which two out of the
142 four main variables were constrained (t=tex; =ex).
143 When solved in terms of least square method, the objective function of the over determined
144 system, of four or less unknowns and much more than four equations, would be based on the
145 square of the a0 differences.
146 As mentioned above, the theoretical model and measurements do not fit properly in given ranges
147 (e.g., very low frequencies). Given that, the following additional class of objective functions is
148 considered in this study:
149 
1  min a02  a02S   a
2 n1 2
0  a02S 
2 n2
 (1)

150 with n1 and n2 natural numbers. The rationale behind the formula above builds on the higher
151 reliability and soundness of high values with respect to low values.
152 In terms of metric and accuracy, note that precision refers to random errors while accuracy often
153 refers to systematic errors (i.e., statistical bias), which is the meaning herein intended. Note that
154 ISO 5725-1 refers to systematic errors in terms of trueness, while it associates the term accuracy to
155 trueness and precision.
156 Assessing the accuracy of a measurement method /technique (e.g. on site Kundt tube) is a very
157 difficult task. Different devices may give different spectra for the same pavement and considering
158 a method better than another one, based on use or specifications, may be incoherent and lead to
159 wrong decisions in noise management.
160 The following tentative method is here proposed and applied. On the one hand, by fitting the
161 experimental data without imposing an upper and lower specification limit to each of the four
162 parameters (unknowns free, i.e., t, q2, Ω, Rs free), a given spectrum of the absorption coefficient
163 can be obtained (corresponding to a given objective function, as per equation 1). On the other
164 hand, under the hypotheses of Ω= ΩEX, t=tEX (i.e., thickness and porosity experimentally
165 determined based on cores extracted from the pavement section), different values of the remaining
166 unknowns (Rs, q2) are obtained for the objective function chosen. Therefore: i) when, based on the
167 optimization, unrealistic values of q2 and Rs or/and excessive increase of the objective function
168 (eq. 1) are obtained, then experimental data may be wrong (e.g. the data are unrealistic because the
169 device does not work properly), and viceversa; b) if a given device data imply a bias in t or Ω
170 (experimental data), then it is possible to conclude that there is a given bias in terms of working
171 principle or/and measurement (for the particular case under observation).
172 In terms of software implementation, note that MATLAB® was used: i) to implement the
173 theoretical model above; ii) to fit the theoretical model to data, for the given i-th road section, for
174 the given method (KS, KL, AD).
175 In summarizing, Task 4 (analysis and inferences) focused on the following analyses: i) assessing
176 boundary conditions based on laboratory tests and on site tests; ii) deriving the best solution with
177 respect to the AD, or KL, or KS; iii) comparing results (tortuosity, air resistivity, porosity,
178 thickness) and errors (minimization process); iv) assessing the accuracy and precision of each
179 method.
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180 Preliminary simulations focused on the derivation of the four parameters indicated above (Rs, Ω, t,
181 q2) without considering experimental results (i.e., Ωex and tex).
182 On the contrary, the successive step focused on the derivation of three out of four and two out of
183 four parameters.
184
185 5. RESULTS AND OBSERVATIONS
186 In terms of objective functions, Figures 2 and 3, and Table 2 illustrate the main results. Figure 2
187 refers to the simulations carried out to analyse the best objective function to use in association
188 with a given frequency range. In particular it shows AD data fitting. The least square method (left)
189 is compared to equation 1 (n1 = n2 = 4, right).
190 It may be observed that the introduction of an average-based multiplier (equation 2) optimizes the
191 reliability of results. Indeed, when using objective functions such as the one depicted in eq. (2),
192 porosity (as a result of minimization process) approaches the experimental data (i.e., Ωex).
193  2 4
 2  a02  a0 S   a 2
0  a02S 
4
(2)

194 Importantly, the comparison with KS and KL data strengthens the observations above. The lesson
195 learned is as follows: neglecting or undervaluing lower data (i.e., the ones which refer to lower
196 frequency) through average-based objective functions can help optimize data versus the
197 theoretical model fitting.

