CAN DO

TEST

1
 CONTENTS

TENSES……………………………………………………………………………………… 01

NOUNS AND NOUN DETERMINERS………………....………………………………… 21

TAG QUESTIONS………………………………………...……………………………….... 29

VERBS WITH 2 OBJECTS………………………………………………………………… 31

INDIRECT SPEECH………………………………………………………………………… 34

COMPARISONS………..…………………..……………………………………………….. 39

TWO – WORD VERBS……………………………………………………………………… 43

MODALS……………………………………………………………………………………... 46

THE PASSIVE VOICE………………………………………………………………………. 53

VERBS AFTER PREPOSITION / OTHER VERBS…………………………………….... 57

COMPOUND SENTENCES AND INVERTED STRUCTURES………………............… 64

CLAUSES…………………………………………………………………………………….. 71

CONCESSION AND CONSEQUENSE WORDS………………………………………...... 77

MISCELLANEOUS SECTION………………………………………………......…………. 85

2
 TENSES

SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT PERF. CONT.

PRESENT I work I’m working I have worked I have been

working

PAST I worked I was working I had worked I had been

working

FUTURE I’m going to I’ll be working I’ll have I’ll have been
work worked working

l. THE SIMPLE PRESENT

A. The simple present is a tense that expresses actions which occur within a certain
frequency (affirmative or negative).

Examples:

Affirmative frequencies:
- I go to work every day.
- Pam usually has breakfast very early.
- Does your class always begin at 8:00?
- We sometimes listen to the radio in the afternoon.

Negative frequencies:
- I hardly ever see my boss.
- George never goes out at weekdays.
- They seldom have classes on Sunday.
- Susan rarely studies in the morning.

B. The simple present also expresses general statements of fact.

Examples:

- I don’t like coffee.

- Bill has a new car.
- My class is very interesting.
- Betty doesn’t know Mr. Todd.

3
C. When we ask questions, always follow fixed patterns. Also, when we ask questions
with interrogative words (who – what – when – why – where – how – whose – etc.),
we use the auxiliary only when we mention the subject.

Note: These patterns apply for all tenses.

Examples:
- I go to Mary’s house at weekends.

Simple question : Do you go to Mary’s house on weekends?

Answers : Yes, I do. No, I don’t.
I. W. questions : Who goes to Mary’s house on weekends?
: I do.
: Where do you go on weekends?
: I go to Mary’s house.
: Whose house do you go to on weekends?
: I go to Mary’s house.
: When do you go to Mary’s house?
: I go (there) on weekends.

- Ted buys two bottles of milk every day.

Simple question : Does Ted buy two bottles of milk every day?
Answers : Yes he does. No, he doesn’t.
I. W. questions : Who buys two bottles of milk every day?
: Ted does.
: What does Ted (do) (buy) every day?
: He buys two bottles of milk.
: How much milk does Ted buy every day?
: He buys two bottles of milk.

- Tom and I study with the short girl at night.

Simple question : Do you and Tom study with the short girl at night?
Answers : Yes, we do. No, we don’t.
I. W. questions : Who studies with the short girl at night?
: Tom and I do.
: Who do you and Tom study with at night?
: We study with the short girl.
: Which girl do you and Tom study with at night?
: We study with the short one.
: When do you and Tom study with the short girl?
: We study with her at night.

4
 II. THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS

A. The present continuous (or present progressive) expresses actions that are in process
at present or around now.

Examples:

- We are studying English now.

- Paul isn’t doing his homework.
- Is she working hard these days?

B. Even though all verbs in English have an ING form, not all of them can be used in
continuous tenses (stative verbs).

Here is a list

believe love remember cost mean

know like prefer forget owe
seem need want belong hear
understand resemble wish own see

Examples:

- We understand our teacher very well

- They want a cup of tea.
- The boy resembles his father.

Note: We do not use these verbs in continuous tenses, but we have to keep in mind that they all
have -ING forms.

Examples:

- Those are my belongings.

- What is the meaning of that word?
- Knowing her takes time

Note: When we find one of the stative verbs in continuous, that is because the verb has some
especial meaning.

Examples:

- He is seeing his cousins one of these days (see = visit)

- The judge is hearing a case (hear = follow officially in court)
- She’s understanding this little by little (accept gradually)

5
 EXERCISES

PRESENT TENSE VS PRESENT CONTINUOUS

1. Tom can’t answer the phone. He _________________ a bath.

(have)

2. He usually _________________ coffee, but today he ______________tea.

(drink) (drink)

3. A. What ________________ she _________________in the evening?

(do)

B: She usually _______________TV or ________________ to the radio.

(watch) (listen)

4. I won’t go out now because it ________________ and I ______________

(rain) (have not)

an umbrella.

5. Mary often ________________ languages very quickly, but she _________

(learn)

_______________________ able to learn Greek.

(seem not)

6. I’m sorry but he’s not in. He____________________ a friend.

(see)

7. What _______________ it _________________ ?

(mean)

8. Look! That man ______________ to steal that car.

(try)

9. A. Do you know how to cook?

B: No, but I __________________.

(learn)

10. They usually _______________ out of town on their holiday, but this year,
(go)

they __________________ at home.

(stay)

11. Don’t shout. I ______________________TV.

(watch)

6
 12. He often eats vegetables, but now he __________________ pork.
(eat)

13. _________________ you _______________________ in God?

(believe)

14. Unfortunately, the number of people without jobs ______________ .

(increase)

15. A lot of people ____________________for you.

(wait)

16. I want to learn Chinese, but nobody ___________________it.

(speak)

17. The earth ___________________ around the moon.

(go not)

18. She _____________________ her lost purse.

(look for)

19. The Amazon river __________________ the Pacific Ocean.

(flow into not)

20. Be quiet! Your father __________________ a nap.

(take)

III. THE SIMPLE PAST

A. The simple past expresses completed events. Some verbs have regular past forms and
others have irregular past forms.

Examples: Regular past forms.

- The Gonzales visited us last week.
- George studied a lot yesterday.
- Did Susan talk on the phone for two hours?
- I didn’t watch TV last night.

Examples: Irregular past forms.

- I was sick three weeks ago.
- They went out last night.
- Did you see Bill the day before yesterday?
- We didn’t know the answer.

7
B. PRONUNCIATION HELP (REGULAR VERBS)

1. When the simple form ends in a voiceless sound (p, k, f, s, sh, ch), the past form is
pronounced with a final /t/ and the number of syllables remains the same.

help – helped laugh – laughed wash – washed

stop – stopped cough – coughed crush – crushed
ask – asked dance – danced watch – watched
work – worked kiss – kissed match – matched

2. When the simple form ends in a voiced consonant (b, g, m, n, l, r, v, y, z) or in a vowel

sound, the past form is pronounced with a final /d/ and the number of syllables remains the
same.

rob – robbed ban – banned change - changed

beg – begged care – cared saw - sawed
love – loved kill – killed chew - chewed
play – played belong – belonged sew – sewed
use – used study – studied clean - cleaned

3. When the simple form ends in “t” or “d” sound, the past form is pronounced /id/ and an
extra syllable is added.

add – added want – wanted invite – invited

need – needed omit – omitted start – started
repeat – repeated correct – corrected hand – handed
visit – visited translate – translated protect - protected

C. Here is a list of IRREGULAR VERBS.

begin – began feel – felt sit - sat

bring – brought get – got sleep - slept
buy – bought go – went swim - swam
catch – caught have - had take - took
come – came know - knew teach - taught
cost – cost leave - left think - thought
do – did read - read wear - wore
eat – ate say - said write - wrote
fall – fell see - saw win - won

8
D. SPECIAL CASES

HANG
1. When it means to put something somewhere, the past form is HUNG.
- I hung my clothes in the closet yesterday.

2. When it means to put to death by hanging, the past form is HANGED.

- They hanged the murderer last Sunday.

SHINE
1. When it means to send off light, the past form is SHONE.
- The sun shone all day yesterday.

2. When it means polish, the past form is SHINED.

- Jack shined his shoes this morning.

IV. THE PAST CONTINUOUS

A. The past continuous expresses an action that was going on in the past when something
else happened.

Examples:
- I was leaving when the telephone rang.
(When the telephone rang, I was leaving)
- When I was leaving, the telephone rang.

B. We can use WHEN before the Past Continuous or the simple past. But the expression
(JUST) AS or WHILE can also be used and it is usually with continuous form.

Examples:
- (Just) as I was leaving, the telephone rang.
- The telephone rang (just) as I was leaving.

C. The past continuous also expresses actions that were in process at some time in
the past.

Examples:
- We were cleaning the house all morning.
- What were you doing this afternoon?
- It was raining all day yesterday.

D. There is a verb phrase used to express unfulfilled plans (not finished). This verb phrase
isn´t the Past continuous, but it is similar in structure (was/were + going to + V)

Examples:
-They were going to buy a Toyota, but they finally bought a Nissan.
- I was going to take a trip, but I changed my mind.

9
 EXERCISES

PAST SIMPLE VS. PAST CONTINUOUS

1. He suddenly __________________ that he _____________________ in the wrong direction.

(realize) (travel)

2. Just as I ________________ the road, I ________________ on a banana and I ___________.

(cross) (step) (fall down)

3. He __________________ us to go out last night because it _________________ too cold.

(allow not) (be)

4. When I __________________ my passport, I __________________ this photograph.

(look for) (find)

5. When I ___________________, they __________________ around the fire.

(come in) (sit)

Everyone _____________________ something. When they _____________________ me,

(do) (see)

they ________________________ at me and ______________________.

(smile) (stand up)

6. I couldn’t see the news. I ______________________ asleep while I ________________TV.

(fall) (watch)

7. Just as he ___________________ his house, the storm ________________________ out.

(enter) (break)

8. There ____________________anybody at home when I _____________________ .

(be not) (call)

9. When I ___________________ a child, I always ____________________ to the circus.

(be) (go)

10. The police _________________ the thief when they _____________ with the stolen money.
(look for) (run across)

11. While I _________________ a shower, the earthquake _____________________

(take) (begin)

12. The waiter _________________ up the pieces of the broken dish that _______________
(pick) (slip)
out of his hand.

13. I ___________________ about the robbery while I_________________ for the bus.
(hear) (wait)

10
14. He __________________ his nose as he __________________ to light his cigarette.
(burn) (try)

15. Where __________________ you ___________________ the boxes?

(leave)

16. Who _____________ you ________ with when I __________________ you?

(eat) (call)

17. While the teacher ________________ my paper, he ________________ only two mistakes.
(correct) (find)

18. I _____________________ her some advice, but she __________________ to me.

(give) (listen not)

V. THE SIMPLE FUTURE

A. The simple future expresses future events. We can use different words of
expressions to express the future.

BE GOING TO + V: This is the best way to express the future since it does not have
any other uses. The degree of certainty is high because you have done previous
actions to promote this one.

Examples:
- I’m going to see Henry next week.
- They aren’t going to watch TV.
- Is she going to call you later?

WILL + V: A lot of grammarians
special meanings and uses.
Examples:
1. Future Promise
2. Future Determination
3. Inevitability
4. Predictions
say that WILL is not simple future since it has
: Don’t worry. I will help you.
: We will win the match.
: She’s sad because she’ll repeat the course.
: Do you think Laura will get the job?

NOTE: Many times you can use will or be going to in the same sentence, of course
with different meanings. For instance, will expresses things that have just been
decided. Whereas, be going to expresses things that were decided earlier.

BE ABOUT TO + V: This structure expresses near future.

Examples:
- We are about to leave.
- Is she about to cry?
- I’m about to tell a story.

11
NOTE: BE GOING TO and WILL may be used with time expressions.
BE ABOUT TO is never used with time expressions.
Examples:
- Tom is going to buy a car (next month).
- I’ll call you (later)
- He’s about to arrive.

THE PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS

Here we express actions that have been scheduled or planned. A time expression is
compulsory.
Examples:
- I have a meeting tomorrow.
- The concert is next week.
- My sister is coming the day after tomorrow.
- They are graduating in March.

EXERCISES

Put the verb into the correct form, using will or be going to.

1. A: You know? There’s a game tonight. ________________________ you go?

B: No, I’m very tired I _______________________ go to bed early tonight.

2. A: Have you cleaned your room?

B: Sorry, not yet I ________________________ do it tomorrow.

3. A: What would you like to drink?

B: I ______________________________ have some coffee.

4. A: Are you going shopping?

B: Yes, I ________________________ get some groceries to make dinner.

5. Do you think Jane ____________________ get the job?

6. A: I’ve decided to sell my car.

B: Really? How much _________ you ______________________ for it? (ask)

7. Look at the sky it _______________________________rain.

8. A: Come on! Make a decision. The waitress is waiting

B: Okay, okay! I ____________ have the fried brains.

9. A: Who do you think will win the first place in the marathon?
B: I bet Joe _____________________ win.

10. When you go back to Lima, you _______________________ notice a lot of

new things.

12
 11. I’m studying very hard, but I don’t think I ______________________ pass.

12. It’s already 7:00. We ________________________ be late for the movie.

13. A. I don’t know how to use this computer, Do you?

B: It’s easy I __________________ show you.

14. According to the weather forecast, it _____________________ snow

tomorrow.

15. They are very much in love. Do you think they ________________ get married
soon?

VI. THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS

A. This tense (will + be + V.ing) is the same as the simple future, but it emphasizes the
continuity of the actions.

Examples:
I’ll study this afternoon . = I’ll be studying this afternoon.
They are going to watch TV = They’ll be watching TV
Are you going to work later? = Will you be working later?

NOTE: You can also use be going to instead of will, but the structure is not
colloquial.
- I’m going to be resting all day on Sunday.

VII. THE PRESENT PERFECT

A. The present perfect (have/has + past participle) expresses indefinite past.

That is actions that already finished without saying when they happened, but with
some relevance in the present.
Examples:

Present Perfect
I have bought a car. (Indefinite past)
(I already bought it, I’m not saying “when” I bought it)
Simple past
- I bought a car last week. (Definitive past)
(With the simple past we may say “when” the action took place)

- Tom has written several books. (Indefinite past)

- He wrote two novels in 2005. (Definitive past)

NOTE: This does not mean that we “have to” use time expressions with the simple
past.
We can say: Peter brought you the papers. (No time expression)

13
BUT
If we want to use definite time expressions (last week, yesterday, two days ago,
etc), we must use them with the simple past.

NOT
With the present perfect.

A.1. There are, however, some time expressions that are considered “indefinite”,
and that may be used with the present perfect.
Examples:

1. Already (affirmative – interrogative)

- They have already had lunch.
- Have you already done your homework?

2. Yet (negative – interrogative)

- We haven’t finished yet.
- Hasn’t she come yet?
- Have you done your homework yet?

3. Just (affirmative – interrogative)

- She has just come in
- The play has just begun

IN
Negative statements we use YET
 She hasn’t come yet / They haven’t called yet.

