EXPRESSING OPINIONS AND

ARGUMENTS
The value of learning argumentation

• It teaches us to:
– Talk and listen
– Justify with evidence
– Evaluate and reflect
– Counter-argue and debate
– Construct arguments

• Learn the meaning of arguments

 Ingredients of an argument

• An issue open to debate

• Your position on the issue
• Your reasons for that position
• Evidence to support your reason
Eliciting the Feature of Argument
 The difference between arguing and
persuading
• Persuading means trying to create a want or
motivate an action.
– Relies on appeals to emotion, and often uses the
same linguistic resources as poetry to achieve it end:
vivid images, connotations, repetition, rhythm, and
rhyme.
• Arguing clarifies a topic
– Make a reader see things from a new perspective, not
make them want to do something.
– More rational than persuasion.
Preparing and making the argument
Common mistakes:
• Railing against everything.
• Giving unsupported opinions.
• Supplying inappropriate evidence.
• Using low levels of diction.
• Indulging in self-referential commentary.
Preparing and making the argument
Solutions:

• Plan the essay.

• Consider leaving space for the introduction and
doing it last.
• Take a stand and move ahead quickly.
• Complete a thought before moving on.
• Qualify (show both sides).
• Use active verbs and vary sentence structure.
 Structure for and keys to an effective
argument

1. Appropriate evidence.
2. Effective delivery.
1. How to say it.
2. Avoiding logical fallacies.
3. Qualifying, tone, consistency.
3. Response.
 1. Appropriate evidence
• The USAARR test:
– Unified
– Specific
– Accurate
– Adequate
– Relevant
– Representative
• Evidence failing these six standards should be
rejected
 2.1. How to say it
Giving your opinion

• In my view…
• In my opinion…
• I believe (that)…
• I think (that)…
• It seems to me (that)…
• My idea is (that)…
 2.1. How to say it
Changing someone else’s opinion

• But don’t you think (that)…

• Yes, but do you really think (that)…
• Yes, but is/isn’t it possible that…
• Surely not, I mean…
• Yes, but on the other hand…
 2.1. How to say it
Giving reasons for your opinion
• …so that…
• Well, you see…
• Let me explain. You see…
• But the point is…
• The/my reason is (that)…
• I would convince somebody that does not believe
me by…
 2.1. How to say it
Agreeing

• I agree with you.

• That’s also what I think.
• I think so, too.
• That’s true.
• Absolutely.
• I don’t think so, either.
 2.1. How to say it
Disagreeing

• I don’t agree with you.

• I’m not sure that I agree.
• I don’t think so.
• That’s true, but…
• Actually, I think (that)…
• I disagree. I think (that)…
 2.1. How to say it
Conceding

• Arguments against my idea might be that…

 2.2. Avoid logical fallacies
• Logical fallacies are flaws in reasoning.
– Are used when your argument does not have
enough evidence.
– Are used to deceive others into accepting your
argument.
– Commonly used in politics and sensationalist
media.
• Examples: ad hominem, strawman, appeal to
emotion, slippery slopes, etc.
 Logical fallacy
• Ad hominem (personal attack)
– Attacking the other person on a personal level
instead of criticizing their argument
 Ad Hominem
1. Person A makes claim X.
2. Person B makes an attack on person A.
3. Therefore A's claim is false.

Mike : I think education is important.

Colin : I disagree. You like motorcycles, which are
dangerous vehicles. You can’t expect us to trust
such a reckless human being. In fact, I think you
hate children because you ride a motorcycle.
 Logical fallacy
• Strawman (sarcastically)
– Misrepresenting the other person’s argument to
make it easier to attack
 Strawman
1. Person A has position X.
2. Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted
version of X).
3. Person B attacks position Y.
4. Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed.

"Senator Smith’s proposal to increase spending on

education will leave our nation defenseless.”

"We should license knives just like we do guns.”

 Logical fallacy
• Appeal to emotion
– Aims at getting people to accept claims based on how
they or others feel about the claims and not based on
evidence for the claims.
 Appeal to emotion
1. Favorable emotions are associated with X.
2. Therefore, X is true.
1. I approve of X.
OR: 2. Therefore, X is true.

“In the vast frozen tundra of the arctic, polar bears

once roamed freely. However, today they are dying.
Ice has melted and mother bears are unable to feed
their cubs. Soon, the cuddly polar bear will be no
more. We must stop global warming.”
 Logical fallacy
• Slippery slope
– A may result in B, therefore A must be wrong

Predicting that taking a first step will lead inevitably to a

later, usually much more undesirable action
 Slippery slope
1. Event X has occurred (or will or might occur).
2. Therefore event Y will inevitably happen.

