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Indira Gandhi National Open University

.TS-5
~ School of Tourism Hospitality
Servjce Sectoral Management ECOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT
AND TOURISM

Environment - An Introduction'
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"Education is a liberating force, and in

our age it is also a democratising force,
cutting across the barriers of caste and
class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances. "

- Indira Gandhi

1
 1S-5
V~I-' ndira Gandhi National Ope •• l J niversity
~ School of'Tourism Hospitality Ecology,
;~l'n·iccScet'Ofttt MallClgc IIICl II
, Environment
\ . and Tourism
,:
~.

Block

1
OUR ENVIRONMENT - AN INTRODUCTION

UNIT 1

Our Environment 5
UNIT 2

.
Linkages in Nature
UNIT 3
16

Biomes of the. World 33

UNIT 4

CommunitiesJn Nature 53

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 Expert Committee.
Mr AjayMahurkar Mr Jahangir Ghariyali Dr Neena Rao
Faculty of History General Manager Head Deptt. of Tourism
IGNOU Welcomgroup Hote! College ·of Vocational Studies
Aurangaba;r . New Delhi
Mr Alok Chandola
Tourism Consultant Dr Jaswant Sokhi Mr Pradeep Sankhala
;>.;ewDelhi School of Sciences Managing Director
IG;>.;OU Dynamic Tour; &
Mr Ashish Kumar Singh Travels Pvt. Ltd.
Managing Director Prof. Kapil Kumar . New Delhi
Kerala Tourism Development Director
Cornoration Centre for Extension MrPRaj
Trivandrum Educatlon,IGl\'OL' Director
Client Services BEDD

• Dr Geeta Kaicker Mr KT Suresh Worldwide 'etwork

SCho01 of Sciences Coordinator, Equations Bombay
IGNOU Bangalore
Dr Ravmdra Kumar (Convenor)
Dr Iqbal Malik Ms Latika Nath Faculty of History
.. Director, Vatavaran
"'lewDelhi
World Wildlife Foundation
Dehradun
IGNOU

Programme Coordinator: Prof. Kapil Kumar

--------------------------~~--------------------
Course Team: Dr Ravindra Kumar } Course Coordinators
Mr AJay Mahurkar
. ,
Dr Geeta Kaicker ,
Dr Jaswant Sokhi
Mr SaIil Mishra
.Prof. Kapil Kumar

Block Preparation Team:

Unit No. IGNOU Faculty
1&3 DrV K Sharma Dr Geeta Kaicker
Indian Institute of School of Sciences
. Public Administration IGNOU
NcwDclni
&
Dr (icc!a Kaickcr
2&4 Dr V K Sharrna & Dr Jaswant Sokhi
Dr Jaswant ~o\':hj School of Sciences
IGNOU

Hlock Editor Block Coordinators Assistance

Prof C K Varshney Dr Gte!d Kaicker sn. L.D. Norbert ]
School of Environmental Sciences DrIaswant Sokhi . Ms. Usha Arora (Secretarial)
Jawaharlal Nehru Uruversity Sh. Vikas Kumar

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February 2018 (Reprint)
T')·/lIdira Gantllti .':ilillllliil OJl<'lI ( niversitv 1996
ISBN: 81-7263-89!J·(,
All rights reserved. a jlllr/o(rf.i·, -•.orl. :; ·'1.' ill! reproduced it: anvfortn. by niinieoeruph or (lilY
other means, without pcrlJl:'si(i!! in Irl'i:;ng [nu» l udirn Galldhi SII/iolla/ (JPI'll L'nivcrsity.

