Applications of

UNIT 9 APPLICATIONS OF Polarography,

Amperometric
POLAROGRAPHY, Titrations and
AMPEROMETRIC TITRATIONS Voltammetry

AND VOLTAMMETRY
Structure
9.1 Introduction
Objectives
9.2 Applications of Polarography
9.3 Applications of Amperometric titrations
9.4 Polarography Experiments
Determination of ascorbic acid in citrus fruits
Determination of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) in the citrus juice by the standard addition
and calibration curve methods
Other industrial important determinations for traces or minor constituents
Determination of lead and copper in carbon steels
Determination of the amount of Cd2+ present in the unknown solution
Determination of the nature of the ion (E1/2)
9.5 Applications of voltammetry
Voltammetry – Instrument
Practical methods: steps involved in voltammetry
9.6 Application of Cyclic Voltammetry
9.7 Summary
9.8 Terminal Questions
9.9 Answers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
While going through Unit 7 and Unit 8 of this course (Electroanalytical Methods), you
have learnt about the different electroanalytical methods like Polarography,
Voltammetry and Amperometric titrations. In this unit (Unit 9), we will discuss the
applications of the previously discussed electroanalytical methods.

In this unit we will start our discussion with the different applications of Polarography,
followed by those of Amperometric titrations. A number of polarography experiments
are then discussed. This is followed by the different applications of cyclic
voltammetry.

Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
• discuss the elements or compounds determined with the help of polarography in
different types of samples like food stuff, sea water, fuels etc.,
• discuss the polarographic analysis of organic compounds,
• give examples of the species determined with the help of amperometric titrations
for different titrations and electrodes,
• explain different polarography experiments using both the calibration curve
method and standard addition method,
• discuss other industrial important determinations for traces or minor
constituents,
• understand the application of cyclic voltammetry.

67
Electroanalytical
Methods-III
9.2 APPLICATIONS OF POLAROGRAPHY
Most metal ions are reducible at DME, and multicomponent mixtures can often be
analysed by selecting an appropriate supporting electrolyte so that the half-wave
potentials of two ions are differed by about -0.2 V vs SCE or by using complexing
agents by taking the advantage of complexing ability of the metal ions.

Based on this, polarography is used predominantly for trace metal analysis of alloys,
ultra-pure metals, minerals/metallurgy, environmental analysis (air, water, soil and sea
water contaminants), foodstuffs, beverages and body-fluids, toxicology and clinical
analysis. Reducible anions such as BrO 3− , IO3-, Cr2O72- and NO2- can also be
determined using well buffered solutions.

9.2.1 Some applications of Polarography

Table 9.1: Different samples and Element or Compound determined
Element or Compound determined Type of sample
Cu, Pb, Sn, Zn Foodstuffs
Ga, Zn, Cd, Ni high purity aluminium
Cu, Pb, Ni, Co Steels
Sn, Pb Beer and soft drinks
Transition metals High-purity salts
Free sulphur Petroleum fractions
Antioxidants Fuels
Riboflavin Milk, pharmaceuticals
Vitamin C Fruit and vegetables
Oxygen Sea water, gases

It is also useful in the analysis of biological systems to determine vitamins, alkaloids,

hormones, terpenoid substances and natural colouring substance, analysis of drugs and
pharmaceutical preparations, determination of pesticide or herbicide residues in foods,
in the structure determination of many organic compounds etc.

Polarographic analysis of organic compounds

This technique is used in organic chemistry for qualitative and quantitative analysis
and structure determinations. Most of the organic compounds are insoluble in pure
aqueous medium and also in mercury to form amalgam. Therefore, the solvent in
which the organic compound and its electrode product is soluble is added to the
supporting electrolyte. These solvents include various alcohols or ketones, dimethyl
formamide, acetonitrile, ethylene diamine and others. The commonly used supporting
electrolytes which are easily mixed with organic solvents are various quaternary
ammonium salts such as tetrabutyl ammonium iodide.

Some of the organic functional groups that are reducible at DME are given in Table
9.2.