We can find “just” in negative statements, but with a different meaning, in a

different position and not as a time expression.
Example:
- I just haven’t had time (just = simply)

4. Recently – lately (affirmative - negative – interrogative)

- There have been some good TV programs recently.
- It hasn’t rained much lately.
- Have you seen George lately?

5. Ever (negative – interrogative)

- Have you ever been to Chile?
- No, I have never been there.

6. Other expressions:
- She still hasn’t made up her mind.
- He has seen that movie 3 times so far.

14
 NOTE: We have to keep in mind that these expressions of time can be found in
other tenses as well. Specially while speaking.
Examples:

- I already met him. (past)

- We don’t know yet. (present)
- Will you ever forgive me? (future)

B. The present perfect also has another definition:

An action that begins in the past and continues in the present, (and, of course, it
may go on in the future).
We will use a little Spanish to explain the difference. If we say:
I have been sick. (He estado enfermo). This means that I’m not sick anymore
(indefinite past).

BUT If we say: I have been sick for a week. (estoy enfermo desde hace una semana).
We are saying that the action is still in process.

More Examples:
- Tom has worked in a bank = not anymore
- Tom has worked in a bank since 2005 = and he still does

CONCLUSION: If we want to express an action that begins in the past and continues in
the present, we “have to” use FOR and SINCE with the present perfect. If not, we are
expressing indefinite past.

VIII. THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

A. The present perfect continuous (have / has + been + - ING) is the same as the present
perfect, but it emphasizes the continuity of the action.
Examples:
- I’ve been working a lot lately = I have worked a lot lately.
- They’ve been studying English since 2012 = They’ve studied English since
2012

EXERCISES: PAST TENSE - PRESENT PERFECT

1. Mario Vargas Llosa ________________ several books. He ______________ his tenth book.
(write) (just finish)

2. He ______________ in London for a year and then he ____________________ here.

(live) (move)

3. l’m trying to give up smoking. l ___________________ for a week.

(smoke not)

15
4. We ___________________ this sort of work when we __________________ in the army.
(do) (be)

5. A: _______ you _____________ your hair short when you _________________ in school?.
(wear) (be)

B: Yes, my teachers ________________ on it, but when I ________________ school,

(insist) (leave)

I _______________ it grow and I _________________ on it long ever since.

(let) (wear)

6. I____________________ to China, but I _____________________ to Zimbabwe last year.

(be never) (go)

7. My parents __________ married in 1957, but they __________ divorced for almost 13 years.
(get) (be)

8. Mr. Jones __________________ in a bank for 25 years. Then he ________________

(work) (quit)

9. How many countries _______________ you _________________ during your last holiday?
(visit)

10. I __________________ the Koricancha Museum when I ___________________ to Cuzco.

(visit) (travel)

11. The Frenchmen ___________________ Chile. Spaniards did.

(conquer not)

12. When __________________ the movie ____________________ ?

(start)

13. What _______________________ you ____________________ for me lately?

(do)

14. l ____________________ for a job since May.

(look)

15. When __________________ you ___________________ your job?

(lose)

SPECIAL CASES: Look at the following translations:

- El trabaja aquí desde hace tres años

He has worked here for 3 years.

- Vivo en San Borja desde hace 5 años.

I have lived in San Borja for 5 years.

16
- Estudio en la Universidad de Lima desde hace 6 años.
I have studied at Lima University for 6 years.

- Jane estudia Ingles desde hace mucho tiempo.

Jane has studied English for a long time.

-Te amo desde que te conocí.

I have loved you since I met you.

-Ella está casada desde hace 10 años.

She has been married for 10 years

-Vivo acá desde hace años.

I have lived here for ages.

-Voy al gimnasio desde hace 15 años

I have gone to the gym for 15 years.

-Uso brackets desde hace 6 meses.

I have worn braces for 6 months.

-Ellos tienen ese carro desde hace 3 meses.

They have had this car for 3 months.

Now translate the following:

1. El está casado desde hace 5 años.

2. Ella sabe manejar desde hace 2 meses

3. Uso anteojos desde hace 15 años

4. Ellos están en Illinois desde hace 1 semana.

5. Mi hermano es doctor desde hace 10 años

6. El está enfermo desde hace tres días

7. Los conozco desde hace mucho tiempo

17
 IX. THE PAST PERFECT

A. The past perfect (had + past participle) refers to an action that happened before
another one.

Examples:
- l had (already) finished the letter when you called.
(When you called, l had (already) finished the letter)

B. The following sequence words can be used with the past perfect or the simple past
without difference in meaning.

After they (had) arrived, they turned on the TV.

(They turned on the TV after they (had) arrived)

As soon as we (had seen) (saw) her, we recognized her.

(We recognized her as soon as we (had seen) (saw) her)

She (had) sold her car before she bought the house
(Before she bought the house, she (had) sold her car)

I (had) hated the course until l had a different teacher

(Until l had a different teacher, l (had) hated the course)

EXERCISES

Join the 2 sentences using the past perfect and the given words.

1. I got home. I called them from my home phone. (as soon as)

2. The students got their exams. The teacher corrected them. (after)

3. They bought a new TV set. They left the store. (when)

4. l stayed home. The program finished (until)

5. I took a shower. I went out (before)

18
 X. THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

A. The past perfect continuous (had + been + - ING) expresses the same thing as the past
perfect, but it needs the presence of two requirements:

1. A duration phrase (for 5 minutes, for 2 days)

2. A sentence in simple past

Examples:
- l had been working there for a year when l got my first promotion.
- When we got home, he had been sleeping for an hour.

XI. THE FUTURE PERFECT (Will + have + past participle)

A. lt refers to an action that will be completed before an expected time in future.

Examples:
- They will have finished the bridge by December.
(When December comes, it will be already finished).
- We will have done our homework by 4:30.
(We will finish it before 4:30).

XII. THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS (Will + have + been + V. ING)

For this grammar tense you need compulsory:

1. A duration phrase (for an hour, for 3 years)

2. An end point phrase (by then, by June)

Examples:
- l will have been working here for 3 years by June.
- By then, she will have been living there for a long time.

EXERCISES

ALL TENSES

1. Whenever he _____________ downtown, he _____________ a lot of money.

(go) (spend)

2. He _______________ his gun when it ______________ and ______________ himself.

(clean) (go off) (kill)

3. l _________________ on this project for two years by June.

(work)

19
4. So far they ___________________ that book three times.
(read)

5. The carpenter _________________________ that bookshelf when I arrived.

(already finish)

6. By March they ____________________________ the bridge.

(complete)

7. We ________________________ a lot of plays lately.

(see)

8. They _____________________ for three hours when l called them.

(study)

9. _________________ you _______________ them in a few days?

(visit)

10. She _____________________ very hard since l last saw her.

(work)

11. ___________________ he __________________ to work on time this morning?

(get)

12. We _________________________ all next week.

(rest)

13. _____________________ she __________________ to the dentist yet?

(go)

14. They _____________ hardly __________________ when it ___________________ to rain.

(go out) (begin)

15. While he ____________________ the fuse, he ____________________ a bad shock.

(mend) (get)

20
 NOUNS AND NOUNS DETERMINERS

MASS NOUNS AND COUNT NOUNS

MASS NOUNS
They don’t have plural form. We can’t use “a/an” before a mass noun, but we can use “the
/some /any /much /this /etc”.

1. l don’t have much work to do.

2. Phil gave me some information about the Greek lslands.
3. The weather is terrible today, lt’s pouring.

Some nouns are usually considered mass nouns in English, but often considered count nouns in
other languages. Remember that they don’t have plural forms.

advice bread help permission news

baggage chaos information progress trouble
behaviour furniture luggage scenery weather

There are some nouns that can be mass or count nouns; usually with a different meaning.

1. Paper
- Show me your paper (s), please. (Papers = documents) C.N.
- My father forgot the paper (s). (Papers = newspapers) C.N.
- l bought the paper for the exams. (material to write on) M.N

2. Hair
- There’s a hair in my soup. (only one hair) C.N.
- Her hair has grown a lot recently. (hair on her head) M.N.

EXERCISES

Rewrite the sentences that are wrong.

1. We had a very good weather when we went to Huaraz.

_____________________________________________________________________

2. l need some informations about Lima.

_____________________________________________________________________

3. lt’s difficult to find a work nowadays.

_____________________________________________________________________

21
4. Good news make people very happy.

_____________________________________________________________________

5. Because of the blackout, all the city was in complete chaos.

_____________________________________________________________________

6. The furniture is not mine. They’re Mary´s.

_____________________________________________________________________

7. Don’t worry. Help is coming.

_____________________________________________________________________

8. Can anybody bring my luggages?

_____________________________________________________________________

9. You can’t go to the party. You don’t have your father’s permission.

_____________________________________________________________________

10. Your hair is beautiful.

_____________________________________________________________________

COUNT NOUNS
They have plural forms. When they are singular, they usually have “a / an / the”; they can´t
go alone.

A pen - three pens

A boy - several boys

When we talk about things in general, we don’t use “some” or “the”

- l love sports. l don’t like watermelons.

We use “some”.

a) When we refer to “a small number / a few of:

l bought some new cassettes. (We don’t know how many cassettes).

b) When we refer to “not all”:

Some boys skipped classes (not all the boys).

22
 EXERCISES

Fill the blanks with A / AN, THE, SOME or an X when no determiner is needed.

1. He’s bought _____________________ interesting book.

2. l need ______________________ new pencil, please.

3. __________________ book Tom read was about science.

4. That school needs ___________________ new teacher.

5. There are ____________________ apples that are rotten.

6. Would you like to be _____________________ principal character of the play?

7. Do you give ____________________ candies to the children on Halloween?

8. l only send ___________________ flowers to my girlfriend.

9. When l went shopping, ___________________ stores were open, others were closed.

10. Teresa is _______________________ excellent singer.

NOUNS DETERMINERS

l. ARTICLES

A. INDEFINITE ARTICLES: A – AN
We use them in front of indefinite singular nouns.

Examples: a car an angel

a brush an office
a house an hour
a uniform an umbrella

B. DEFINITE ARTICLE: THE

We use it in front of definite nouns.

Examples: the sun the teacher of this class

the earth the car over there
the universe the students in that room

Note: We also use a – an when we first mention a noun, and we use “the” when the noun has
been identified.
Examples:
A man is coming this way. The man is carrying a package. The package is full
of meat. The meat is fresh. A dog is following the man. The dog is looking at
the package.

23
ll. DEMOSTRATIVES

SINGULAR PLURAL
NEAR THIS THESE
FAR THAT THOSE

lll. QUANTIFIERS

SOME ANY NO
uncountable and uncountable and Replaces ANY
count nouns count nouns, when the
affirmative and negative and structure is
questions. questions. affirmative.

Examples:
- Can you lend me some money?
- Yes, l can lend you some (money).
- No, l can’t lend you any (money).
- (No, l can lend you no money)
- Will Grace buy any books?
- Yes, she’ll buy some (books).
- No, she won’t buy any (books).
- (No, she’ll buy no books).

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with: A / AN, THE, SOME, ANY or an X when no determiner is needed.

The first time l saw ________ American film l didn’t like it at all. ____________ accent of
________ actors was very different from _______ one l had. They spoke _____________
English, but it didn’t sound like _________ language l had learned at _____________
school. l became very bored. l wanted to buy__________ chocolate, but l didn’t
have ______________ money left. l took ________ look at ________ people near
me. ____________ old man was asleep, ________ another man was yawning, ______
couple sitting next to me stood up and left. l was very happy when _________ film
ended. Now that l live in _________ United States l like ________ American films
very much. I’ll go to ________ movies with _________ friends tonight.

Follow the same procedure

_________ most important things in our society are neglected. _________ most people
don’t have what they need. _________ poor don’t have enough money to buy
enough food. Their children often go to ___________ bed hungry. Therefore, they
are not healthy and don’t have __________ money to go to __________ hospital
when they get sick. Many times their children can’t go to _________ school. They
cannot go to __________ movies or to ___________ theatre or out of __________
town on _______ picnic, of course. At ________ same time, _______ handicapped
can´t go to ________ school because there aren´t enough schools for them. As a
matter of fact, there are _______ towns in which there aren´t _________ schools for
them. But they all have something in common. They all go to ___________ church on
_________ Sunday to pray for ______________ help.

24
 B. MUCH – MANY – A LOT OF (LOTS OF)

MUCH MANY A LOT OF (LOTS

OF)
Mass nouns – negative Count nouns Mass and count
and questions - affirmative - nouns affirmative -
* ln formal speech, we negative and questions. negative and questions.
sometimes use much:
there’s much to be
done.

Examples:
- ls there much milk in the refrigerator?
No, there isn’t much (milk) there.
Yes, there’s a lot (of milk) there.
Yes, there’s lots (of milk) there.

- Do you have many friends?

No, l don’t have many (friends).
Yes, l have a lot (of friends).
Yes, l have lots (of friends).

C. A LITTLE – A FEW

A LITTLE A FEW
Mass nouns, affirmative and questions. Count nouns affirmative and
** in negative we use ANY. questions. ** in negative we use
ANY.

Examples:

- Does Bill need a little help?

Yes, he needs a little (help).
No, he doesn’t need any (help).

- Did you get a few copies?

Yes, l got a few (copies).
No, l didn’t get any (copies).

Note: OF follows MANY, MUCH, A FEW, A LITTLE, SOME and ANY when the noun
they quantify is identified and you have to be more precise.

- Some of my friends came to my party.

- l don’t know any of those girls.
- A few of Mr. Allen’s students were absent.

25
 EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate quantifier.

1. There are _____________ books on the shelf. (ANY, NO, MUCH)

2. My sister just made ____________ cookies. (ANY, SOME, A LITTLE)

3. They aren’t using ___________ telephones now. (MANY, FEW, LOTS OF)

4. We aren’t buying _____________ sugar. (MUCH, NO, A LOT OF)

5. There are only _____________ eggs in the carton. (A FEW, MANY, LOTS OF)

6. Did you have ___________ milk this morning? (A LOT OF, ANY, A FEW)

7. They just bought ____________ cheese. (LOTS OF, MANY, NO)

8. Would you like _____________ coffee? (LOTS OF, A FEW, SOME)

9. He has ______________ money in his pockets. (MANY, ANY, NO)

10. She says she has no time but l know she has ____________________ .
(A LOT, NONE, MANY)

11. There were __________________ apples, but he has eaten half of them.
(MUCH, A LOT OF, NO)

12. l had ______________ idea about this beautiful landscape. (ANY, A LOT OF, NO)

13. There aren’t ______________ carrots left. (A LOT OF, NO, MANY)

14. Would you like _______________ milk? (LITTLE, A LITTLE, A FEW)

15. The workmen aren’t repairing ____________ sidewalks.

(A LOTS OF, MUCH, MANY)

SPECIAL CASES:

QUITE: Reverses the meaning of a little and a few.

Examples:

- He has little money. (practically none)

- He has a little money. (he can buy something)
- He has quite a little money. (maybe he is rich)

- She invited few people to dinner. (maybe 3 or 4)

- She invited a few people to dinner. (maybe 10 or so)
- She invited quite a few people to dinner (a full house)

26
 EXERCISES

Rewrite the following sentences using: LITTLE, FEW, QUITE A LITTLE and QUITE A
FEW.