Further infornutt'nn nbout I/Il li:r/i··, (i·'w/hi. 'ntion«! {'," ; iniversitv courses lIlay be obtained

by l{rgistraf ;\IPOD. 11.\Ol

Printed at: Rakmo Pr~s'. Pvi, 1.:<1•. (-:-'). ,id ••" lndllstri:ll.\r(,:l Phase-I

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 ,
TS-S ECOLOGY, ENVIRONMENT AND
TOURISM
Protection of the environment and development of touri •• arc not separate challenges. We
are forced to concern ourselves with the impacts of ecological stress upon the prospects of
tourism and read carefully the meaning of environmental degradation occurring from a
supposedly reckless growth in tourism. Ecology, environment and tourism are becoming ever
more inter-woven into a web of causes and effects. .

While awareness of environmental issues is a matter of cardinal importance to us, we must

also know the concrete measures by which adverse effects on environment by, say, tourism
can be averted andits overall quality improved. This course reflects these changing concerns.
It also says something needs to be done, instead of onl~ complaining .
•
We aim here at: ... ~.
., acquainting you with the fundamental concepts of ecology and environment,
• inculcating an appreciation of the unique worth of our ecological and environmental
.. assets,
• sensitising you a<;a tourism professional to the current environmental issues,
• stressing the need to sensitise the tourists to the diverse environment-related values, and
enabling you to perceive the role of an environment interpreter and develop the requisite
skills.

The course opens with an introduction to our environment in Block-I, detailing linkages in
nature, the biomes of the world, and the communities in nature in succession. Block-2 is
devoted to a discussion on conservation ethics revolving mainly around the Indian
philosophy and environment. The next three Blocks i.e. Blocks - 3, 4 and S are designed to
initiate and develop the central theme of an interface between environment and tourism with
three sub-thrusts: Block-3 examines the issue of tourism development; Block-a discusses the
symbiosis of community and tourism; and Rlock-S JS about using tourism as a tool for
conservation. The linkages between the policy issue in environment and tourism is the
subject of discussion in Block-6. Block-8 is a study of environmental impacts on say
vegetation, wildlife, mountains, hotels and resorts, etc. The other two Blocks viz. Block-7 &
9 have il .:,''l1p10n theme - understanding and appreciating the elements of evolution in the
eo" ":'l nnent. v-' -a-vis tourism development. We approach it from different anglcs .. in
BIOI,!.' ',:iif, kClIs is on identifying pressures on the environment and understanding the
thr, dId" cf thesr. pressures; Block-9 is on interpreting the environment with regard to
lannscaj;e, ,Ior~ & f;njn~;, (!.'lUrist) behaviour and local community. At the end of each Block
we hav, -gr en certain Activities. We suggest you should tryout all of them as these would
heln 'vl' in irnpr. ,.; 'lg your skills' as tourism professionals. Some such activities may also form
parrofthc assignnr-nts .•vhich are compulsorv components of the course.

Audiu-Video Inputs,

Cas .settes already prepared for our course Human Environment (AHE-Ol):

Video: " Biosphere at a Glance

:::•. Chilka Lake' - A Case Study
. Biomagnification .
Audio: t Radiation c, A Fact of :..ife
;. Energy:'; '.A•.ction

Preparatory Coarse in Social Sciences ~PS~>lJ1)

. Video: 1. Crowded Desert

.\ 2. Trees for Tomorrow
(Available at your Study Centre)

Yo can also watch certain programmes telecast on the Doordarshan network, such as, The
Turning Point and Living on the Edge, .and environment related programmes on the.
Dis overy Channel.

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 4

How can you buy or sell the sky, the warmth of land? The idea is strange to us. ..
Ifwe do not own the freshness ofthe air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them?
.The earth does not belong to man, man belongs to earth.

Opening sentences of a speech delivered by Seattle, Chief of the Suquamish and other Indian tribes. Taken,
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'with gratitude, from the India Magazine, March 1989 .

'.

BLOCK 1 ENVIRONMENT ., AN
INTRODUCTION
This Block, having an ecological bias, has been designed and written to present to you a
broader picture of the environment. We have discussed here the fundamentals of ecological
concepts and principles in a direct and less complex form, deliberately avoiding abstruse
. definitions and supporting statistics. There are four Units (1 to 4) in this Block. The broad
contents of each of these units are detailed below: .