Table 9.2: Reducible Organic Functional Groups

> C=O Ketone -C=N Nitrile -NO2 Nitro
-CHO Aldehyde -N=N- Azo -NO Nitroso
>C=C< Alkene -NO=N- Azoxy -NHOH Hydroxylamine
-C C- Aryl alkyne -O-O- Peroxy -ONO- Nitrite
>C = C- Azomethine -S-S- Disulfide -ONO2 Nitrate

68
In addition dibromides, aryl halides, alpha-halogenated ketone or aryl methane, and Applications of
ketones, polynuclear aromatic ring systems, and heterocyclic double bond reduce at Polarography,
DME. Amperometric
Titrations and
-S-S-, -SH (mercaptones get oxidized at DME and give anodic currents). Voltammetry

It is also possible to convert the non-polarographic active groups into active

polarographic groups and determine them.

Table 9.3: Organic Functional Group Analysis of Non-polarographic active

groups
Functional Active Polarographic
Reagent
Group Group
Carbonyl Girard T and D Azomethine
Semicarbazide Carbazide
Hydroxylamine Hydroxylamine

Primary amine Peperonal Azomethine

CS2 Dithiocarbonate (anodic)
Cu3(PO4)2 suspension Copper(II) amine
Secondary amine HNO2 Nitrosoamine
Alcohols Chromic acid Aldehyde
1,2-Diols Periodic acid Aldehyde`
Carboxyl (Transform to thiouranium salts) - SH (anodic)
Phenyl Nitration - NO2

SAQ 1
a) Which compounds are used as supporting electrolytes in organic polarography?

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
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b) How can the non-polarographic active groups be determined polarographically?
Give two examples.

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…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.3 APPLICATIONS OF AMPEROMETRIC TITRATIONS

Amperometric titrations have even wider range of applications than polarography
because even electro-inactive substances can be determined using electro-active
titrant.

According to Ilkovic equation id is proportional to concentration keeping all other

factors of the equation constant. So, if some of the electroactive material in the
solution is removed by interaction with some other reagent (e.g.: EDTA reagent for

69
Electroanalytical Zn2+ determination) the diffusion current will decrease. This is the fundamental
Methods-III principle of amperometric titrations or polarographic titrations.

The diffusion current at an appropriate applied voltage is measured as a function of the

volume of the titrating solution. The end point is the intersection of two lines giving
the change of current before and after the equivalence point.

Table 9.4: Examples of amperometric titrations

Titrant Electrode Species determined

Complexation reactions
EDTA DME many metallic ions
Precipitation reactions
Dimethylglyoxime DME Ni2+
Lead nitrate DME SO42-, MoO42-, F −

Mercury (II) nitrate DME I-

Silver nitrate Rotating Pt Cl-, Br-, I-, CN-, Thiols
Thorium(IV) nitrate DME F-
Potassium dichromate DME Pb2+, Ba2+
Oxidation reactions
Iodine Rotating Pt As(III), Na2 S2O3
Potassium bromate/KBr Rotating Pt As(III), Sb(III), N2H4
Additions Rotating Pt Alkenes
Substitutions Rotating Pt Some phenols, aromatic
amines

SAQ 2
What is the fundamental principle of amperometric or polarographic titration?

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
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9.4 POLAROGRAPHY EXPERIMENTS

Different practical experiments have been given below:

9.4.1 Determination of the nature of the ion (E1/2)

The half-wave potential of Tl+ solution.

Procedure: Take 10 ml of 0.5 mM solution of TlNO3 in 0.1 M KNO3 supporting

electrolyte and draw the polarogram. Determine E1/2 from the reduction wave of Tl+
i
and compare with literature value. Also use E vs log plot for accurate E1/2.
id −i

70
9.4.2 Determination of the amount of Cd2+ present in the unknown Applications of
solution Polarography,
Amperometric
For the analytical determination use both the calibration curve method and standard Titrations and
addition method. Voltammetry

i) Wave height – concentration plots (calibration):

Prepare stock solutions of Cd2+ ion by dissolving 1.0 g of Cd2+ per dm3. From
this take 1.0, 2.5, 5.0 and 10 cm3 into 100 cm3 volumetric flask, add 50 cm3 of
2M KCl solution and 2.5 cm3 of 0.2% gelatin solution to each flask and then
dilute to the mark with distilled water.