1. A lot of students have trouble with Math.

2. Paul doesn’t have much hope of passing the test.

3. Jack spends a large amount of money on clothes.

4. Many people like these films.

5. She knows a large number of classmates here.

ANOTHER - OTHER - OTHERS - THE OTHER - THE OTHERS

SINGULAR PLURAL

INDEFINITE a) another car a) other cars

b) another b) others

DEFINITE a) the other car a) the other cars

b) the other b) the others

People usually say another one and the other one(s).

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with: ANOTHER, OTHER, OTHERS, OTHER, THE OTHER or THE
OTHERS.

1. l never celebrate my birthday. It’s like any ____________________ day.

2. One of my three dogs is a terrier. _____________________ are hounds.

3. Some people like beer. ____________________ prefer wine.

27
4. l don’t want to go now. I’ll go _____________________ day.

5. Three of my pony’s feet are brown. ___________________ one is white.

6. l need 7 erasers and I only have 6. Oh no! Please give me _____________________ one.

7. _____________________ day I found a man sleeping in my car.

8. Some dogs bark a lot. _______________________ are very quiet.

9. Two of my 7 friends live near my house. _____________________ live far away.

10. l found two kittens: one was alive and ____________________ was dead.

EITHER - NEITHER - BOTH (2 persons or things)

Examples:
- Which one do you like?
Either one will do.

- The boss talked to neither of them.

(the boss didn’t talk to either of them).

- We bought both records.

ANY - NONE - ALL (more than 2 persons or things)

Examples:

- You can come to my house any day.

- None of the students failed the test.
- She went to all the places she could.

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with : EITHER, NEITHER, BOTH, ANY, NONE, or ALL.

1. There were 4 applicants. l interviewed them ___________ but hired __________

2. Two girls called you, but ______________ one left a message.

3. l know ____________________ of the twins, but l don’t like ______________ one.

4. _________________ day will do; come whenever you can.

5. _________________ one of your parents can help you. I’m sure they will.

28
6. She read ________________ the books in 3 months.

7. All the girls know the answer. __________________ of them will help you.

8. ___________________ boy helped Susan. She did it herself.

9. Can you speak English and French? Yes, l can speak them ___________________

10. We can see ____________________ one of the movies. lt doesn’t matter, l like them both.

TAG QUESTIONS

Look at the following examples:

- You’re not working late, are you?

- lt was a good film, wasn’t it?
- Ann has a new roommate, doesn’t she?
- They didn’t like the show, did they?
- She has lived in Miami, hasn´t she?
- Bill can speak several languages, can’t he?
- We won’t be late, will we?
- Jane should pass her exam, shouldn’t she?
- That isn’t George over there, is it?
- There is a bank on the corner, isn´t there?
- He seldom goes out on weekdays, does he?
- She’d better be more careful, hadn’t she?
- You’d rather study in the morning, wouldn’t you?
- Alex has to go home, doesn’t he?
- One never knows, does one?

SPECIAL CASES:

1. After let’s (not) the tag questions is shall we?

- Let’s go out for a while, shall we?

2. After an imperative, the tag is will you? or would you?

- Open the window, will you?
- Don’t do that again, would you?

3. After l am, the tag is aren’t l?

- l’m late, aren’t l ?
EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the correct tag question.

1. They were very angry, _____________________________________ ?

2. Ana is on vacation, ________________________________________ ?

3. You weren’t listening, _____________________________________ ?

29
4. She doesn’t like onions, ____________________________________ ?

5. Jack applied for the job, ____________________________________ ?

6. You have a camera, ________________________________________ ?

7. He can type well __________________________________________ ?

8. She won’t say anything, ____________________________________ ?

9. There are many people here, _________________________________ ?

10. Let’s not go out tonight, ___________________________________ ?

11. l wasn’t wrong, ___________________________________________ ?

12. This isn’t your sister, ______________________________________ ?

13. Give me a hand, ___________________________________________ ?

14. l’m in your class, __________________________________________ ?

15. He’d never seen you before, _________________________________ ?

30
 VERBS WITH TWO OBJECTS

Some verbs always take objects (like, buy, use, etc.) and some others never do (go,
sleep, get up, etc.) there are, however, some verbs frequently have two objects, a direct object
and an indirect object.

GROUP l V + D.O + P + I.O.

V + I.O. + D.O.
Examples:

Bring (to) teach (to) l gave a bicycle to my son

V D.O P I.O

l gave my son a bicycle

V I.O D.O
Give (to) take (to)
Lend (to) write (to) She is buying 2 records for Jim now.
V D.O. P I.O
Offer (to) build (for)
Owe (to) buy (for) She is buying Jim 2 records now.
V I.O. D.O.
Pay (to) draw (for)
Sell (to) find (for) He sold some furniture to me.
V D.O. P I.O.
Send (to) get (for)
Show (to) make (for) He sold me some furniture.
V I.O D.O.

GROUP ll V + D.O + P + I.O.

Admit (for)
Announce (to)
Borrow (from)
Buy (from)
Cash (for) Can you explain this to me?
Change (for) V D.O. P I.O.
Describe (to)
Design (for) l introduced my boss to my parents.
Do (for) V D.O. P I.O.
Explain (to)
Introduce (to) She´s cashed a check for them.
Mention (to) V D.O. P I.O.
Prepare (for)
Prescribe (for) He translated the letter for Jane.
Pronounce (for) V D.O. P I.O.
Recommend (to)
Repeat (for) Will they borrow some money from Chris ?
Say (to) V D.O. P I.O.
Speak (to)
Suggest (to)
Translate (for)

31
GROUP lll V + I.O + D.O

Ask l asked the teacher some questions

Charge V I.O. D.O.
Envy
Cost
Forgive
Promise The car cost Charles a lot of money
Tell V I.O. D.O.

Note: lf we want to use pronouns, we have to keep in mind that two definite object pronouns
(me – you – him – her – it – us – them) cannot be used together:

He brought it to us (this sentence is correct because the preposition

TO stands between the two object pronouns).

He brought us it (this sentence is wrong since the two definite

pronouns are together).

EXERCISES

Put the words in the correct order. lf it´s possible to form two sentences, do it both ways.

1. give / university / many tests / teachers at / Do / their students / (to) ?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. him / didn´t / the last sentence / Why / explain / you / (to) ?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

3. new / a lot / Ted´s / cost / camera / him / (to) (tag question).

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

4. a / daughter / make / Mrs. Williams / (for) / Did / yesterday / cake / her ?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

32
5. buy / Thomas / going to / (from) / me / furniture / some / soon /is.
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

6. question / the / asking / you / How long / same / her / been / (to) have ?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

7. (for) / dollar / this / you / bill / me / fifty / change / Would / ?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

8. didn´t / their / (to) / me / pictures / show / want / They /to

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

9. John / (to) / decided / his / his / parents / to / girlfriend / introduce.

__________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

10. They / charged / 20 dollars / (to) / me / for / radio / my

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

11. the / (for) / prepare / didn´t / Why / lesson / his / teacher / the / students?
___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

12. finds (for) / her / mother / always / Janet´s / a / job.

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

13. I´m / going to / my binoculars / lend / my cousin / (to)

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

33
 INDIRECT SPEECH

- REPORTED SPEECH (sentences)

- INDIRECT IDEAS (embedded questions)

- INDIRECT COMMANDS (imperatives)

- INDIRECT SUGGESTIONS (present subjunctive)

A. Reported Speech deals with sentences. We report what is being said or what has
already been said.

Rule: When we report we have to respect this sequence.

SEQUENCE OF THE TENSES

Present becomes past

Present – ING becomes past – ING
Present perfect becomes past perfect
am/ is / are going to becomes was / were going to
Past becomes past perfect
Will becomes would
Can becomes could
May becomes might
Must / have to become had to
Would, could, might, should, ought to and the past perfect all remain the same.

Examples:

- l am sick (exact word)

He said (that) he was sick.
- Our dog died. (exact word)
They said (that) their dog had died.

As you can see in the above examples, the word THAT can be omitted if desired. More
examples will be given now. But there´s something we have to remember when we use
Reported Speech, we´re only changing the form of the verbs (not the tense), so as to make the
sentence sounds better, with harmony of tenses.

Look at the following examples:

- l live in Lima.
She said (that) she lived in Lima, (and she still does)

34
More examples:

- l work for my father.

She said (that) she worked for her father.

- Our uncle has just arrived.

They said (that) their uncle had just arrived.

- Martin is sleeping.
You said (that) Martin was sleeping.

- I´m going to call you tomorrow.

He told us (that) he was going to call us the next day.

- l will go when l have time.

She said (that) she would go when she had time.

- Your sister must study more.

They told him (that) his sister had to study more.

- You should be more careful.

He told us (that) we should be more careful.

B. Indirect ideas have the same rules as Reported Speech, but there is a change of word
order in most sentences.

INTRODUCTION + INTERROGATIVE WORD + SUBJECT + V + COMPLEMENT

Examples:

- Where is Mary?
Nobody knew where Mary was.

- Whose papers are those?

We wanted to know whose papers those were.

- What are you doing?

We asked Paul what he was doing.

- When are you going to pay me?

She asked him when he was going to pay her.

- Why can´t we go out?

The children asked me why they couldn´t go out.

- How much would you like to make?

i asked them how much they would like to make.

35
Note: When there is no interrogative Word in the question, we use IF in the corresponding slot.

Examples:
- Do you have any relatives here?
He asked her IF she had any relatives there.

- May I borrow your pen?

He asked me IF he might borrow my pen.

C. Indirect Commands require the use of an Infinitive (TO + V).

Examples:
- Call me as soon as you get home.
He asked her to call him as soon as she got home.

- Don´t do that again.

I told them not to do that again.

- Don´t go out until you finish.

She told him not to go out until he finished.

- Turn off the TV when you leave.

He asked her to turn off the TV when she left.

- Never tell lies again.

I advised her not to tell lies again.

- Behave or I will spank you.

She told them to behave or she would spank them.

D. Indirect Suggestions are a more formal way and require a noun clause introduced
by THAT.
Recommend
Insist
Suggest
Demand
Subject + prefer + That + Subject + V (simple form) + Com.
Propose
Request
Order
Require

Examples:
- You should stay in bed for a few days.
The doctor recommends that I stay in bed for a few days.

36
 - I want Mr. Hill to be at the meeting.
The boss insists that Mr. Hill be at the meeting.

- Joan, why don´t you fix your car?

I suggested that Joan fix her car.

- All the tickets must be paid at once.

He demands that all the tickets be paid at once.

Note: there are some expressions that can be used with the same sentence pattern.
Examples:
- It´s important that everyone be present.
- It´s necessary that the class begin on time.
- It´s advisable that we study more.
- It´s forbidden that the children stay out late.
- It´s obligatory that the students hand in the reports.
- It´s essential that she be taken to the hospital.

EXERCISES

Change the following into INDIRECT SPEECH.

1. Why didn´t your brother come yesterday?

She asked me ______________________________________________________________

2. We may buy a car if our money reaches.

They said __________________________________________________________________

3. How do you like this cake?

She asked him _______________________________________________________________

4. My father must work overtime.

She said __________________________________________________________________

5. Has your uncle finished his project?

They asked me ______________________________________________________________

6. Come to our house when you have time.

They told him ______________________________________________________________

7. We´ll call you when we have time.

They told him _______________________________________________________________

8. Whose book are you using?

They asked her _____________________________________________________________

9. Your father should stay in bed for a few days.

The doctor recommends (to me) _________________________________________________

37
10. We can help you if you want.
They told me _______________________________________________________________

11. Sally should come to the meeting.

It´s important _____________________________________________________________

12. Who do you usually study with?

Helen asked me ____________________________________________________________

13. Could I say what I´m thinking of?

She wanted to know __________________________________________________________

14. Don´t eat if you don´t like it.

He told her ________________________________________________________________

15. When will Tom´s sister be back from Europe?

She asked Peter ____________________________________________________________

16. There is going to be a party tonight.

They said _________________________________________________________________

17. Do you visit your parents any time you can?

Mary asked me _____________________________________________________________

18. The program should begin on time.

It´s necessary _____________________________________________________________

19. You have to study if you want to pass the test.

He told her ____________________________________________________________

20. Who are you going to sell your car to?

He asked her ______________________________________________________________

21. Look for my pen as soon as you get there.

She told him ___________________________________________________________

22. You should all try harder.

The teacher insisted (to us) ___________________________________________________

23. I don´t believe you can do it yourself

He told me ________________________________________________________________

24. Will you tell me what time your father left?

Jim asked us _______________________________________________________________

25. Don´t call until you hear from our cousin.

They told him ______________________________________________________________

38
 COMPARISONS

A. THE COMPARATIVE CASE

John is thinner than Phil.

(John is a thinner boy than Phil)

Lima is bigger than Arequipa.

(Lima is a bigger city than Arequipa)

Susy is more beautiful than Betty.

(Susy is a more beautiful girl than Betty)

Physics is more difficult than Math.

(Physics is a more difficult subject than Math)

B. THE SUPERLATIVE CASE

Bob is the tallest in his class.

(Bob is the tallest boy in his class)

Tina is the oldest of all her sisters.

(Tina is the oldest girl of all her sisters)

This car is the most comfortable vehicle in the store.

Mr. Todd is the most careful driver I’ve met.

C. THE COMPARATIVE OF EQUALITY OR INEQUALITY

Mr. Evans is as fat as his brother.

(Mr. Evans is as a fat man as his brother)

My grandmother isn’t as old as Mary’s.

(My grandmother isn’t as an old woman as Mary’s)

Seattle isn’t as interesting as New York.

(Seattle isn’t as an interesting city as New York)

IRREGULAR CASES
Good better the best as good as
Well better the best as well as
Bad worse the worst as bad as
Badly worse the worst as badly as
(a) little less the least as little as
(a) few fewer the fewest as few as
Much / a lot more the most as much as
Many / a lot more the most as many as
Far farther the farthest as far as

39
D. SPECIAL COMPARISONS

- Complete sameness (THE SAME + AS / THE SAME / ALIKE)

My jacket is the same as yours. (My jacket is equal to yours)

Our jackets are the same.
Our jackets are alike.

- Similarity in many respects. (LIKE / SIMILAR)

Pam’s car is like George’s (Pam’s car is similar to George’s)

Their cars are similar.

- Similarity in only one respect (THE SAME + NOUN + AS / THE SAME + NOUN)

Your pen is the same colour as Tom’s.

Their pens are the same colour.

Note: Terms of sameness or similarity may be modified by:

ALMOST – NEARLY – ABOUT (suggest less similarity)

- Wendy is almost the same age as Jill.

JUST – EXACTLY (emphasize the similarity)

- Our books are exactly alike.