Unit-I, Our Environment, is an introductory Unit providing general framework for the study
of environment. It begins by discussing the basic components of the environment and then
proceeds to emphasise the constantly changing character of our environment over the years.
It lays stress on an alarming fact - the accelerated pace of. change, resulting from human
intervention.
\
Unit-~ Linkages in Nature, discusses the basic ecological interactions between the life forms
and their physical environment. A clear understanding of the principles governing these
interactions would enable you to form a holistic picture of the web of life, and equip you to
relate the various activities of the Tourism Industry to nature.

Unit-3, Biomes of the World.Many places on earth share similar climatic, topographic and'
soil conditions. As a consequence biological communities, similar in character, have
developed in the nature. These broad communities are known as Biomes and form the subject
content of this Unit.
.,,
Unit-a, Communities in Nature, examines an array of complex, biotic interactions - among
individuals, and among populations of communities. This Unit also analyses biodiversity
conservation, a related, major environmental issue of present times. The aim is to induce
introspection and responsible behaviour in people from all walks of life including all those
related to the Tourism Industry. .

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 UNIT 1 OUR ENVIRONMENT

Structure
1.0 Objectives
."'" , 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Abiotic Environment
1.2.1 Atmosphere
1.2.2 Light
1.2.3 Temperature
1.2.4 Wind
1.2.5 Humidity
1.2.6 Water
• 1.3
1.2.7 Soil )
Environment Changes With Time
1.3.1 SlowChanges
1.3.2 Fast Changes.
1.4 Let Us Sum Up
1.5 Keywords
1.6 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:

• appreciate the difference between ecology, environment and ecosystem, \

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'. understand the characteristics of environment and environmental factors, \
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• learn about interdependence of living organisms within their environment,
• know about slow and fast changes in environment with time, and
• understand the role of modern humans in changing the environment.

1. 1 INTRODUCTION

Ecology, Environment and Ecosystem are three common words we hear almost every day in
different contexts. Let us first understand the difference between these three important
terms.

If you look around your surroundings you will notice that no living organism is a discrete
individual or lives in isolation, but each organism is a part of an intricately linked system of
living and non-living elements and ecology (Gr. Oikos = house) is a science by which we study
.how organisms (animals, plants and microbes) interact in and with the natural world. It deals
with the ways in which organisms are moulded by their surroundings, how they may use
their surroundings and how an area is altered or affected by the presence of an organism.

Everything that affects an organism during itslifetime is collectively known as its environment
(Gr Environ = surroundings or outside). The environment supplies the required food,
nutrient and energy and other living conditions that may influence the organisms directly or
indirectly. The environment therefore can be of two types - living or non-living.

The components of the living or, biotic environment are all the living beings (plants and
animals) with whom the organism or its population or the entire community interacts. Let
us understand this better with the help of an example. If you visit a forest you will observe
that there are many interesting interactions going on amongst the plant species or between
animal species. Some species are totally dependent on other species for their food, water,
nutrients (parasites), on the other hand there may be a symbiosis where both species live
together helping each other, establishing a mutually beneficial relationship. Thus each of the
species that is interacting is part of the biotic environment for the other species.

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Environment - An Intr:oduction
.-~ - -:--
The physical and chemical components
non-living or the abiotic environment.
water, nutrients, sunlight and soil.
- -------~,
,
that influence the living organism make ~p the
These components are the atmosphere, climate,

An ecosystem isa system formed by the interaction-of a variety of individual organisms with
each other and with their physical environment. Therefore, it is composed of all the
associated organisms and the pl?ysical features-that exist in a specific area. Anecosystem can
be a natural one like a forest, grassland, desert, lake, etc., or it may be man made like a farm .. ..>
It may be very small (eg. an aquarium) or vast (eg. the ocean). Our planet supports several
broad regional types of ecosystems. These are called biomes which will be discussed in
Unit-3.