• "We have to stop the tuition increase! The next thing

you know, they'll be charging $40,000 a semester!"
• “We have to ban gay marriage. If we allow it, soon
people will start wanting to marry their dogs and
cats!"
 Logical fallacy
• Appeal to authority
– Referencing an authority to validate an argument
 Appeal to authority

1. Person A is (claimed to be) an authority on subject S.

2. Person A makes claim C about subject S.
3. Therefore, C is true.

“Vice President Al Gore’s magnificent documentary on

climate change should be seen by every human being,
since climate change must be real if a vice president
believes in it.”
 Other logical fallacies
• Using anecdotes
• Appeal to nature; only “natural” things are
good
• Genetics; it is good or bad depending on
where it comes from
• Using ambiguous language to mislead or
disguise
• False cause; if a relationship exists, one must
cause the other
 Logical fallacy exercises
• Bill: "I believe that abortion is morally wrong."
• Dave: "Of course you would say that, you're a priest."
• Bill: "What about the arguments I gave to support my position?"
• Dave: "Those don't count. Like I said, you're a priest, so you have
to say that abortion is wrong. Further, you are just a lackey to the
Pope, so I can't believe what you say."

Ad Hominem
 Logical fallacy exercises
• Prof. Jones: "The university just cut our yearly budget by
$10,000."
• Prof. Smith: "What are we going to do?"
• Prof. Brown: "I think we should eliminate one of the teaching
assistant positions. That would take care of it."
• Prof. Jones: "We could reduce our scheduled raises instead."
• Prof. Brown: " I can't understand why you want to bleed us dry
like that, Jones."

Strawman
 Logical fallacy exercises
• The new PowerTangerine computer gives you the power you
need. If you buy one, people will envy your power. They will look
up to you and wish they were just like you. You will know the true
joy of power. TangerinePower.

• The new UltraSkinny diet will make you feel great. No longer be
troubled by your weight. Enjoy the admiring stares of the
opposite sex. Revel in your new freedom from fat. You will know
true happiness if you try our diet!

Appeal to emotion
 Logical fallacy exercises
• "The US shouldn't get involved militarily in other countries. Once
the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in
thousands to die."

• "You can never give anyone a break. If you do, they'll walk all over
you."

Slippery slope
 Logical fallacy exercises
• Kintaro: "I don't see how you can consider Stalin to be a great
leader. He killed millions of his own people, he crippled the Soviet
economy, kept most of the people in fear and laid the foundations
for the violence that is occuring in much of Eastern Europe."
• Dave: "Yeah, well you say that. However, I have a book at home
that says that Stalin was acting in the best interest of the people.
The millions that were killed were vicious enemies of the state
and they had to be killed to protect the rest of the peaceful
citizens. This book lays it all out, so it has to be true."

Appeal to authority
 Logical fallacy exercises
• Sasha: "I played the lottery today and I know I am going to win
something."
• Siphwe: "What did you do, rig the outcome?"
• Sasha: "No, silly. I called my Super Psychic Buddy at the 1-900-
MindPower number. After consulting his magic Californian Tarot
deck, he told me my lucky numbers."
• Siphwe: "And you believed him?"
• Sasha: "Certainly, he is a certified Californian Master-Mind
Psychic. That is why I believe what he has to say. I mean, like, who
else would know what my lucky numbers are?"

Appeal to authority
 2.3. Qualifying

Qualify Reel it in Punch ‘em

• It is true that • However • Therefore
• Certainly • But • In short
• Admittedly • On the other hand • So
• Of course • Nevertheless • As a result
• Obviously • On the contrary • Thus
 2.3. Using a reasonable tone
• Shows you are fair-minded and therefore adds to
your credibility

• When you acknowledge the opposition with

balanced language, it shows that your respect the
opposing views

• No matter how passionate you are about the issue,

don’t resort to careless, harsh words; this would
show more about your than the issue
 2.3. Being consistent when arguing
• We can use the concept of consistency to test
an argument for validity.
• A set of statements is consistent if, but only if,
it is possible for all of the statements in the set
to be true.
• A set of statements is inconsistent if, but only
if, it is impossible for all of the statements in
the set to be true.
 3. Questions to ask when responding to an
assertion

What is the What key terms

What is the issue
speaker’s position must be
being debated?
on the issue? identified?

What deductive What evidence What are the

reasoning does does the speaker implications of
the speaker use? use for support? these key terms?
 3. Planning the response

List the
Summarize Assign
pros Decide to Organize
or appropriate
(defend) defend or the
paraphrase evidence
and cons challenge. evidence.
the issue. for both.
(challenge).
 3. Offering a counterargument
• Addressing the opposition demonstrates your
credibility

• It shows that you have researched multiple

sides of the argument and have come to an
informed decision

• Remember, keep a balanced tone when

attempting to debunk the opposition
 3. Arguing prompts
• Why do you think that?
• What is your reason for that?
• Can you think of another argument for your view?
• Can you think of an argument against your view?
• How do you know?
• What is your evidence?
• Is there another argument for what you believe?
 3. Counter-arguing effectively

• Conceding to some of your opposition’s

concerns can demonstrate respect for their
opinions.

• Remain tactful yet firm.

– using rude or deprecating language can cause
your audience to reject your position without
carefully considering your claims.
 The role of the audience

• Effective writing requires understanding your

audience

• An argument is an implicit dialogue or

exchange with your audience, so in writing
arguments, assume there is a reader that will
not agree with you.
 The role of the audience
• Audience awareness is absolutely essential to
successful persuasion and argument;
therefore…

• Know your audience

– What is their position on the issue?
– How strongly do they feel about it?
– Are they open-minded enough to consider other
views?
– What will their objections be to your argument?