Terms of difference (DIFFERENT/ DIFFERENT FROM – DIFFER /DIFFER FROM)

- My bike is different from his. Our bikes are different.
- Your ideas differ from mine. Our ideas differ.

Note: Terms of difference may be modified by:

SOMEWHAT – A LITTLE (suggest less difference)

- Those chairs are somewhat different.

QUITE-VERY-ENTIRELY-COMPLETELY-REALLY (emphasize the difference)

- Jane is very different from her cousin.

EXERCISES

Fill in the blanks with the comparative, the superlative or the comparison of equality or
inequality.

1. My car isn’t ___________________ my father’s.

(fast)

2. Fred is _____________________ in his family.

(thin)

40
3. Bread is ______________ ice cream, but it is _________________ item _____________ tea.
(cheap) (expensive)

4. New York is _________________ city ____________________ Lima.

(big)

5. There are _________________ teachers ____________________ students here.

(few)

6. Who smokes ___________________ in your family?

(a lot)

7. Most students can’t speak English _____________________ they can write it.
(well)

8. What’s ____________________ subject you’ve ever studied?

(difficult)

9. All of your sisters are beautiful, but Pam is ________________________

(beautiful)

10. John is a careful driver. His wife isn’t ____________________________ he is.

(careful)

He drives ____________________ she does. He’s ______________________ driver I´ve met.

(carefully) (careful)

11. ____________________ grade I’ve ever got is 78. That isn’t a very good grade,
(bad)

but it isn’t ________________ 70. 78 is _________________ grade _______________ 70.

(bad) (good)

78 isn’t _______________ grade ________________ 70, but isn’t ______________ 85.

(bad) (good)

12. Who is _____________________ person you know?

(fat)

13. Some people don’t eat ________________________ others.

(a lot)

14. My new coat didn’t cost ______________________ I thought it would, but it cost
(a lot)

____________________ my last one because prices are _________________ now. I didn’t

(a lot) (high)

get _________________ coat they had, but it wasn’t their ____________________ one.
(cheap) (expensive)

41
15. Kelly is __________________ girl ____________________ her sister.
(attractive)

16. All the members of John’s family are fat. Even though his sister isn’t _________________
(fat)

he is, she’s ________________ his second brother. His second brother is _________________
(fat) (thin)

of all the family. Their parents eat _______________________ the children, but the children
(a lot)
are ______________________ they are.
(heavy)

17. Tom isn’t __________________ his brother. His brother is __________________ Tom, but
(old) (old)

is ____________________ his sister. She is lucky because she’s got ___________________

(young) (good)

job of all. She works as a manager in ___________________ and _______________________

(big) (important)
company in town.

18. Sue likes Tchaikovsky’s music. She says that he wrote __________________________ and
(sweet)
__________________ music. I think that Beethoven was ___________________ compouser
(lovely) (good)

_______________ Tchaikovsky. Unfortunately modern musicians can’t make

_______________________ music ____________________ the old composers did.

(good)

19. When I went shopping. I saw _______________________ coat in the world. It was
(beautiful)

not ___________________ coat __________________ the one that was next to it. I didn’t
(expensive)

have enough money to buy it, so I had to buy a _______________________ one.

(cheap)

20. Last night I heard ______________________________ scream. My sister said that it wasn’t
(frightening)

______________________ scream ___________________ the one she had heard in the old
(spooky)

house. I think I felt _________________________ she was.

(scared)

42
 TWO – WORD VERBS

Two – word verbs are combinations of a verb and a preposition or adverb which somehow
changes the meaning of the verb.

They can be intransitive (followed by an adverb or by nothing at all) or transitive (followed by

an object). Here is a list of the most common ones.

INTRANSITIVE TWO - WORD VERBS

blow up - explode
break down - stop working
come back - return
come to - regain consciousness
come over - visit
get along - progress
get over - recover
give up - surrender
make up - become friends again, apply cosmetics on
pass away - die
show up - appear
take off - leave the ground

TRANSITIVE TWO-WORD VERBS (Separable or inseparable)

Separable two-word verbs are those that have the object after the two-word verb or between the
two parts. When the object is a pronoun, it is always placed between the two parts.

Examples - I called up my sister I called my sister up (or) I called her up

blow up - cause to explode

call off - cancel
call up - telephone
do over - redo, do it again
figure out - calculate, imagine
fill in / out - complete through writing
fill up - fill completely
find out - discover
give back - return
give up - stop something
hand in - submit
leave out - omit, ignore
let down - disappoint
look over - examine
look up - seek something written
make up - invent
mix up - confuse
pass out - distribute
pass up - refuse (an opportunity)

43
pick out - choose
pick up - lift, give a ride to
point out - indicate
put away - store in a safe place
put off - postpone
put on - dress oneself in
take down - write from dictation
take off - remove (clothes)
tear down - destroy (buildings)
throw away - discard
try on - put on to see if it fits
turn off - stop the operation of
turn on - start the operation of

Inseparable two-word verbs:

Example: I called on my sister. I called on her

call for - require look after - take care of

call on - visit look for - seek
count on - rely on look into - investigate
get over - recover from run across - discover by chance
go over - review run into - meet by chance

EXERCISES
Fill in the blanks with appropriate forms of TWO - WORD VERBS.
1. We had to _______________________the meeting. (CANCEL)
2. She _______________________a few minutes later (REGAIN CONSCIUOSNESS)
3. I _________________________ Mr. Jones yesterday. (MEET BY CHANCE)
4. We ________________________ some exercises from now on (OMIT)
5. You ______________________ the rehearsal, haven’t you? (POSTPONE)
6. He _______________________his parents last week (VISIT)
7. _________________________ your car often______________? (STOP WORKING)
8. She _____________________that word, didn’t she? (SEEK IN A BOOK)
9. Helen always ______________the best dresses. (CHOOSE)
10. Please ___________________the books. (STORE)
11 We have to _______________the reports soon. (SUBMIT)
12. They are going to ____________that building. (DESTROY)
13. You shouldn’t ____________ that offer. (REFUSE)
14. He has to _______________his parents. (TELEPHONE)

44
15. I hope to _______________better tomorrow. (PROGRESS)
16. She __________________yesterday, did she? (APPEAR)
17. I ____________________that she was lying. (DISCOVER)
18. We ___________________the baby last night. (TAKE CARE OF)
19. She ___________________her sickness yet. (RECOVER FROM)
20. When are you going to _____________ smoking? (STOP)
21. Don’t __________ me ______________any more. (CONFUSE)
22. I have no one to __________________ (RELY ON)
23. He has to _________________________ the exercises. (REDO)
24. Because of the accident, Mary’s father ________________ (DIE)
25. I failed to __________________the teacher’s exercises yesterday (DISTRIBUTE)
26. He can’t find his pants. He’s __________ them. (SEEK)
27. My uncle ________________some new exercises now. (INVENT)
28. When he heard the news, he ____________________ (EXPLODE)

45
 MODALS
CAN
1. Present ability = be able to
- I can swim well = I’m able to swim well.
- She can speak 4 languages = She’s able to speak 4 languages.
2. Permission
- Can I use your phone?
- Can I leave early today?
3. Request (favours)
- Can you help me?
- Can you do something for me?
4. IF Clauses (1st conditional)
- He can go if he wants.
- I can help you if I finish early.
5. Present and future probability
- This tree can reach a height of 100 feet.
- The doctor can see you at 4 o’clock.
6. CAN´T is used for impossibility or prohibition.
- You can´t watch TV. You´re punished.
- I can´t swim well. It is too difficult for me.

COULD
1. Past ability = be able to
- I could stand on my head when I was younger = I was able to……
- We could add and subtract at a very early age = We were able to…..
2. Permission
- Could we talk to you?
- Could I see you later?
3. Request
- Could you give me a hand?
- Could you do me a favor?
4. IF Clauses (2nd conditional)
- I could do it if I had time.
- He could get the job if he spoke English.

46
5. IF Clauses (3rd conditional)
- I could have bought it if I had got the money.
- She could have won if she had participated.
6. Past opportunity
- He could have won the race, but he didn’t want to take part.
- They could have done their homework while they were there
7. Present and future probability
- She could be at the office now.
-They could call you tonight.

BE ABLE TO
Replaces CAN and COULD when these can’t be used.
1. After prepositions
- I’ll be glad to be able to help you.
- He studied a lot before being able to solve the problem.
2, Future ability
- We will be able to swim well soon.
- Will you be able to pass the next test?
3. Ability in the Present Perfect
- I have never been able to dance well
- I have never been able to skate well.
4. Past fulfillment or temporary ability
- The prisoners were able to escape from prison
- I was able to get to the appointment on time.

WILL
1. Future promise
- Don’t worry. I’ll help you.
- My son will pick you up at the airport.
2. Future determination
- I will pass the course.
- We will get the scholarship.

47
3. Request
- Will you lend me some money?
- Will you please close the door?
4. IF Clauses (1st conditional)
- She will go out if her father lends her the car.
- They won’t come to class if they are sick.
5. Negative Refusal in the Present
a) With inanimate subjects
- My car won’t start (It refuses to start)
- This key won’t turn (It refuses to turn)
b) With lining subjects
- My uncle won’t go to the movies. (He never goes)
- Fish won’t live without water. (They would die)
WOULD
1. Sequence of tenses
- I’ll come tomorrow He said he’d come tomorrow.
- We will be at home They said they would be at home.
2. Request
- Would you open that window?
- Would you pass me the mustard?
3. IF Clauses (2nd conditional)
- I would buy that building if I were rich.
- Would you be reading if you had your glasses?
4. IF Clauses (3rd conditional)
- They would have done it if they had wanted to.
- She would have called you if she had had your number
5. Past habits or customs (usually with a frequency adverb)
- I would often mow the lawn on Saturdays. (I used to ……)
- She would always go to bed early. (She used to….)
6. Negative Refusal in the Past
- I asked him to lend me some money, but he wouldn’t.
- They tried to convince her, but she wouldn’t listen.

48
MAY – MIGHT
1. Present and Future possibility
- She may call you tonight.
- We might take a trip this month.
2. Past possibility
- They may have gone out last night.
- He might have been sick yesterday.
3. Permission
- May I borrow your newspaper?
- Might I ask you something?

SHALL
1. Offer
- Shall I help you? / Yes, please (do) / No, thank you.
- What time shall I call you? / Call me at 2:30.
(Wh – questions are answered with imperatives)
2 Suggestions or invitations
- Shall we watch TV? / Yes, let’s do. / No let’s not.
- When shall we visit her? / Let’s visit her on Monday.
(All questions are answered with “let’s”)

SHOULD
1. Unfulfilled obligation in the present or future = ought to
- I should (ought to) do my homework, but I’ll go out instead.
- You should (ought to) be studying.
2. Unfulfilled obligation in the past = ought to
- I should (ought to) have studied last night, but I didn’t.
- He should (ought to) have come earlier.
3. Advisability = ought to
- You look sick. You should (ought to) go to the doctor.
- Your grades are low. You should (ought to) study more.
4. Offer (same as SHALL)
- Should I close the door? / Yes, please (do). /No, thanks.
- Where should I put the boxes? / Let’s take them to Jack.

49
MUST – HAVE TO
1. Present and Future obligation
- I must do my homework = I have to do my homework.
- He must go to the office = He has to go to the office

Note: In negative contexts, MUST and HAVE TO are different. MUST NOT expresses
prohibition and DON´T HAVE TO or DOESN´T HAVE TO express lack of necessity.
2. Past obligation
- She had to get her shot before traveling.
- We had to present the bill to guarantee the purchase.
3. Present deduction
- She doesn’t look so young. She must be around 50.
- He’s wearing a white uniform. He must work at the hospital.
4. Past deduction
- She didn’t get in on time. She must have got up late
- He looks happy. He must have won the game.

OTHER AUXILIARIES
1. WOULD RATHER (Preference)
- I’d rather stay home than go out.
- We’d rather not watch TV
2. HAD BETTER (Advisability)
- You’d better go to Hawaii on your vacation.
- He’d better not make any more mistakes.
3. WOULD LIKE (derire)
- I’d like to smoke a cigar.
- We’d like some ice cream.

50
 EXERCISES
Choose the correct MODAL and provide the appropriate form of the verb. Some blanks require
NEGATIVE forms.

1. I can’t find my key. I _________________it. (MUST-WOULD) (LOSE)

2. _____________ we _________________ the window please?

(MAY - MUST) (OPEN)
3. He got a bad grade yesterday. He ________________ harder the day before.
(SHOULD – CAN) (STUDY)
4. When you travel abroad, you _______________ many nice places.
(CAN – WOULD) (SEE)
5. Nobody answered the phone. They ____________out when I called.
(MIGHT – CAN) (BE)
6. She ______________________ it if she had wanted to. (MAY – COULD) (DO)

7.____________________________ we ____________ the results by tomorrow ?

(CAN – SHOULD) (HAVE)
8. Lions ______________________vegetables. (WILL – SHOULD) (EAT)

9. I asked them to help me, but they __________________________ .

(WOULD – CAN) (NO VERB)
10. They aren’t at home. They ___________________to the theater.
(MAY – SHOULD) (GO)
11. She _________________________ to the party but she was a little tired.
(MUST – COULD) (COME)
12. He didn’t come to class last week. He ________________________ sick.
(COULD – MUST) (BE)
13. They said they _______________ back next week. (WILL- WOULD) (BE)

14. When ____________ we __________a trip? (WOULD – SHALL) (TAKE)

15. You _____________________more careful next time.

(WOULD RATHER – HAD BETTER) (BE)

51
16. I __________________law than medicine.
(WOULD RATHER – HAD BETTER) (STUDY)
17. He _________________the last race yesterday. (BE ABLE TO - SHALL) (WIN)

18. She was late, so she _____________ a taxi. (WILL – HAVE TO) (TAKE)

19. This pen __________________ . (WOULD RATHER – WILL NOT) (WRITE)

20. When ______________ you __________ me some paper?

(CAN - SHALL) (BUY)
21. I’ve just lost my notebook. __________ you _________ me some paper?
(SHOULD – WILL) (LEND)
22. My appointment is at 3:00, and it’s almost three. I _______________________
(SHALL – HAVE TO) (GO)
23. He looks very sad. He _______________ a punishment (MUST - SHOULD) (GET)

24. It looks like it’s going to rain. You _______________your umbrella.

(SHOULD – SHALL) (TAKE)
25. Who _____________ I ___________to? (WOULD – SHALL) (TALK)

26. Why is she so late? I think she ______________. (MUST – SHOULD) (GET LOST)

27. I’m sure they _______________ it if you ask nicely (MUST -. WILL) (DO)

28. I asked for the car, but my mother __________________ it to me.

(WILL – WOULD) (LEND)
29. My father ___________________________to the movie. He doesn’t like films
(CAN – WILL) (GO)

52
 THE PASSIVE VOICE
We use the passive voice when we want to emphasize the object rather than the subject, or when
we simply want some variation while speaking or writing. The performer of the action is
omitted in most cases.

1. Simple Present am/is/are + past participle

- They speak English in Australia.