This introductory Unit provides a general framework for the study of the environment. We
, will concentrate on the abiotic factors that make up the physical environment. You will learn
howthe environment has changed gradually over time and is constantly changing. We will

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also discuss briefly ho,w our enterprises have affected the natural environment. It will help ,
you to understand why the functioning of natural systems can break down under certain
stresses, and set you thinking about the possible remedial measures for the preservation of
biodiversity and management of the environment for sustained use. Such an understanding
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'is essential for any tourism professional in order to promote responsible tourism which goes
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, in harmony with nature: In the next Unit - Linkages in N ature you will learn about the various
,linkages between the organisms and with their physical environment.

\\' 1.2 ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT C

We know that the biological world lives within and depends on the abiotic environment A .
knowledge of the' abiotic components of the environment is important if we wish to
understand the survival, distributfon and adaptability of organisms in the different regions of
our earth. For example, some of the abiotic environmental factors like climate, soil and
topography of a region are responsible for a particular type of vegetation of that region. This
is the reason why vegetation of Shimla and Ooctamund differs from that of J aipur and
J aiselmer. The ability of organisms to utilise, tolerate or combat the various abiotic factors is \
different and it may limit their distribution, behavior and relationship with other organisms.
\
Let us discuss ~orrie of the important ab~ot~c factors that are crucial for life.
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1.2.1 Atmosphere
Our current atmosphere is a mixture of many different gases and suspended particles. These ~
gases in the lower atmosphere undergo continual mixing and, therefore, the composition of
our atmosphere is almost the same everywhere upto an altitude of80 Km: Higher than 80 Km'
these gases become stratified i.e. the heavier gases comprise the lower layers and lighter
gases comprise the upper layers.

Ozone is concentrated at
20·22 Km above the surface
of the earth in the
stratespheric zone of the
,atmosphere.
You can see from Table 1 that excluding water vapour, nitrogen usually constitutes 78.08%
of the lower atmosphere. Atmospheric .nitrogen cannot be utilized by organisms directly
(except by few bacteria and blue-green algae). It is first converted into nitrate and then
. utilized by plants and otlier organisms. This process in nature is called nitrification. Oxygen
constitutes 20.95% and is not only important for us for respiration and in the energy releasing
process but for all the organisms on this earth (except anaerobic bacteria). The next most'
abundant gases are argon and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide (C02) is the most important
gas for all green plants. In the process of photosynthesis green plants utilise C02 and water
as raw material and convert solar energy into chemical energy on which the entire living
system depends. The atmosphere also contains traces of water vapour (about 1%) and several
other gases. Of these ozone (03), whiehis formed in the upper atmosphere by action of solar
energy on' oxygen,' shields ail living beings from the harmful effects of ultraviolet rays from
the sun. The volume of these gases (for example, water vapour and carbon dioxide) varies
. according to time and from place to place.

The atmosphere contains minute liquid or solid particles. These are known as aerosols. Most
a
of these arb found near the earth's surface and originate as result of soil erosion due to wind,
forest fires, salt crystals from oceanic sprays and in volcanic erruptions. Another source, of
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aerosols is industrial and agricultural activity, Although the aerosol contentof atmosphere
16 is very small, yet these suspended particles are important. For example, some particles act as
- ..• " ~." "; .,. ....~,
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,.- ...

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 f ~.

nuclei for formation of clouds and precipitation, while others influence air temperature-by Our Environment

·interacting with sunlight. .... ~ .I

Table 1: Th; rel:tive proportions of gases in the lower atmosphere (below 80 Km), 'exdudirig ~ater vapour.