Take 10 cm3 of unknown solution (of about 0.04 g of Cd2+ per dm3) in a
volumetric flask, add 50 cm3 2M KCl and 2.5 cm3 of 0.2% gelatin solution and
dilute to the mark with distilled water. Record the polarograms of four standard
solutions and unknown after deaeration.

Draw calibration curve taking wave heights of all four standard solutions as
ordinates and concentrations as abscissa. From this the concentration
corresponding to wave height of unknown is noted.

ii) Method of standard addition

Polarograms of unknown solution is first recorded as under (i) and a second
polarogram is recorded by adding a known amount of the same ion.

iii) Second polarogram

Place 10 cm3 of unknown solution, 5 cm3 of known stock solution [of method
(i)], 50 cm3 of 2M KCl and 2.5 cm3 of 0.2% gelatin solution in a volumetric
flask and dilute to the mark with distilled water and record the polarogram of
this solution in a polarographic cell after removing dissolved oxygen with
nitrogen. Determine its wave height and calculate the concentration of unknown
solution as described under Unit 8 (polarography).

9.4.3 Determination of lead and copper in carbon steels

In the application of the polarographic method of analysis to steel, ferric ion interferes
due to its reduction near zero potential in sodium tartrate supporting electrolyte.
Fe(III) has to be reduced to Fe(II) with hydrazinium chloride in a hydrochloric acid
medium so that Fe(II) is reduced at much negative potential of -1.4 V vs SCE which is
more negative than lead and copper.

Procedure: Dissolve accurately weighed 5.0 g of the steel in a mixture of 25 cm3 of

water and 25 cm3 of concentrated hydrochloric acid and heat gently. Add few drops of
standard potassium chlorate solution to dissolve carbides and boil the mixture until the
solution is clear. Cool and dilute to 50 ml with water in a volumetric flask. Pipette 2
ml of this solution into a polarographic cell and add 1.0 cm3 of 20% hydrazine
hydrochloric solution to reduce Fe(III) to Fe(II) ion, 1.0 cm3 of 0.2% methyl cellulose
to act as maximum suppressor and 5.5 cm3 of 2.0 M sodium formate solution. Keep
the cell in a nearly boiling water bath for 10 minutes in order to complete the
reduction. Cool and take the polarogram using SCE. The polarogram will have two
steps. The first one at E1/2 of - 0.25 V vs SCE is due to the reduction of cuprous to
copper metal. The second step at E1/2 of - 0.45 V vs SCE is due to lead. Use standard
addition method for determination. For this carry out a calibration by adding known
amounts of copper and lead ions to a solution of steel of low copper and lead content
and determine the increase in wave heights due to addition. Calculate the percentage
of copper and lead in the sample.

71
Electroanalytical 9.4.4 Other industrial important determinations for traces or minor
Methods-III
constituents
i) Analysis of steel and ferro-alloys for minor constituents (Cu, Ni, Co, Mn, Cr,
Mo, W, V, Ti, Sn, Pb, and Al).
ii) Analysis of Copper base alloys (Pb, Sn, Ni, Zn).
iii) Analysis of high purity zinc and of zinc alloys (Cu, Pb, Cd, Sn, Mn, Al).
iv) Analysis of ferrous sulphate (Zn, Pb, Cu).
v) Analysis of aluminium alloys (Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni, Fe, Mn).
vi) Analysis of pure aluminium (Cu, Cd, Ni, Zn, Fe, Pb).
vii) Analysis of magnesium alloys (Al, Zn, Pb, Mn).
viii) Analysis of refined metallic tin and of tin base alloys (Cu, Bi, Pb, Cd, Zn, Fe).
ix) Analysis of metallic cobalt and cobalt salts (Cu, Pb, Ni).
x) Analysis of refined metallic lead and of lead base alloys (Bi, Fe, Cu, Cd, Zn,
Sb).
xi) Analysis of nickel alloys and nickel compounds (Cu, Pb, Fe).
xii) Analysis of metallic cadmium (Cu, Pb, Zn).
xiii) Analysis of high purity zinc and zinc base alloys (Cu, Pb, Cd, Sn, Bi, Mn).
xiv) Analysis of pure strontium salts (Ba).