Least square method Equation 2

198
199 FIGURE 2 Comparing least square method (left) and average-based method (right).
200
201

202
203 FIGURE 3 True value (tr) versus experimental value (s), for the main parameters (t, q2, ,
204 Rs, a) for the each device (AD, KS, KL).
205
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206

207
208 FIGURE 4 Average absorption coefficient (AV, left y-axis) and coefficient of variation (CV,
209 right y-axis) vs. frequency (Hz, x-axis), for each device (AD, KS, KL).
210
211
212 Simulations like the ones depicted in Figure 2 were carried out many times in different sections,
213 aiming at fitting of the theoretical model to data through the least square method or the average-
214 based method (equation 2).
215 Table 2 and Figure 3 refer to the analyses carried out in terms of method accuracy.
216 Table 2.a refers to the absolute value of the difference between “true (tr)” values and “observed”
217 data (e.g., │ftr-fs│).
218 Figure 3 focuses on how data (e.g. thickness, ts) and model parameters (e.g. thickness, ttr) relate.
219 The following parameters are considered: thickness (t), porosity (Ω), tortuosity (q2), resistivity
220 (Rs), and absorption coefficient. s stands for experimental measured, tr stands for true, i.e.
221 obtained through the theoretical model. Under these assumptions, tr-s pertains to a device
222 accuracy.
223 Based on results, it may be observed that (see Figure 3 and Table 2):
224  In-lab Kundt tube tends to underestimate thickness, as well as KS and AD. On average, for
225 thickness, Adrienne and KL perform the best and KS performs the worst. This might be due to KS
226 drawbacks in terms of hidden surface of the pavement (the one the waves do not “see”).
227  Overall, for porosity, KL performs the best while AD the worst (AD overestimates the
228 porosity).
229  For tortuosity, note that AD performs better than KL and KS.
230  For resistivity, note that AD and KS perform better than KL.
231  By referring to the detection of the (first) maximum point (frequency and value), which
232 has an outstanding impact on all the remaining frequencies, note that the differences among the
233 three devices seem relevant only in terms of frequency (KL and KS perform better than AD).
234  The frequency of maximum (maximum point) of AD is usually lower than the
235 corresponding value for KS and KL. On average KL offers the best estimate of the point of
236 maximum together with KS. In more detail, for the first maximum (aomax), note that AD and KL
237 perform better than KS;
238 In summarizing it is possible to observe that:
239  The in-lab procedure (KL) can entail: i) a destructive pavement procedure, being the core
240 extracted from the pavement; ii) the separation between the two layers (i.e., porous asphalt
241 concrete and binder course); iii) the treatment of the bottom surface of the porous asphalt concrete
242 (in terms of milling and/or planning through plastiline or similar materials; iv) The treatment of
243 the lateral surface in order to fill/smooth possible irregularities. This notwithstanding, KL is quite
244 accurate.
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245  On-site Kundt tube clearly diverges from the expected values in the low frequency domain
246 (f < 600 Hz). Its accuracy is neither the best nor the worst. Test duration is low.
247  Adrienne tends to underestimate thickness and overestimate porosity. It offers the best
248 estimate of a0, a wider range of frequency, and the test is very time consuming.
249
250 Even if further studies and analyses are required, this occurrence seems to imply that for KL the
251 quite appreciable error in porosity is balanced through a variation in the remaining two input
252 parameters (i.e., q2 and Rs). This fact finally implies the lowest error and probably it denotes the
253 best accuracy.
254
255 TABLE 2 Main statistics for each range of frequency (averages).
Adrienne On-site Kundt In-lab Kundt
Range [Hz] 400 - 630 800 - 1250 1600 - 2500 400 - 630 800 - 1250 400 - 630 800 - 1250