English is spoken in Australia.
- They buy many newspapers every day.
Many newspapers are bought every day.

2. Simple Past was/were + past participle

- Columbus discovered America in 1492.

America was discovered (by Columbus) in 1492.
- She bought the presents at Ripley.
The presents were bought at Ripley.

3. Simple Future am/is/are + going to + be + past participle

-They are going to fix the car soon.

The car is going to be fixed soon.
- She is going to send the letters.
The letters are going to be sent.

4. Present Continuous am/is /are + being + past participle

- He is polishing the floors now.

The floors are being polished now.
- They are calling her up every five minutes
She is being called up every five minutes.

5. Past continuous was/were + being + past participle

- He was checking the exercises.

The exercises were being checked.
- They were cleaning the house all morning.
The house was being cleaned all morning.

6. Present Perfect have/has + been + past participle

- They have taken him to the hospital.

He has been taken to the hospital.
- No one has worn those dresses before.
Those dresses haven’t been worn before.

53
7. Past Perfect had + been + past participle

- She had just finished the project.

The project had just been finished.
- We had written the invitations when you called us.
The invitations had been written when we were called.

8. Modals modal + be + past participle

- We can call her up any time.
She can be called up any time.
- She couldn´t bring the sandwiches.
The sandwiches couldn´t be brought

9. Perfect modals modal + have + been + past participle

- He must have sent the package yesterday.
The package must have been sent yesterday.
- They will have completed the bridge by June.
The bridge will have been completed by June.

SPECIAL CASES
a) Passive Voice with Noun Clauses:

- They say that he is rich.

It is said that he is rich.
He is said to be rich.

- People say that life is more difficult than years ago.

It is said that life is more difficult than years ago.
Life is said to be more difficult than years ago.

- They believe that turtles live longer than elephants.

It is believed that turtles live longer than elephants.
Turtles are believed to live longer than elephants.

- People think that this car costs a lot

It is thought that this car cost a lot.
This car is thought to cost a lot.

b) Passive Voice with Expect

- They expect me to sign the contract quickly.

I am expected to sign the contract quickly.
They expect the contract to be signed quickly.
The contract is expected to be singed quickly.

- We never expected them to print the article.

They were never expected to print the article.
We never expected the article to be printed.
The article was never expected to be printed.

54
 EXERCISES

Change the following sentences into PASSIVE.

1. They make many cars in Detroit.

________________________________________________________________

2. They might publish his story when he finishes it.

________________________________________________________________

3. They were taking the car to the mechanic.

________________________________________________________________

4. She has found some new articles recently.

________________________________________________________________

5. They are building a new house on the corner.

________________________________________________________________

6. They haven’t climbed this mountain before.

________________________________________________________________

7. After they had washed the car, they took it to the garage.
________________________________________________________________

8. They didn’t repair the lamp yesterday.

________________________________________________________________

9. He is going to choose the winners.

_______________________________________________________________

10. He was painting all the rooms.

________________________________________________________________

11. They have already mailed the letter.

________________________________________________________________

12. You did all the exercises before the exam.

________________________________________________________________

13. He has to call you up soon.

________________________________________________________________

14. You should finish the reports today.

________________________________________________________________

15. Brazil produces a lot of coffee.

________________________________________________________________

16. They may have written the report last night

________________________________________________________________

55
17. They didn’t tell her about the problem.
________________________________________________________________

18. You should have done that earlier.

________________________________________________________________

19. They think that he lives in a castle.

________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

20. People know that there is a roadblock on the highway.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

21. They say that she makes good money.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

22. People believe that these courses are hard.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

23. We don’t expect her to bring the package.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

24. I expected them to take the papers to the office.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

25. She expects us to mail the letter tomorrow.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

26. He expected her to type the report as soon as possible.

________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

56
 VERBS AFTER PREPOSITIONS

When we want to use a verb after a preposition, the verb is almost always an -ING form.

Example:
- I’m interested in learning French.
- We are keen on skating.
- She is good at rafting.
- I prevented her from making that mistake.
- We always review before taking an exam.
- She usually listens to the radio while studying.
- They left without saying good bye.

When the preposition we are working with is FOR or AFTER, we have two possibilities:
Thanks for coming = Thanks for having come.
He left after writing the letter = He left after having written the letter.

EXCEPTION:
The preposition “To” is almost always followed by a simple form.
Examples:
- I’d like to have some coffee
-We are supposed to do the exercises now.
- He used to work in a bank, but not anymore.

EXCEPTION OF THE EXCEPTION:

We use -ING after following:
I’m used to getting up late = I’m accustomed to getting up late
He got used to working here = He got accustomed to working here.
We´ re looking forward to receiving our checks.
I object to doing that.

Note: BE USED TO – GET USED TO – LOOK FORWARD TO and OBJECT TO, can
also be followed by nouns.
- We were used to that book.
- She’s getting used to my way of doing things.
- I always look forward to parties.
- He objects to my methods.

57
 VERBS AFTER OTHER VERBS

Verbs may be followed by other verbs, with or without an object noun or pronoun between
them. We will work with infinitives, -ING forms and simple forms.

1.VERB + INFINITIVE

The following verbs can be used only with infinitives:

agree desire learn promise decide

care fail mean refuse hope
consent hesitate offer pretend

Examples:
- He failed to win the race.
- I hope to pass the course.
- She has decided to be an actress.
- You promised to take me to the circus.

2. VERB + OBJECT + INFINITIVE

This is the only word pattern for the following verbs:

advise forbid invite request

allow force oblige teach
cause get* order tell
convince hire permit urge
encourage instruct persuade remind

* Only when it means persuade.(see causatives at the end of this lesson).

Examples:
- I’ll advise them to study more.
- Why don’t you encourage him to try harder?
- They have invited us to have dinner with them.
- Sue taught Bill to add and subtract.

3. VERB + (OBJECT) + INFINITIVE

These verbs may be used with or without an object, but with different meanings.

ask like prepare would like

expect need want

Examples:
- I expect to get a good job.
- I expect you to get a good job.
- He wants to buy the tickets.
- He wants them to buy the tickets.

58
4. VERB + -ING

These verbs can only be followed by –ING forms. We are including some useful expressions as
well.

admit deny it’s no use appreciate

enjoy it’s (not) worth practice recall
avoid finish keep (on) can’t help/can’t stand
get through mind regret suggest
consider give up postpone go through with

Examples:
- I can’t help hating him.
- He denies taking the money.
- We enjoy working for this company.
- It’s no use crying for that money.
- That problem is not worth worrying about.

5. VERB + INFINITIVE or –ING form

Both structures have exactly the same meaning.

attempt intend plan try neglect

begin like prefer continue start

Examples:
- Jean likes reading. = Jean likes to read.
- I began working last year. = I began to work last year.

6. FORGET - REMEMBER - STOP

These verbs can be followed by infinitives or –ING forms, but with different meanings.
Examples:
- I remembered to lock the door.
(First I remembered that I had to lock the door, and then I did it)
- I remembered locking the door.
(I locked the door and now I remember that I did it)

- John forgot to lock the door.

(He did not lock it)
- John forgot locking the door.
(He just doesn’t remember whether he did it or not).

- She stopped to smoke.

(She stopped an action in order to smoke).
- She stopped smoking.
(She doesn’t smoke anymore)

59
7. VERB + OBJECT + SIMPLE FORM or –ING

Verbs that fall in this category are called Perception Verbs:

notice observe see watch

hear smell feel

Examples:
- I heard them sing = I heard them singing.
- We like to see you work = We like to see you working.

The only difference between the two structures is that when we use –ING we are emphasizing
the continuity of the action.

8. CAUSATIVES
These constructions explain the one person causes another person to do something.
a) HAVE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING
- I always have my secretary go to the bank for me.
- She had her son paint the house last week.
- We haven’t had the mechanic check the car yet
- Tom is having the tailor make him a new suit.
- I’m going to have them count their money again.
- He was having her type some letters when I arrived.
- She had already had the electrician fix the radio.

b) HAVE SOMETHING DONE.

- He has his picture taken every year
- I had my car fixed two days ago.
- My grandmother has already had the roof painted.
- Are they having a cake made for the party?
- We are going to have our eyes examined soon.
- I was having the car washed when it began to rain.
- They hadn’t had the floor waxed yet.
- Would you like to have your subscription renewed?
-
c) MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING/GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING
- The sergeant made the soldiers do 50 push-ups.
- I couldn’t get my brother to drive me downtown.

60
d) LET / HELP SOMEONE DO SOMETHING
These verbs are not causative but their grammar is similar.
- My parents never let me stay out late.
- Can you help me carry these books?

* Help can also be followed by an infinitive.

- Can you help me to carry these books?

EXERCISES

Complete the following sentences with the correct form of the verbs.

1. We are tired of ___________________ to the same kind of music.

(listen)

2. He prevented us from _______________ that mountain.

(climb)

3. They have refused _________________ on a trip.

(go)

4. I always have to remind John _______________ his pill.

(take)

5. Do you want me ____________________ the house instead of you?

(clean)

6. She admits ________________________ the money.

(lose)

7. Does he prefer ____________________ at home?

(stay)

8. We forgot ________________________ the door.

(close)

9. Don’t you smell something _____________?

(burn)

10. The police officer made the driver _________________.

( stop )

11. I congratulated him for ________________ his studies.

(finish)

61
12. Are you used to _______________________early?
(get up)

13. I was supposed to ______________________ to class on time.

(get)

14. We decided ________________________ to the wedding.

(go not)

15. Have you told Mary _____________________ her grandmother?

(visit)

16. He asked me _________________________ to his boss.

(talk)

17. It’s no use ___________________________ an old - fashioned car

(buy)

18. She’s planning ______________________ married next year.

(get)

19. I remembered _____________________ the windows before I left the house.

(close)

20. We felt the river _____________________

(flow)

21. I got Joe _____________________________ my homework.

(do)

22. Are you interested in _____________________ Chinese?

(learn)

23. They called me after ____________________ the teacher.

(call)

24. I’m looking forward to ____________________ a better job.

(get)

25. She’s getting used to ________________ out.

(eat)

26. He hopes __________________ a raise very soon.

(get)

27. I didn’t allow them ______________ skiing.

(go)

28. He avoided _______________________ pork chops.

(eat)

62
29. Will you let me _____________________ to France?
(travel)

30. She stopped ________________________ with her father last year.

(work)

EXERCISES

HAVE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING Vs HAVE SOMETHING DONE

1. I _____________ my sister_______ some letters for me tonight.

(type)

2. Where do you advise me to _________ my radio __________?

(fix)

3. They ___________ a teacher _______their daughter some lessons now.

(give)

4. He ___________ already __________the lamp ________when I visited him.

(fix)

5. My boss often ____________ me ______________ to the bank for him.

(go)

6. I _______ ________my car ___________ at the same place since I bought it.
(wash)

7. We would like to ____________ a bartender ______________ the drinks.

(mix)

8. She ___________ 2 teeth __________________ next week.

(pull out)

9. ______________ you ______________your hair _________________ yet?

(do)

10. He ____________ his son __________ him when the earthquake began.
(help)

11. How many exercises ________________ the Math teacher___________________

you and your classmates _________________ for homework every day?

(write)

12. _____________ Mr. Miller ________________ his book _______________

(translate)
into French right after he wrote it?

63
 COMPOUND SENTENCES AND INVERTED STRUCTURES

COMPOUND SENTENCES

1. ECHO STRUCTURES:

AFFIRMATIVE
I am a teacher, and my sister is too
I am a teacher, and so is my sister.

Tom has a new car, and Alice does too.

Tom has a new car, and so does Alice.

We went to the theater, and Joyce did too.

We went to the theater, and so did Joyce.

They will be at home, and I will too.

They will be at home, and so will I.

NEGATIVE
He wasn’t there, and his parents weren’t either.
He wasn’t there, and neither were his parents.

We haven’t seen the film, and she hasn’t either.

We haven’t seen the film, and neither has she.

I don’t like tea, and Fred doesn’t either.

I don’t like tea, and neither does Fred.

Rita can’t speak Italian, and I can’t either.

Rita can’t speak Italian, and neither can I.

CONSTRASTIVE
They are working, but their cousin isn’t.
They aren’t working, but their cousin is.

We have to do it, but she doesn’t.

We don’t have to do it, but she does.

He had written the assignments, but I hadn’t.

He hadn’t written the assignment, but I had.

I will come at 10, but she won’t

I won’t come at 10, but she will.

64
2. INVERTED STRUCTURES: (ONLY WITH NEGATIVE IDEAS)

She seldom goes out at night.

Seldom does she go out at night.

They have never met him.

Never have they met him.

I rarely studied hard at school.

Rarely did I study hard at school.

She had hardly finished when her boss showed up.

Hardly had she finished when her boss showed up.

I had no sooner got home than the lights went out.

No sooner had I got home than the lights went out.

She not only studies English, but also works in a bank.

Not only does she study English, but also works in a bank.

3. COMPOUND STRUCTURES: either …………..or

They went to the movies. They went to the theater.

They went either to the movies or to the theater.

He speaks German. He speaks Danish.

He speaks either German or Danish.

You can stay home. You can go out.

You can either stay home or go out.

He is going to pick her up. I am going to pick her up.

Either he or I am going to pick her up.

Neither …………. nor

She doesn’t know. She doesn’t care.

She neither knows nor cares.

I didn’t buy the car. I didn’t buy the bike.

I bought neither the car nor the bike.

We won’t go today. We won’t go tomorrow.

We’ll go neither today nor tomorrow.

They haven’t seen it. She hasn’t seen it.

Neither they nor she has seen it.

65
 Both………..and

Bob bought the boat. He bought the boots.

Bob bought both the boat and the boots.

She went to the bank. She went to the office.

She went both to the bank and to the office.

I know. Mr. Williams. I know Mr. Carter.

I know both Mr. Williams and Mr. Carter.

Henry is in this class. I am in this class.

Both Henry and I are in this class.

Not only …. ….but also

He went to the movies. He went to the restaurant.

He went not only to the movies, but also to the restaurant.

I sweep the floor. I dust the furniture.

I not only sweep the floor, but also dust the furniture

She studies at the university. She works in an office.

She not only studies at the university, but also works in an office.

He bought a pair of shoes. He bought a leather jacket.

He bought not only a pair of shoes but also a leather jacket.

She is going to travel next holiday. He is going to travel next holiday.

Not only she but also he is going to travel next holiday

EXERCISES

I. Complete the following with: TOO – SO – EITHER – NIETHER and the appropriate
verb or auxiliary.

1. I have a new car, and my sister _______________ _______________

2. He will go out, and ________________ ________ his parents.
3. The book isn’t here, and the pens _____________ _____________
4. She didn’t like the movie, and __________ ____________ I
5. Peter has been sick, and __________ ___________ they.
6. I can’t swim well, and ___________ _____________ my uncle.
7. We have to work, and she ____________ _____________
8. They aren’t studying, and I ___________ ______________
9. I’d better do it, and _____________ _________________ you.