9.4.5 Determination of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) in the citrus juice by

the standard addition and calibration curve methods
Principle: Ascorbic acid gives a well defined polarographic oxidation wave.
HO
HO O O O
HO HO
HO OH - O
-2e → O + 2 H+
Ascorbic acid Dihydro ascorbic acid

Use freshly prepared diluted juice

Calibration curve method

Prepare a fresh stock solution of 50 cm3 of 0.2% ascorbic acid. Prepare 5 standard
solutions of ascorbic acid in volumetric flasks of 25 cm3. To each one add 0.5 cm3 of
0.5 M acetate buffer and different volumes of 0.2% ascorbic acid, 0, 200, 400, 600 and
800 µdm3 . Dilute to the mark with distilled water. For each solution record
polarograms over the potential range -150 to + 200 mV vs Ag/AgCl/1M KCl reference
electrode.

Plot id vs c of ascorbic acid (calibration curve).

Standard addition methods

Squeeze an orange, grape fruit or lemon until about 10 cm3 of juice is obtained. Filter
the juice through a porous funnel (pore size about 1 mm).

Prepare four 25 cm3 volumetric flasks. Add to each 0.5 cm3 of 0.5M acetate buffer, 2.0
cm3 of the juice and standard addition of 0, 200, 400, and 600 µdm3 of 0.2% ascorbic

72
acid. Dilute to mark with distilled water. Record polarograms under the same Applications of
conditions as in the calibration step. Draw the standard additions plot and determine Polarography,
the concentration of ascorbic acid. Report the concentration of ascorbic acid (Vitamin Amperometric
C) in the original sample (juice) in mol/l and also ppm. Titrations and
Voltammetry
SAQ 3
Complete the sentence by selecting the correct alternatives:
a) Polarography is used for organic/inorganic/both organic and inorganic analysis.

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
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b) How can the ferric ion interfere in the polarographic analysis of steel and how is
its interference prevented?

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9.5 APPLICATIONS OF VOLTAMMETRY

All these techniques can be applied quantitatively for the analysis of large variety of
samples (environmental samples, steels, clinical samples etc). The choice of a
particular technique will depend on the analyte's characteristics, expected
concentration, other constituents present and location of the sample.

Pulse polarography is better for analyzing a wide range of inorganic/organic analytes.

While in the case of stripping methods the analyte is to be preconcentrated at the
electrode surface. Further the concentration of the analyte in the sample, the accuracy
and precision required will decide the technique to be selected.

The analysis of a sample component is quite simple and any of the methods can be
used and from the linear relationship between the current and concentration, the
unknown concentration in the sample can be obtained. In case of samples containing
more than one analyte; if the components behave independently, the analysis will be a
simple addition of the respective individual separation voltammograms. However if
the id or ip is sufficient they can be determined independently as if they were only a
single component.

The amount of separation between these potentials will depend on the type of the
potential, technique used, concentration of the components. If the difference is less
than minimum separation and there is overlap between the voltammograms of the two
components, independent analysis is not possible and a simultaneous analysis method
is to be followed by taking the sample and simultaneous equations for the current at
two potential be formed and by solving these equations, the concentrations of both the
analytes can be obtained.

The analysis has been explained in detail in the numericals given in the terminal
questions.