Average 0.46 0.58 0.54 0.28 0.55 0.29 0.42

St dev 0.09 0.10 0.07 0.08 0.12 0.13 0.14

CV=St
0.19 0.18 0.14 0.31 0.22 0.45 0.33
dev/average
ftr - fts 346 10 7

256
257
258 For precision, note that the hypothesis that underlies this analysis is the homogeneity of the
259 surface. Figure 4 and Table 2 illustrate main results and analyses carried out. In more detail, Table
260 2 refers to the absorption coefficient obtained for the three devices under analysis. Averages and
261 coefficients of variation per given range of frequency are reported. This table is very relevant for
262 practical purposes, because contract specifications define thresholds per frequency range.
263 At 250 Hz, note that the in-lab device (KL) provides the lowest value (absorption coefficient about
264 0.1) while the on-site Kundt tube provides the highest value (about 0.3). Furthermore note that the
265 standard deviation is the lowest (highest precision) for KS.
266 In contrast, for AD, the lowest precision is obtained.
267 When different frequencies are considered, the following observations may be pointed out: i) the
268 precision approaches lower values in the range 250-800 Hz, while it increases in 800-1600 Hz; ii)
269 KL and KS usually yield values of absorption which are lower than the ones of AD.
270 By referring to the highest and lowest values of the absorption spectra (peaks), for each frequency,
271 for each device, note that all the devices yield an absolute maximum at about 800-1250 Hz. It may
272 be observed that the lower the frequency is the higher the discrepancy among the three outputs
273 becomes.
274 Note that the standard deviation yields that the three devices are quite comparable in terms of
275 precision (0.08–0.14). Importantly, in terms of coefficient of variation in 400-630 Hz, KL (in-lab
276 measurements) is less precise than the remaining two devices (KS, AD).
277
278 6. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
279 For the three devices under analysis, based on data analyzed, Table 3 illustrates the summary of
280 analyses. Practical (e.g., amax, fmax, OT) and theoretical (t, O, q2, Rs) points of view are
281 synergistically considered.
282
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283 TABLE 3 Summary (U: Understimated; O: Overstimated;   : good, fair, poor

284 estimate; t: thickness; Ω: porosity; q2: tortuosity; Rs: resistivity; OT: operating time of the
285 device (hours per test).
t Ω q2 Rs amax fmax ERR  CV OT
AD U O O O O U  0.1 – 0.2 0.1 - 0.4 1
KS U O O O O   0.0 – 0.2 0.1 - 0.4 0.5
KL U O O O    0.1 – 0.5 0.3 – 0.5 3
286
287 The following conclusions may be drawn.
288 When fitting spectral data, the least square method overrates the importance of low frequencies
289 and originates an unsatisfactory fitting of the peak frequency and value. Based on this study,
290 attention must be essentially focused to the fitting of the “pick(s)” (maximum(a) point(s)).
291 Equations set up to this purpose proved to work properly regardless of the type of device used.
292 The on-site Adrienne method builds on the assumption that the quantity of energy reflected by the
293 pavement surface depends on its acoustic absorption. It performs measurements in 0-4000 Hz and
294 it is quite time-consuming. It has a coefficient of variation of 0.1-0.4 (0.1-0.2, if averaged values
295 are considered) and provides a good estimate of thickness, tortuosity, resistivity and maximum.
296 The on-site Kundt tube builds on the fact that pressures into the tube are affected by the sample
297 absorption and it is supposed to work properly only for reflective surfaces (as per standard
298 specifications). It provides a straightforward tool for practitioners, its coefficient of variation
299 ranges from 0.1 to 0.4 (or 0.2-0.3, for averaged values) and its estimate of porosity is better than
300 the one of AD, even if worse than in the KL.
301 In-lab impedance tube is based on the same principle used in the on-site Kundt tube and it is quite
302 time-consuming (due to coring, transport, drying, and finally core fixing in the tube). Several
303 issues may arise in fixing the core inside the tube, generating false responses. It has the worst
304 coefficient of variation (0.3-0.5), but builds on the best estimate of porosity and resistivity. Even if
305 further studies and analyses are required, based on the analyses of errors, it seems to achieve the
306 best accuracy.
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