66
 10. The meat wasn’t expensive, and ____________ ____________
the vegetables.
11. Betty hasn’t finished her homework, and ___________ ___________
Janet.
12. I sold my car.
Really? __________________ ______________________ I.
13. Mr. Hawkins plays backgammon and Mr. Sanders ___________
_________________ .
14 The car isn’t working, and the bike ___________ ____________
15 I can’t find his address, and _____________ _______ my sister.
16 I don’t have an extra pen, and Susan ___________ __________
17 My car is new, and my guitar ______________ _____________
18 My sister has gone to the circus and ____________ __________
my cousin.
19. I finished school, and _______________ _____________ my brothers.
20. I’ve just had dinner, and my father ____________ _______________

II. (CONTRASTIVE)
1. I’ve collected all the paper, but she_________________________ .
2. I don’t know his address, but Jane _________________________ .
3. I’ll eat with you, but she _________________________________ .
4. She hasn’t slept for 14 hours, but he _______________________ .
5. They have to clean the house, but I _________________________ .

III. INVERTED STRUCTURES

1 They hardly talk to each other.

__________________________________________________

2 I have never gone to Italy.

__________________________________________________

3 She seldom loses her keys.

__________________________________________________

4 We had hardly left when she called us.

__________________________________________________

67
 5 She rarely went to parties.
__________________________________________________

IV. JOIN THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

1. She cooks well. She sews well. (either….or)

__________________________________________________

2. Tim likes to dance. His brother likes to dance. (both…and)

__________________________________________________

3. He sells cars. He sells houses. (not only….but also)

__________________________________________________

4. She doesn’t like movies. She doesn’t like plays. (neither…nor)

__________________________________________________

5. I have a headache. I have a toothache. (both …..and )

__________________________________________________

6. We haven’t eaten. She hasn’t eaten. (neither…nor)

__________________________________________________

7. You can buy potatoes. You can buy onions. (either….or)

__________________________________________________

8. I design my clothes. I make them. (not only… but also)

__________________________________________________

9. They were going to help you. I was going to help you. (either…or)
__________________________________________________

10. She didn’t call him. She didn’t visit him. (neither….nor)
__________________________________________________

11. Susan will wash the dishes. Her sister will wash them. (either …or)
__________________________________________________

12. The front door wasn’t painted. The back door wasn’t painted. (neither…nor)
__________________________________________________

13. She sells furniture. She sells gold necklaces. (not only… but also)
__________________________________________________

14. I’ve bought a new car. I’ve bought a gold ring. (both…and)
__________________________________________________

15. They study at the same university. They work together. (not only…but also)
__________________________________________________

68
16. The maid may clean the house. The maid may go shopping. (either…or)
__________________________________________________

17. I crashed my mother’s car. I crashed my father’s car. (both…and)

__________________________________________________

18. She hasn’t brought the new CDs. They haven’t brought them. (neither ... nor)
__________________________________________________

19. She saw the doctor. She went dancing. (not only…but also)
__________________________________________________

20. She’s going to travel. I’m going to travel. (either… … or)

__________________________________________________

69
 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

IF CLAUSES

If clauses express conditions in three different clauses: Present, Past and Future. They are also
called Contrary – to – fact if clauses.

MAIN CLAUSE IF CLAUSE

Possible Future Will / Can + V. Simple form Present

Unreal Present Would / Could + V. Simple form Past Subjunctive

Unreal Past Would / Could + have + P.P. Past Perfect

Examples:
- I will call you if I have time tomorrow.
(If I have time tomorrow, I will call you)

- She can go if her father lends her the car.

(If her father lends her the car, she can go)

- They will call you if they get home early.

(If they get home early, they will call you)

- She could get the job if she spoke English

(If she spoke English, she could get the job)

- Tom would study more if he didn’t have to work.

(If Tom didn’t have to work, he would study more)

- I would visit her if she were here.

(If she were here, I would visit her)

- They would have come if they had known the address.

(If they had known the address, they would’ve come)

- She could have passed the course if she had wanted to.
(If she’d wanted to, she would’ve passed the course)

- He would’ve enjoyed the show if he’d gone with us.

(If he’d gone with us, he would´ve enjoyed the show)

70
 EXERCISES

IF CLAUSES. Fill in the blanks. Some forms are negative.

1. If she ____________________ home late last night, he _____________________ mad at her.

(get) (be)

2. I ___________________ more if I __________________________ more time than I do.

(read) (have)

3. He ____________________ to the party tomorrow if he ________________ any homework.

(go) (have)

4. __________ you _______________ me last night if you ________________ I was at home?

(call) (know)

5. She ___________________ so much chalk every week if she _________________ a teacher.

(buy) (be)

6. Where ________ they ______________ if they __________________ to Ohio next month?

(stay) (travel)

7. If he __________________________ to come last night, he ______________________ you.

(be able) (tell)

8. If I _______________________ Paul, I ______________________ that job right now.

(be) (take)

9. We ______________________ her up next Sunday if she _______________________ us to.

(pick) (ask)

10. If he ____________________ out of town last week, you ______________________ him.

(be) (see)

WHETHER CLAUSES

Whether clauses are considered the opposite of IF CLAUSES. Whether indicates that the
condition described has no effect on the fact mentioned in the main clause.

Example:
- I will go whether I get a ride or not
(I will go whether or not I get a ride)

Note: As you can see, the OR NOT can follow WHETHER or it can be used at the end of the
sentence. Also notice the WHETHER clauses have the same grammar as IF CLAUSES.

Examples:
- You will have to work whether you like it or not
(You will have to work whether or not you like it)

71
- He would come to class whether he were sick or not.
(He would come to class whether or not he were sick)

- She would have passed the test whether she had studied or not.
(She would have passed the test whether or not she had studied).

UNLESS CLAUSES

UNLESS CLAUSES also have the same grammar as IF CLAUSES. They are the negative of IF.
The meaning is IF NOT.

Examples:
- I won’t go out unless I have to.
- He would come to class unless he were sick.
- They would’ve bought the car unless they had had enough money.

Note: WHETHER CLAUSES and UNLESS CLAUSES can be used before main clauses as
well.

REASON CLAUSES

Reason clauses are introduced by BECAUSE, SINCE, AS or FOR. Only FOR cannot be used in
initial position.

Examples:
- He didn’t come to class BECAUSE he was sick.
- I never drink coffee SINCE it makes me nervous.
- She always loses her pens AS she’s very absentminded.
- They won’t go out FOR they don’t have enough money.
- BECAUSE he was sick, he didn’t come to class.
- AS she’s very absentminded, she always loses her pens.

CLAUSES AFTER WISH

Wish clauses express events or states that are unreal or contrary-to-fact. When we want to refer
to the present, the verb in the clause is in the past subjunctive (unreal present), and when we
want to refer to the past, the verb in the clause is in the past perfect.

Examples:
(PRESENT) - I wish (that) she were here.
- We wish (that) he worked harder.
- She wishes (that) I didn’t have to work.
- I wish (that) I didn’t have to work.

72
(PAST) - I wish (that) I had met her before.
- They wish (that) the show had begun earlier.
- She wishes (that) she hadn’t gone out.
- We wish (that) we had been there.

(FUTURE) - I wish she would come tomorrow.

- He wishes someone would give him some money.
- They wish I would help them.

CLAUSES AFTER AS IF / AS THOUGH

The clauses also express unreality and have the same grammar as clauses after WISH.

Examples:

(PRESENT) - He acts as if he were a millionaire.

- She speaks as though she knew the answer.

(PAST) - It looks as if you had seen a ghost.

- He acts as though he had won the lottery.

CLAUSES OF MANNER

They are not very frequent. They are introduced by AS.

Examples:
- Why don’t you do it as I told you?
- He is working as we taught him to.

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES

Comparative clauses are also called the double comparative structure. They express that the
degree of on action or state depends on the degree of another.

Example:

- The more you study, the higher your grades will be.
- The less one spends, the more one saves.
- The farther we live from work, the earlier we have to get up.

73
 EXERCISES

MIXED CLAUSES. Complete the following sentences. Some forms must be negative.

1. I wish she _____________________ here now. (BE)

2. He can’t see her because she _________ away. (GO)
3. I’ll call you unless I _____________ a telephone. (FIND)
4. They would help him whether or not they ________ their homework. (FINISH)
5. The more she eats, ___________ she gets. (FAT)
6. He acts as if he _______________ a well–known scientist. (BE)
7. Why don’t you do it as you ____________ ? (BE TAUGHT)
8. He wishes he _________________ to the party last night. (GO)
9. Since he didn’t come, he ____________ ask for somebody else’s notebook. (HAVE TO)
10. It looks as though the accident ___________ provoked. (BE)
11. Unless she is busy, she _________________ her little brother. (HELP)
12. They wish they _______________ the assignment last night. (FINISH)
13. As we didn’t know the truth, we ______________ our viewpoint. (GIVE)
14. Whether he likes it or not, he _____________ work. (HAVE TO)
15. She is speaking as if she _____________ all the truth. (KNOW)
16. The less you earn, __________________ things you can buy. (FEW)
17. Are you cooking it as you _______________ ? (BE TOLD)
18. She wishes she _____________ somewhere else now. (BE)
19. We left for we _____________ be at the concert on time. (HAVE TO)
20. He studied as though he _________________ only one opportunity to pass to exam.
(HAVE)

PURPOSE CLAUSES

Purpose clauses contain one of the following modals: CAN, COULD, MAY, MIGHT, WILL or
WOULD. They have a specific rule.

Present
Present –ING
Future + SO THAT + WILL / CAN / MAY + V.SIMPLE
Present Perfect

Past
Past –ING + SO THAT + WOULD / COULD / MIGHT + V. SIMPLE
Past Perfect

74
Examples:
- I always study very hard so that I can get good grades.
- He is checking everything so that there won’t be any trouble.
- She is going to get up early so that she can get to work on time.
- They’ve started saving money so that they will buy a car.
- I went to bed early so that I could get enough sleep.
- We were practicing so hard so that we would learn the lesson well.

RESULT CLAUSES

Result Clauses also use the word SO. However, they express a result, a consequence rather than
purpose. A comma is placed before SO, and there is no rule of tenses at all.

Examples:
- I’ve been working a lot this week, so I’m very tired now.
- She didn’t come yesterday, so she will surely come today.
- He is on vacation, so he’s planning to take a trip.
- I was drinking a lot yesterday, so I have a terrible hangover today
- We know Mr. Allen, so he invited us to his party last week.

TIME CLAUSES

Time clauses are introduced by one of the following words. WHEN, WHILE, BEFORE,
AFTER, UNTIL, SINCE or the expressions AS SOON AS and THE MOMENT.
Time Clauses are usually expressed in the Present or in the Past (Never in the future)

Examples:
- I often get headaches when I read.
- We will call you after we get home.
- She is going to wait until he comes.
- Look at his letter before you go out.
- I’ll let you know as soon as I hear from him.
- They are going to recognize her the moment she arrives.
- I waited until they called me up.
- She was eating lunch while I was out.
- He had mailed the letter when he realized it was the wrong one.
- They have lived in that house since they came to Lima.
- She had finished before we went out.

Note: Sometimes people use the Present Perfect instead of the Present in time clauses. Look at
the following examples.
- I will call you as soon as she has arrived (… arrives ..)
- Brush your teeth after you’ve had dinner (… have …)
- He’s going to bed the moment he’s got home (… gets …)
- They will faint when they’ve heard the news (… hear …)

75
Note: All the examples above can change their order. That is, they could be used to start a
sentence.
Examples:
- Since she graduated, she had had three different jobs.
- While he was in the Navy, he learned to cook.
- When he calls her, she will tell him the truth.
- The moment you have finished your work, you can go out.

EXERCISES

PURPOSE CLAUSES: Complete the following sentences.

1. I always have breakfast at 7 so that I …………………………… my things earlier. (DO)

2. He set his alarm clock so that he …………………….. on time. (GET UP)
3. We are going to buy the tickets early so that we ……….………… worried about them. (BE)
4. Harry was studying hard so that he ………………………. an “A” on the exam. (GET)
5. She’s saved her money so that she ……………………. a bigger house. (BUY)
6. I gave her some money so that we……………………. something to eat (GET)
7. We usually do exercises so that we …………….…………. the new patterns (LEARN)
8. He took a taxi so that he ……………………. at home on time. (ARRIVE)
9. I took my son to the dentist so that he ………………….. any cavities. (HAVE)
10. She never drives fast so that she ………………………. a ticket (GET)

RESULT CLAUSES: Complete the following sentences:

1. We like music, so we …………………………… to be musicians. (PLAN)
2. I worked very hard yesterday, so I …………………… tomorrow (REST)
3. She isn’t feeling well, so she ………………………….. the doctor (SEE)
4. He spent a lot of money on clothes, so he ………………….. money to pay his taxes now.
(HAVE)
5. We’re going to have a test, so we ……………………… before it. (STUDY)
6. I didn’t study for the last exam, so I …………………….. the course. (FAIL)
7. The weather forecast says it’s going to rain, so I ……………………. my umbrella
(TAKE)
8. There weren’t any good TV programs last night, so I ………………………. to bed early
(GO)
9. The O’Haras wanted to see as much of the country as possible on their trip to Peru, so they
……………………. the longest tour. (TAKE)
10. My boss has promised to give me three weeks off next month, so I ……………… to
Huaraz. (TRAVEL)

TIME CLAUSES: Complete the following sentences.

1. After I had dinner last night, I …………………… a ride. (TAKE)
2. Do you ever come to class before the teacher ………………….. ? (GET IN)
3. As soon as I hear from him, I ………………………… you (CALL)
4. She went downtown the moment the bomb…………………….. . (BLOW UP)
5. I’ve known the Gonzales since they ……………………. from their country (COME)
6. When we have finished the course, we …………………. a party. (HAVE)
7. They don´t want to get married until they …………………..better jobs. (FIND)

76
8. I’ll be studying while Tom ………………….. at the party. (BE)
9. Before we left the house, we …………………….. the windows (CHECK)
10. She often goes to bed after she …………………… the dishes. (WASH)
11. He went out as soon as he ………………….. the car horn. (HEAR)
12. What did you do while I ……………………….. at the store? (BE)
13. The moment he arrived, everybody ………………… him. (GREET)
14. I’m not going to stop studying until I ……………………. everything. (FINISH)
15. Had you already had lunch when I …………………… you? (CALL)

CONCESSION AND CONSEQUENCE WORDS

1. ALTHOUGH – EVEN THOUGH – THOUGH (+CLAUSE)

He couldn’t win the race although he ran very fast.
Although he ran very fast, he couldn’t win the race.

I’ve decided to stay home even though I bought a ticket.

Even though I bought the ticket, I’ve decided to stay home.

She doesn’t have a job. She helps around the house, though.
I tried some Thai food last week. I didn’t like it, though.

2. IN SPITE OF – DESPITE (+ NOUN / -ING / THE FACT THAT + CLAUSE)

We failed the test in spite of our effort.
(We failed the test despite our effort)
In spite of our effort, we failed the test.
(Despite our effort, we failed the test)

He came to class in spite of being sick.