73
Electroanalytical 9.5.1 Voltammetry – Instrument
Methods-III
The basic instrument consist of two important components:

Fig.9.1: Basic instrument for voltammetry

1. Normal three electrode polarograph.

2. Linear scan voltage generator to give different type of signals.

The polarographic cell is made up of a three electrodes dipped in a solution
containing the electroactive species and excess of inert electrolyte usually called
supporting electrolyte.
i) Working electrode, usually a microelectrode whose potential is varied
linearly with time.
ii) Reference electrode: Normally a standard electrode is used whose
potential is constant throughout the experiment (saturated calomel
electrode or Ag/AgCl electrode).
iii) Counter electrode, which is a coil of platinum wire or a pool of mercury
that simply serves to conduct electricity from the signal source through the
solution to the micro electrode.
The potentiostat allow to impose the potential scanning between the working
and reference electrodes while the current flowing through the circuit is
recorded between the working and auxiliary electrodes.

The computer CVA Trace analyzer from Metrohm Ltd. can be used as an
intergrated instrument with keyboard or a commercially available personal
computer interface to measuring system (with software):
i) to send the scanning parameters to the potentiostatic analyzer and check
its correctness and accuracy.
ii) handle the current potential output data.

9.5.2 Practical methods: steps involved in voltammetry

1. Sample treatment: For this analysis the sample must be in a solution form. If
solid, it has to be brought into solution by dissolving in a suitable solvent.
Liquids or solids with low solubility are to be digested or extracted.
2. Addition of supporting electrolyte: Every analysis has to be performed using a
suitable supporting electrolyte, of appropriate concentration normally at least 10
times the concentration of the analyte.

74
3. Bubbling of the solution with N2. Applications of
Polarography,
4. Electrode cleaning. Amperometric
5. Addition of the standard analyte. Titrations and
Voltammetry
6. Scanning/registration of voltammograms.
7. Measurement of peak height.
8. Drawing of the graphs.
9. Calculation of the unknown concentration.

SAQ 4
Give the schematic diagram of the basic instrument for voltammetry.

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
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…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.6 APPLICATION OF CYCLIC VOLTAMMETRY

Coupled chemical Reactions
There are inorganic ions, metal complexes and a few organic compounds which
undergo electron transfer reactions without the making or breaking of covalent bonds.
The vast majority of electrochemical reactions involve an electron transfer step which
leads to a species which rapidly reacts with components of the medium via so called
coupled chemical reactions. One of the most useful aspects of CV is its applications to
the qualitative diagnosis of these homogeneous chemical reactions that are coupled to
the electrode surface provides the capability for generating a species during the
forward scan and then probing its fate with the reverse scan and subsequent cycles, all
in a matter of seconds or less.

In addition, the time scale of the experiment is adjustable over several order of
magnitude by changing the potential scan rate, enabling some assessment of the rates
of various reactions. There are several examples of the coupled chemical reactions,
however two are given below.

A cyclic voltammogram for the popular antibiotic chlor-amphenicol is illustrated in

Fig. 9.2. The scan was started in a negative direction from 0.0 V. Three peaks are
observed, peak A for the initial reduction, peak B for oxidation of a product of this
reduction and peak C for oxidation of a product resulting from the events accounting
for peak B. All three “peaks” or “waves” involve more than a simple electron transfer
reaction.
peak A
RφNO 2 + 4e + 4 H + → RφNHOH + H 2 O
peak B
RφNHOH → RφNO + 2H + + 2e
peak C
RφNO + 2e + 2H + → RφNHOH
To assist in “proving” the diagnosis, authentic samples of the hydroxylamine and
nitroso derivative can be used to confirm the assignment of peak B and C.

75
Electroanalytical Thyronine is an ether which may conveniently be thought of as representing the
Methods-III combination of the amino of the amino acid tyrosine with hydroquinone.

Fig. 9.2: Cyclic voltammogram of 3.3 mg/25 cm3 chloramphenicol in 0.1 M acetate
buffer, pH 4.62. Carbon paste electrode. Scan rate = 350 mV/s
Its oxidative CV on a carbon paste electrode is illustrated in Fig. 9.3. In this case the
scan is initiated in a positive direction from 0.0 volts. The initial two-electron
oxidation (peak A) generates a proton and an organic cation which is readily
hydrolyzed to benzoquinone and tyrosine.