(He came to class despite being sick)
In spite of being sick, he came to class.
(Despite being sick, he came to class)

I lost the game in spite of the fact that I tried hard.

(I lost the game despite the fact that I tried hard)
In spite of the fact that I tried hard, I lost the game.
(Despite the fact that I tried hard, I lost the game)

77
3. THUS – THEREFORE – CONSEQUENTLY – AS A RESULT
He always studies very hard. Thus, he always gets good grades.
I’ve just graduated. Therefore, I’m looking for a job now.
She’s not busy right now. Consequently, she can help you.
Ted rested all day. As a result, he feels better now.

4. (YET – NEVERTHELESS – HOWEVER) – (MOREOVER – FURTHERMORE –

BESIDES) – AS A MATTER OF FACT – BECAUSE OF
I did the exercise. Yet, the teacher gave me a bad grade even my effort.
She got 11 on her paper. Nevertheless, she’s happy with it.
I’d like to go. However, I have a lot of work to do.
I know the rules. Moreover, I have learned all the exceptions.
He likes animals. Furthermore, he has 7 pets at home.
We own several houses. Besides, we have 2 planes and a yacht.
They play really well. As a matter of fact, they have been champions for 3 years.
She always loses her things because of her forgetfulness.

EXERCISES
Join the following sentences using the words in parentheses.
1. The class is interesting. I have to go home. (ALTHOUGH)

2. There’s bad weather. We’ll go to the beach (IN SPITE OF) (NOUN)

3. He works a lot. He makes a lot of money (THUS)

4. He tries hard. He’s not a good player. (YET)

5. Bob’s team won. He scored all the goals. (MOREOVER)

78
6. I woke up early. I got to work late. (DESPITE – V. ING)

7. You are far away. You’re always on my mind (EVEN THOUGH)

8. I studied a lot last night. I’ll pass the exam. (THEREFORE)

9. He has a lot of friends. He feels alone. (HOWEVER)

10. It rained a lot. Nobody could go camping. (BECAUSE OF)

11. Nobody knew about the quiz. No one got a bad grade. (IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT)

12. I like operas. I always buy tickets on time. (CONSEQUENTLY)

13. I never set the alarm. I never get to work late either. (NEVERTHELESS)

14. There was a hurricane. People kept their faith. (DESPITE) (NOUN)

15. I’ve finished today’s homework. I’ve done tomorrow’s. (FURTHERMORE)

79
16. I can’t go. Thanks for asking me. (THOUGH)

17. They like to practice a lot. They’re excellent players. (AS A MATTER OF FACT)

18. I’ve had breakfast. I’m still hungry. (IN SPITE OF – ING)

19. I’m saving all my money. I’m going to buy a house. (AS A RESULT)

20. I studied hard. I failed the exam. (DESPITE THE FACT THAT)

80
 MISCELLANEOUS SECTION

1. So Vs. Such
- She was so fat that she broke the chair.
She was such a fat woman that she broke the chair.
- Those children are so nice that everybody loves them.
They are such nice children that everybody loves them.

Note: MUCH – MANY – FEW and LITTLE are always used with SO.
- She has so much money that she doesn’t know what to do with it.

Fill in the blanks:

a) He felt …………………………… tired that he went to bed early.
b) She’s ……………………. a good swimmer that she won the race.
c) I loved the movie. It was ……………………… a lovely story.
d) They have ………………………. little time left that they have to run.

2. It’s (high) time

- It’s time the children went to bed (verb in subjunctive)
- It’s high time they came.
Fill in the blanks:
a) It’s time she …………………… here. (BE)
b) It’s high time they ………………… the truth (LEARN)

3. Steal Vs. Rob

- He stole the money from the bank.
- The tall woman stole Picasso’s painting.
- The big house near mine was robbed.
- They robbed her all her money.

Fill in the blanks:

a) They have just ……………………. the bank.
b) Her car was …………………….. last week.
c) The thief couldn’t ……………………… all the jewelry.

81
4. As long as = provided = providing = but only if (conditional)
- You can take my notebook as long as you give it back to me tomorrow.
- Travelling by ship is fun provided (that) you don’t get dizzy.
- Providing (that) he does all of the exercises, he should understand the lesson.

5. It’s/This is the (ordinal number) + (that) + subject + Present Perfect

- It’s the 3rd time I’ve read this book.
- This is the first time we have gone there.

Fill in the blanks:

a) It’s the first time he ……………………. so sick. (BE)
b) This is the 2 time I …………………… that movie (SEE)
nd

6. One / Ones (pronoun)

You can say all of the following: the blue one(s) - the tall one(s) – the old one(s) – which one(s)
– this one – that one.
We cannot say these ones or those ones.

7. Passive Voice with Need to be + P.P.

We need to take care of the baby = The baby needs to be taken care of.
She needs to water those plants = Those plants need to be watered.

Note: Sometimes we can also use a gerund after NEED.

- The floor needs to be waxed / The floor needs waxing.
- Your car needs to be fixed / Your car needs fixing.

Rewrite the following:

a) We need to sweep those stairs.
……………………………………………………………………..
b) I need to look after those dogs.
……………………………………………………………………..
c) You need to wash this shirt.
……………………………………………………………………..

82
8. Adjective Vs. Adverb
She is beautiful. = (beautiful = adj)
She sings beautifully. = (beautifully = adv)

(adv. + adj.) = She was terribly sorry.

(adv. + adv.) = She did everything amazingly well.
Adv. + past participle (adj.) = This building was totally destroyed

Choose the correct word

a) The driver was ……………………… injured (serious – seriously)
b) Be …………………. . I’m trying to concentrate. (quiet – quietly)
c) I waited ……………….. in the living room (nervous – nervously)
d) It rained ………………… for 3 days (continuous – continuously)
e) They are very …………… married. (happy – happily)
f) His French is very ………………. . (fluent - fluently)
g) She dances very ………………… . (good – well )
h) Ann is wearing ………………… clothes (colorful – colorfully)
i) The car was ……………………. cheap. (reasonable – reasonably)
j) She’s ………………….. upset about it (terrible – terribly)

9. Enough Vs. Very Vs. Too.

Enough : Adj. / adv. + enough : big enough / well enough
Enough + noun : enough bread
Too : Expresses impossibility or complaint
- That exercise is too difficult for me. I need help.
Very : Intensifier
- This house is in very bad condition.

Fill in the blanks:

a) He’s only 19. He’s ………… to be a graduated teacher. (young)
b) She’s ……………………... to go to the party. She can’t move (tired)
c) I think this house is …………………. for us. We’ll be fine. (big)
d) We arrived ……………….. ., but we caught the train. (late)
e) We arrived ……………….., and missed the train (late)

83
10. Other quantifiers:
A good (great) deal of (mass nouns): Expresses a large quantity. A good deal of cannot be used
in negative sentences. - We had a great deal of fun.

Several (count nouns): Expresses a small indefinite number.

- He had written several books.
Not all (count nouns): Expresses not the whole group.
- Not all teachers promote children’s creativity.

11. Even:
- Nobody studied for the quiz. Jane is the best student, but on yesterday’s quiz, even Jane got a
bad grade.
- My neighbor is very stingy. He doesn’t give tips; not even a coin.
- He surprised us all; he even washed the dishes.
- She never hurries; even when she is late.
- Each team has won 2 sets. They are even (on the same level).
- Even numbers vs. odd numbers.

12. Like – As:

Like : similar to.
- She is like my mother. She’s raised me since I was a child.
As : in the place of/ in the position.
- During the war, this hotel was used as a hospital.
Fill in the blanks:
a) He works ……………………. a mule.
b) She sings …………………….. Britney Spears.
c) Stop acting …………………. a baby.
d) I was hired …………………… an assistant.

13. Numbered – Noun Modifiers:

The attribute noun is singular in form and the expression is usually written with a hyphen.
- That girl is sixteen years old = That’s a sixteen-year-old girl.
- My car has four doors; and hers is a four-door car too.
- I found a fifty-dollar bill.

84
14. it is I who found the key.
It was they who got the job.
- It’s in this office that the applicants are interviewed. (not where)
- It was there that I lost my watch (not where)
- It was in this way that Joan of Arc was tortured (not how)
- It’s in that way that the products are manufactured. (not how)
- It’s on Friday that I’m going to get married (not when)
- It was last Monday that I met him (not when)

15. Twice as …………………… as

- Susan weighs 50 kgs. Albert weighs 100 kgs.
Albert is twice as fat as Susan.

- There are 20 students in Mr. Brown’s class. Mr. Jones has 40.
Mr. Jones’s class has twice as many students as Mr. Brown’s.

- I bought 2 packages of butter. My sister bought 1 package.

I bought twice as much butter as my sister.

- The blue car costs $60.000. The red car costs $20.000.
The blue car is 3 times as expensive as the red car.

16. Fairly (+) Rather (-) / Pretty (informal)

Limiters with adjectives or adverbs
Fairly : a positive limiter. Used in formal style.
- It’s a fairly good book (not too bad)

Rather : Used in formal style. It suggests that a quality is bad or unsuitable.

- It’s rather hot (hotter than I would like to be)

Pretty : Used in informal style means the same

This house is pretty big.

85
17. Parallel Structure:
- This machine is fast, safe and easy to use. (correct)
- He likes to read, dance, cook, jog, write and sing. (correct)
- He likes dancing, swimming, running and acting. (correct)
- He hates going to parties, eating vegetables and to sleep late. (wrong)
- You have to take History, English and how to solve math problems (wrong)

18. Go + V(ing): Means recreation.

- Go swimming. I love to go swimming.
- Go shopping. Helen often goes shopping with her sister.
- Go dancing / camping / hunting, etc.

19. By + V(ing):
- Answers questions about actions. How ………………….?
How did he win the game? By cheating.
He won it by cheating.
How did they find the tent? By following the stars.
They found the tent by following the stars.
How did he learn English? By practicing with his friends.
He learned English by practicing with his friends.

20. WHAT KIND OF:

COLOR – FLAVOUR – SIZE without OF
- What colour blouse did you buy? I bought a gray one.
- What flavour ice cream does she like? She likes vanilla.

SORT – STYLE – MAKE – TYPE with or without OF:

- What style (of) films does he like? He likes science fiction.
- What type (of) books do you read? I love poetry.

KIND with OF:

- What kind of videos did you rent? I rented a thriller and a love story.

86
21. CAN’T HELP + V(ING): (can’t avoid)
- I couldn’t help laughing at his haircut. It was so funny.
- I can’t help thinking that we’ve done wrong.

CAN’T HELP IF… (it’s not someone´s fault)

- I can’t help if you lose your flight. (it’s not my fault)
- I can´t help if you fail the exam (it´s not my fault)

22. BE WILLING TO: (be anxious to) (have the will to)
- He’s willing to start his new job (he’s anxious to ………..)
- Don’t worry, I’m willing to help you (……………… have the will ………..)

23. Cross Across

Verb that indicates action Indicator of position or direction

- Don’t cross the street without - Little children sometimes walk across the
looking both ways. street without their parents.
- I’ll have an interview; cross - The store is across the park.
your fingers.

24. Remind Remember

To cause someone to remember To think of something without assistance.
about something. Two people are one person is involved.
involved. The first one is the causer.

- You remind me of my sister - I remembered to call her.

- Jane didn’t remind Sue to take - When she got home, she remembered
her pill at 8:00. where she had left the umbrella.

A thing that can be the causer too: To give regards:

- The plane’s arrival reminded the Remember me to your mother.
soldiers of the bombs in the war field.

87
25. HOPE: Refers to the unknown of any time.
a) When a person expresses a hope for something related to himself, he may use:
1. An infinitive : I hope to go to Huaraz.
2. A that clause : I hope (that) I’ll go to Huaraz.

b) To express a hope related to another person, we can only use a that clause:
- I hope (that) my children are well.
- She hopes (that) her friend won’t travel to Australia.

26. WOULD RATHER Vs. PREFER:

- I’d rather have a hamburger than a hot dog.
- I prefer a hamburger to a hot dog.

- I‘d rather stay home than go out.

- I prefer staying home to going out.

27. ORDER OF ADJECTIVES (O.S.A.SH.C.O.M + NOUN)

Opinion (beautiful, intelligent, smart)
Size (small, big, huge)
Age (old, new, antique)
Shape (round, flat, oblong)
Colour (black, reddish, blond)
Origin (Peruvian, American, Canadian)
Material (leather, wooden, woolen)
NOUN
I have bought a beautiful, black, wooden table.

28. EFFECT + ON:

- The decisions had a direct effect on the new policy.
- The effect of fluorocarbons on the ozone layer is terrible.

29. NOUN + PREPOSITION (“Reason FOR”, “Cause OF”, etc)

- A check FOR (a sum of money)
- They sent me a check for $100.

88
- A demand / a need FOR something:
- The company closed down because there wasn’t enough demand for its
products.
- A reason for something:
- The train was late but no one knew the reason for the delay.
- A rise / an increase / a fall / a decrease IN something:
- There has been an increase in automobile accidents lately.
- An advantage / a disadvantage OF something:
- The advantage of living alone is that you can do what you like.
- A cause of something:
- Nobody knows what the cause of the explosion was.
- A photograph / a picture OF someone / something:
- He always keeps a photograph of his wife in his wallet.
- Damage TO something:
- The accident was my fault, so I paid for the damage to the other car.
- An invitation TO a party / a wedding, etc:
- Did you get an invitation to the party?
- A reaction TO something:
- I was surprised at her reaction to what I said.
- A solution TO a problem / an answer TO a question / a reply TO a letter / a key TO a door:
- Do you think we’ll find a solution to this problem?
- The answer to your question is “No”!
- An attitude TO / TOWARD someone / something
- His attitude to / toward his job is very negative.
- A relationship / a connection / contact WITH someone / something:
- Do you have a good relationship with your parents?
But: a relationship / a connection / a difference BETWEEN two things:
- The police have said that there is no connection between the two murders.
- There are some differences between British English and American English.

EXERCISES
1. I have just received an invitation ……………………….. a wedding next week.
2. The company has rejected the worker’s demands ………………… an increase ……………..
pay.

89
3. There has been a sharp rise ………………… the cost of living in the past few years.
4. Bill and I used to be good friends, but I don’t have much contact ……………….. him now.
5. What were George’s reasons ………………. giving up his job?
6. Money isn’t the solution ………………….. every problem.
7. The front door is locked. Do you have the key ………………….. the back door?
8. I’ve never met Carol, but I’ve seen a picture …………………… her.
9. When he left home, his attitude …………….. his parents seemed to change.
10. The two companies are completely independent. There is no connection ………………….
them.

30. PREPOSITION + NOUN (“by mistake”, “on television”, etc)

- To pay BY check (but to pay IN cash), or BY credit card
- Did you pay by check or in cash?
- (to do something) BY accident / BY mistake / BY chance:
- We hadn’t arranged to meet. We met by chance.
- A play BY Shakespeare / a painting BY Da Vinci / a novel BY Vargas Llosa
- (to be / to fall / IN love WITH someone:
- Have you ever been in love with anyone?
- IN (my) opinion:
- In my opinion the film wasn’t very good.
- IN time (= soon enough for something / soon enough to do something):
- Will you be home in time for dinner? (= soon enough for dinner).
- We got to the station just in time to catch the train.
- ON time (= punctual, not late)
- The 11:45 train left on time. (It left at 11:45)
- The conference was well organized. Everything began on time.
- (to be) ON fire:
- Look! That car is on fire.
- (to be) ON the telephone / ON the phone or BY phone
- I’ve never met her but I’ve spoken to her on the phone.
- ON television / ON the radio:
- I didn’t watch the game on television. I listened to it on the radio.
- (to be / to go) ON a diet:
- I’ve put on a lot of weight. I’ll have to go on a diet.

90
- (to be / to go) ON strike:
- There are no trains today. The railroad workers are on strike.
- (to be / to go) ON holidays / ON business / ON a trip / ON a tour / ON a cruise / ON an
expedition, etc.
- Did you go to Paris on business or on holidays?
- One day I’d like to go on a world tour.
But you can also say “go to a place FOR a holiday / FOR my holiday”.
- Tom has gone to France for a holiday.
- Where are you going for your holiday this year?
- (to go / to come) FOR a walk / FOR a swim / FOR a meal, etc):
- She always goes for a walk with her dog in the morning.
- After work we went to the restaurant for a meal.
- (to have something) FOR breakfast / FOR lunch / FOR dinner.
- What did you have for lunch?

EXERCISES:
1. Next month I’m going to Mexico …………………. a short holiday.
2. The store clerk wouldn’t accept my check and insisted that I pay …………….. cash.
3. It was only …………………. accident that I found out who the man really was.
4. Ann liked the dress, but …………… my opinion it didn’t look very good on her.
5. I wouldn’t like to go ……………… a cruise. I think I’d get bored.
6. Do you know any songs ………………. the Beatles?
7. When we went to Rome, we went ………………… a tour around the city.
8. A dog ran across the street in front of the car, but I managed to stop just …………. time.
9. I’m hungry. What’s ……………….. dinner this evening?
10. I would like to get up ……………… time to have a big breakfast before going to work.

31. ADJECTIVE + PREPOSITION

- Nice / kind / good / generous / mean / stupid / silly / intelligent / sensible / proud / (im)
polite / rude / unreasonable OF someone (to do something):
- Thank you. It was very nice / kind of you to help me.
- It’s stupid of her to go out without a coat. She’ll catch a cold.

91
But (to be) nice / kind / good / generous / mean / (im) polite / rude / (un) pleasant / (un)
friendly / cruel TO someone:
- She has always been very nice / kind to me. (not with me).
- Why were you so rude / unfriendly to Bill?
- Angry / annoyed / furious ABOUT something.
WITH someone FOR doing something
- What are you so angry / annoyed about?
- They were angry with me for not leaving them to the party.
- Delighted / pleased / satisfied / disappointed WITH something:
- I was delighted with the present you gave me.
- Were you disappointed with your exam results?
- Bored / fed up WITH something:
- You get bored with doing the same things every day.
- I’m fed up with doing the dishes all the time.
- Surprised / shocked / amazed / astonished AT / BY something:
- Everybody was surprised at / by the news.
- I was shocked at / by the condition of the building.
- Excited / worried / upset ABOUT something:
- Are you excited about going on holiday next week?
- Ann is upset about not being invited to the party.
- Afraid / frightened / terrified / scared OF someone / something:
- Are you afraid of dogs? Yes, I’m terrified of them.
- Proud / ashamed OF someone / something:
- I’m not ashamed of what I did. In fact, I’m proud of it.
- Jealous / envious / suspicious OF someone, something:
- Why are you always so jealous of other people?
- He didn’t trust me. He was suspicious of my intentions.
- Aware / conscious OF something:
- Did you know when they were married? No, I wasn’t aware of that.
- Good / bad / excellent / brilliant AT (doing) something:
- I’m very good at repairing things.
- Married / engaged TO someone:
- Linda is married to an American. (not with an American).

92
- Sorry ABOUT something:
- I’m sorry about the noise last night. We were having a party.
But: sorry FOR doing something:
- I’m sorry for shouting at you yesterday.
You can also say:
- I’m sorry I shouted at you yesterday.
- (to feel / to be) sorry FOR someone:
- I feel sorry for George. He has no friends and no money.
- Crazy ABOUT something:
- Ann is crazy about Westerns. She’d go to the movies every night if a Western
were playing.
- Impressed BY / WITH someone / something:
I wasn’t very impressed by / with the movie.
- Famous FOR something:
- The Italian city of Florence is famous for its art treasures.
- Responsible FOR something:
- Who was responsible for all that noise last night?
- Different FROM someone / something (in informal English we sometimes say different
THAN).
- The movie was different from what I expected.
- Interested IN something:
- Are you interested in Art and architecture?
- Capable / Incapable OF something:
- I’m sure you are capable of passing the examination.
- Fond OF someone / something:
- Mary is very fond of animals. She has three cats and two dogs.
- Full OF something:
- The letter I wrote was full of mistakes.
- Short OF something:
- I’m a little short of money. Can you lend me some?
- Tired OF something:
- Come on, let’s go. I’m tired of waiting.
- Similar TO something:
- Your writing is similar to mine.

93
- Crowded WITH (people, etc):
- The city was crowded with tourists.

EXERCISES:
1. It wasn’t very polite …………………….. him to leave without saying thank you.
2. We enjoyed our holiday but we were disappointed …………….. the hotel.
3. I was shocked …………… what you said. You should be ashamed ………………...
yourself.
4. Bill has been doing the same job for too long. He’s bored ……………….. it.
5. Mr. Davis spends a lot of time gardening. His garden is very well-kept, and he’s very proud
……………….. it.
6. Joe failed his driving test many times. He isn’t capable ………….. driving a car.
7. Our house is similar ……………… theirs, but I think ours is a little bigger.
8. We’re short ……………….. staff in our office at the moment. There aren’t enough people to
do the work that has to be done.
9. Travelling is great at first, but you get tired ……………………. it after a while.
10. I’m sorry …………………… the smell in this room. It’s just been painted.

32. VERB + PREPOSITION:

- Apologize (TO someone) FOR something:
- When I realized I was wrong. I apologized to him for my mistake.
- Apply FOR a job / admission for a university, etc:
- I think you’d be good at this job. Why don’t you apply for it?
- Believe IN something:
- Do you believe in God? (= Do you believe that God exists?)
- I believe in saying what I think (= I believe that it is a good thing to say what I
think).
- Belong TO someone:
- Who does this coat belong to?
- Care ABOUT someone / something (= think someone / something is important):
- He is very selfish. He doesn’t care about other people.

94
- Care FOR someone / something:
I. = like something (usually in questions and negative sentences).
- Would you care for a cup of coffee? (= Would you like …)
- I don’t care for hot weather. (= I don’t like…)
II: = look after someone:
- She is very old. She needs someone to care for her.
- Take care OF someone / something (=look after):
- Have a nice vacation. Take care of yourself.
- Will you take care of the children while I’m away?
- Collide WITH someone / something:
- There was an accident this morning. A bus collided with a car.
- Complain (TO someone) ABOUT someone / something:
- We complained to the manager of the restaurant about the food.
- Concentrate ON something:
- Don’t look out the window. Concentrate on your work.
- Consist OF something.
- We had an enormous syllabus. It consisted of seven courses.
- Crash / drive / bump / run INTO someone / something:
- He lost control of the car and crashed into a wall.
- Depend ON someone / something:
- What time will you arrive? I don’t know. It depends on the traffic.
You can leave out ON before question words (when/where/how, etc)
- Are you going to buy it? It depends (on) how much it is.
- Die OF an illness:
- What did he die of? A heart attack
- Dream ABOUT someone / something:
- I dreamed about you last night.
- Dream OF being something /doing something (=imagine)
- I often dream of being rich.
Also: (I) wouldn’t dream (of doing something)
- Don’t tell anyone what I said. No, I wouldn’t dream of it.
- Happen TO someone / something:
- A strange thing happened to me the other day.
- What happened to that gold watch you used to wear?

95
- Hear ABOUT something (= be told about something):
- Did you hear about the fight in the club on Saturday night?
- Have you heard about Jane? She’s getting married.
- Hear OF someone / something (= know that someone /something exists):
- Who is Tom Brown? I have no idea. I’ve never heard of him.
- Have you heard of a company called “Smith Electronics”
- Hear FROM someone (= receive a letter / telephone call from someone):
- Have you heard from Ann recently? Yes, she wrote to me last week.
- Laugh / smile AT someone / something:
- I look stupid with this haircut. Everyone will laugh at me.
- Listen TO someone / something:
- We spent the evening listening to records.
- Live ON money / food:
- George’s salary is very low. It isn’t enough to live on.
- Look AT someone / something (= look in the direction on):
- Why are you looking at me like that?
Also: have a look AT, stare AT, glance AT.
- Look FOR someone / something (=try to find):
- I’ve lost my keys. Can you help me look for them.
- Look AFTER someone / something (=take care of)
- She’s very old. She needs someone to look after her.
- Meet WITH someone / something (=have a meeting with):
- Our representatives met with the president of the company.
- Pay (someone) FOR something:
- I didn’t have enough money to pay for the meal.
But: pay a bill / a fine / $50 / a fare / taxes, etc (no preposition).
- Rely ON someone / something:
- You can rely on Jack. He always keeps his promises.
- Search (a person / a place / a bag, etc.) FOR someone / something:
- I’ve searched the whole house for my keys, but I still can’t find them.
- The police are searching for the escaped prisoner.
- Shout AT someone (when you are angry):
- He was very angry and started shouting at me.

96
But shout TO someone (so that they can hear you)
- He shouted to me from the other side of the street.
- Speak / talk TO someone:
- (on the telephone) Hello, Can I speak to Jane, Please?
- Who was that man I saw you talking to in the restaurant?
- Suffer FROM an illness:
- The number of people suffering from heart disease has increased.
- Think ABOUT someone / something (= consider, concentrate the mind on):
- You’re quiet this morning. What are you thinking about?
- I’ve thought about what you said and I’ve decided to take your advice.
- Will you lend me the money? I’ll think about it.
- Think OF someone / something (remember, bring to mind, have an idea):
- She told me her name, but I can’t think of it now. (not think about it).
- That’s a good idea. Why didn’t I think of that if you told me about it last week?
- Wait FOR someone / something:
- I’m not going out yet. I’m waiting for the rain to stop.
- Write TO someone or Write someone (without to):
- I’m sorry I haven’t written (to) you for such a long time.
- I wrote her a letter.

Note: We do not use a preposition with these verbs:

- Call / phone someone: Did you call / phone your father yesterday?
- Discuss something We discussed many things at the meeting.
- Enter (= go into a place) She felt nervous as she entered the room.

Exercises:
1. Are you going to apologize ………………… what she did?
2. It is terrible that some people are dying ……………. hunger while others eat too much.
3. Our neighbours complained ………………. us …………… the noise we made last night.
4. The man sitting opposite me on the train kept staring …………… me.
5. When we went out for the evening, a babysitter looked …………….the children.
6. I dreamed …………… Ann last night. We were dancing together at a party when somebody
suddenly hit me. Then I woke up.
7. Please don’t shout ……………….me! Go to hell.

97
8. Sally is not well. She suffers ………………. severe headaches.
9. I don’t want to discuss………………. what happened last night. I want to forget about it.
10. Can I speak …………….. you a moment? There’s something I want to ask you.

33. VERB + OBJECT + PREPOSITION:

- Accuse someone OF (doing) something:
- Tom accused Ann of being selfish.
- The teacher accused three students of cheating on the exam.
- Ask (someone) FOR something:
- I wrote to the company asking them for more information about the job.
But ask (someone) a question (no preposition)
- Blame someone / something FOR something:
- Everybody blamed me for the accident.
- Borrow something FROM someone:
- I didn’t have any money. I had to borrow some from a friend of mine.
- Charge someone WITH (an offense / a crime):
- Three men have been arrested and charged with robbery.
- Congratulate someone ON (doing) something:
- When I heard that she had passed her exams. I called her to congratulate her
on her success.
- Divide / cut / split something INTO (two or more parts):
- The book is divided into three parts.
- Cut the meat into small pieces before frying it.
- Do something ABOUT something (= do something to improve a bad situation):
- The economic situation is getting worse and worse. The government ought to
do something about it.
- Explain (a problem / a situation / a word. etc) TO someone:
- Can you explain this word to me? (not explain me this word).
Also: explain (to someone) that / what / how / why…
- Let me explain to you what I mean.
- Invite someone TO (a party / a wedding, etc):
- Have you been invited to any parties recently?
- Leave (a place) FOR (another place):
- I haven’t seen her since she left home for work this morning.

98
- Point / aim something AT someone/ something:
- Don’t point that knife at me. It’s dangerous.
- Prefer someone / something TO someone / something:
- I prefer tea to coffee. (not prefer tea than coffee)
- Protect someone / something FROM (or against) someone / something:
- He put some lotion on his body to protect his skin from the sun (or against the sun).
- Provide someone WITH something:
- The school provides all its students with books.
- Regard someone / something AS something:
- I’ve always regarded you as one of my best friends.
- Remind someone OF someone / something (= cause someone to remember):
- This house reminds me of the one I lived in when I was a child.
- Look at this photograph of Carol. Who does she remind you of?
- Sentence someone TO (a period of imprisonment):
- He was found guilty and sentenced to six months in prison.
- Spend (money) ON something:
- How much money do you spend on food each week?
Note that we usually say “spend (time) doing something”.
- I spend a lot of time reading.
- Throw something AT someone / something (in order to hit them)
- Someone threw an egg at the mayor while he was speaking.
But Throw something TO someone (for someone to catch)
- Ann shouted “Catch it and throw the keys to me from the window.
- Translate (a book, etc) FROM one language INTO another language.
- El “chavo del ocho” has been translated from Spanish into many languages
- Warn someone ABOUT someone / something:
- I knew she was a bit strange before I met her. Tom had warned me about her.
- Everybody has been warned about the dangers of smoking.

EXERCISES:
1. The driver of the car was taken to the police station and later charged …………….
reckless driving.
2. I’ve been invited ………………… the wedding but unfortunately I can’t go.
3. When I saw Dave, I congratulated him …………… passing his driving test.

99
4. It’s a very large house. It’s divided …………….. four apartments.
5. It’s not very pleasant when you are accused …………….. something you didn’t do.
6. When we went on our skiing holiday last year, the organizers provided us ………….
all the equipment we needed.
7. Do you prefer your present job ……………. the one you had before?
8. He was sentenced ………………….. life imprisonment for the murder of a police officer.
9. Don’t throw stones …………… the birds. It’s cruel.
10. They wore warm clothes to protect themselves ……………….. the cold.

100