OH OH

+
O +
O + 2e + H

H2N COOH H2N COOH

OH2 OH
O

O H2N COOH
Peak A
The tyrosine thus produced is subsequently oxidized at peak B (no product from peak
B is detected on the reverse scan).

76
 Applications of
OH Polarography,
O
H Amperometric
Titrations and
+ 1e Voltammetry

H2N COOH H2N COOH

Coupling Products

Peak B

The benzoquinone is reduced on the reverse scan at peak C to produce hydroquinone,

Fig. 9.3 Cyclic voltammogram of 5 mg/25 cm3 L–thyronine in 1 M H2 SO4. Carbon paste
electrode, scan rate = 200 mV/s
which is then oxidized back to benzoquinone at peak D on the second positive-going
half-cycle.
O OH
+
+ 2e + 2 H

O OH
Peak C

Standard solutions of benzoquinone, hydroquinone, and tyrosine can be used to verify

these assignments.

77
Electroanalytical OH O
Methods-III

+ 2H+ + 2e

OH O

Peak D
Interpreting complex cyclic voltammograms is often a challenge best met by the
combination of chemical intuition with the study of model compounds, exactly in the
same manner used by many spectroscopists to interpret optical, magnetic resonance, or
mass spectra.

SAQ 5
What are Coupled chemical Reactions?

…………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………...

9.7 SUMMARY
In this unit we have discussed about the elements or compounds determined with the
help of polarography in different types of samples like food stuff, sea water, fuels etc.
We discussed the polarographic analysis of organic compounds. We studied the given
examples of the species determined with the help of amperometric titrations for
different titrations and electrodes. We discussed the different polarography
experiments using both the calibration curve method and standard addition method.
We discussed other industrial important determinations for traces or minor
constituents. Lastly we discussed about the application of cyclic voltammetry.

9.8 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. What is the purpose of Polarographic analysis in the case of organic
chemistry?

2. Why is solvent required to first dissolve the organic compounds in case of

Polarographic analysis?

3. Give two examples of amperometric titrations involving precipitation

reactions.

4. Give the details of the polarography experiment for determination of the

amount of Cd2+ present in the unknown solution by method of standard
addition.

5. Give briefly the steps involved in voltammetry.

9.9 ANSWERS
Self Assessment Question
1. a) The commonly used supporting electrolytes which are easily mixed with
organic solvents are various quaternary ammonium salts such as tetrabutyl
ammonium iodide.

78
 b) It is also possible to convert the non-polarographic active groups into Applications of
active polarographic groups and determine them. Refer to Table 9.3. Polarography,
Amperometric
2. According to Ilkovic equation id is proportional to concentration keeping all Titrations and
other factors of the equation constant. So, if some of the electroactive material Voltammetry
in the solution is removed by interaction with some other reagent (e.g.: EDTA
reagent for Zn2+ determination) the diffusion current will decrease. This is the
fundamental principle of amperometric titrations or polarographic titrations.

3. a) Polarography is used for both organic and inorganic analysis.

b) In the application of the polarographic method of analysis to steel ferric
ion interferes due to its reduction near zero potential in sodium tartrate
supporting electrolyte. Fe (III) has to be reduced to Fe (II) with
hydrazinium chloride in a hydrochloric acid medium so that Fe (II) is
reduced at much negative potential of –1.4 V vs. SCE which is more
negative than lead and copper. This is how the interference of ferric ions
is prevented.

4. Fig. 9.1

5. There are inorganic ions, metal complexes and a few organic compounds which
undergo electron transfer reactions without the making or breaking of covalent
bonds. The vast majority of electrochemical reactions involve an electron
transfer step which leads to a species which rapidly reacts with components of
the medium via so called coupled chemical reactions.

Terminal Questions
1. This technique is used in organic chemistry for qualitative and quantitative
analysis and structure determinations.

2. Most of the organic compounds are insoluble in pure aqueous medium and also
in mercury to form amalgam. Therefore, the solvent in which the organic
compound and its electrode product is soluble is added to the supporting
electrolyte.

3. Examples of amperometric titrations:

Titrant Electrode Species determined

Precipitation reactions
Dimethylglyoxime DME Ni2+
Lead nitrate DME SO42-, MoO42-, F-

4. Refer to Section 9.4.2.

5. Refer to Section 9.5.2.

79
Electroanalytical
Methods-III Further Reading
Websites
S.No. Topic Web Sites/Books
1. An article in Resonance http://dspace.rri.res.in/bitstream/2289/856/1/2004
on Polarography by the %20RES%209%20p51-61.pdf
eminent scientist
V. Lakshminarayanan
2. Anodic Stripping http://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/courses/cem837/
voltammetry Anodic%20Stripping%20Voltammetry.pdf
3. Anodic Stripping http://ocw.kfupm.edu.sa/user/CHEM54201/Anodi
voltammetry, a very c%20stripping%20good.pdf
detailed presentation
4. Cyclic Voltammetry http://www.chemistry.nmsu.edu/studntres/chem43
5/Lab13/
5. Cyclic Voltammetry http://www.biol.paisley.ac.uk/marco/Enzyme_Ele
ctrode/Chapter1/Cyclic_Voltammetry1.
6. Details of http://faculty.uml.edu/david_ryan/84.514/Electroc
polarography, pulse hemLecture11.pdf
polarography and cyclic
voltammetry

7. Linear sweep http://www.chemistry.adelaide.edu.au/external/so

voltammetry c-rel/content/linsweep.htm

8. Polarography http://electrochem.cwru.edu/ed/encycl/art-p03-
polarography.htm
9. Polarography http://www.drhuang.com/science/chemistry/electr
ochemistry/polar.doc.htm#_Toc172448509

10. Polarography http://www.drhuang.com/science/chemistry/electr

ochemistry/polar.doc.htm#_Toc172448509

11. Voltammetry http://www.amelchem.com/download/items/volta

mmetry/manuals/eng/manual_eng.pdf

12. Voltammetry http://new.ametek.com/content-

manager/files/PAR/App%20Note%20E-4%20-
%20Electrochemical%20Analysis%20Techniques
1.pdf

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Books Applications of
Polarography,
1. Polarography and other voltammetric methods by Tom Riley and Arthur Amperometric
Watson, by ACOL, Wiley. Titrations and
Voltammetry
2. Vogel’s Textbook of Quantitative Chemical Analysis by J. Menham, R.C.
Denney, J.D. Barnes and M.J.K. Thomas, 6th Edn, Low Price Edition, Pearson
Education Ltd, New Delhi (2000).

3. Instrumental Analysis, Editors, H.H. Bauer, G.D. Christian and J.E.O’ Reilly,
2nd Edn, Allyn and Bacon, Inc., Boston (1991).

4. Analytical Chemistry by G.D. Christian, 6th Edn, Wiley-India.

5. Principles and Practice of Analytical Chemistry by F.W. Fifield and D. Kealey,

5th Edn, Blackwell Science Ltd, New Delhi (2004).

6. Instrumental Methods of Chemical Analysis by G.W. Ewing, 5th Edn, Mc-Graw

Hill, Singapore (1985).

7. Instrumental Methods of Analysis by Willard Merritt, Dean Sattle, 7e, Cbs

Publishers & Distributors.

8. Polarographic techniques by Louis Meites, Interscience publishers.

9. Principles of Instrumental Analysis 5th Edition, by Skoog, Holler, Nieman,

Thomson Brooks/Cole.

10. Fundamentals of Analytical Chemistry by Skoog, West, Holler and Crouch,

Thomson Brooks/Cole.

11. Modern Analytical Chemistry by David Harvey, Mcgraw-Hill Education.

81