Gas Percentage by volume

~
Nitrogen 78.08
Oxygen 20.95
Argon 0.93
Carbon Dioxide 0.03
Neon 0.0018
Helium 0.00052
Methane 0.00015
Krypton 0.00010
Nitrous Oxide 0.00005
• Hydrogen 0.00005
Xenon 0.000009
Ozone 0.000007

1.2.2 Light
The first and foremost requirement of life is energy and sunlight. Solar radiation is the chief
, source of energy on this planet. Sunlight evaporates water that later falls as ram. It also heats
· up the earth unevenly causing winds to blow. Plants that are fundamental to all life on earth Green plants use light for
photosynthesis as .a source of
have the ability to trap some of the solar radiation that strikes the earth. As discussed earlier,
energy for makingfood using
the most important physiological activity in green plants is photosynthesis in which the carbon dioxide, water and a
carbon in C02 is changed to energy rich glucose. This energy, that is stored in glucose, comes few minerals. Oxygen, the
from light. Therefore, green plants show various changes, or adaptations for harvesting much needed gas for survival,
is rele~ed as a byproduct of
sunlight. In plants there are many other physiological activities directly controlled by light
photosynthesis.
such as, transpiration, movement, flowering (photoperiodism) and .germination.

Sunlight is also important in the life of animals. Most animals are sensitive to light. Many
animals have photoreceptors and the rhythm of functioning of a large number of animals is
governed by light. Most insects, birds and animals are active during the day but certain insects
like cockroaches and moths and some animals like bats are naturally more active during the
night i.e. their function is affected by the absence of light.

1.2.3 Temperature
All living organisms are influenced by temperature. Most organisms survive within a narrow
temperature range. Infact, each species tends to have its own range of temperature within' .
which it can function normally. If temperature is less or more than this range, its functioning
is affected and even survival becomes difficult. The range of temperature, in which an
organism can survive is known as 'tolerance limit'. For any physiological activity, there is
minimum, maximum and optimum temperature. Minimum temperature is that on which the
activity starts, maximum beyond which activity is not possible and optimum at which it is
at its highest pace. Relatively few organisms survive body temperatures above 45°C. Some of
the organisms develop physiological and behavioral adaptations' to withstand extremes of
temperature. If you visit the deserts of Rajasthan, you will see that the flora is completely
different from other regions. There are many morphological changes in the leaf, stem and
· other parts. of the plants growing in deserts (Fig. 1.). Similarly, animals of the desert live
inside burrows to avoid the intense heat. Migration of birds from>cold regions towards
warmer regions in winters and back to their colder habitats in summers is a another example
of adaptation to temperature. There are a number of species of mammals that undertake such
migration to avoid extreme cold or heat. On the other hand many species that are not capable
of migration to avoid extremes in temperature enter physiologically dormant states. For
example, polar bears can live in freezing temr'!P~?"'-:' ~ut hibernate in extreme winters.

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,

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I
 Environment - An Introduction

• Fig. 1: Cacti are good examples of drought adapted plants.

1.2.4 Wind
..
The strong moving current of air or wind determines weather conditions and becomes an
important environmental factor for some organisms. Plants are highly influenced by wind.
One of the physiological activities such as evapo-transpiration is directly affected by strong
or slow wind.

On higher attitudes, where wind velocity is very high, the impact of wind can be seen very
easily. The shape of the tree canopy gets changed according to the wind direction. The
breakage of plant parts (branches, leaves, flowers, fruits) or sometimes 'uprooting of trees
having a shallow root system is also common. Wind also helps in dispersal of seeds and fruits.

1.2.5 .Humidity
Amount of water vapour or moisture in the atmosphere is known as humidity. When
atmosphere holds the maximum quantity of moisture at a fixed temperature and pressure
then it is known as absolute humidity.

Relative humidity (RH) is the ratio of real humidity and humidity which could be held in the
air at that temperature. .•i

Relative Humidity (RH) % Amount of moisture (water vapour) 'present in the air x 100
Amount of moisture (water vapour)required to saturate the air

Relative humidity of a particular area is influenced by temperature, air pressure (altitude),

wind velocity, vegetation and soil moisture. Hence, there is a close relationship between
atmospheric moisture contents, temperature and RH. Relative humidity declines if
atmosphere is warmer and increases in the cool conditions. The humidity in the atmosphere
directly regulates the rate at which water evaporates from the body surface of land organisms
by various physiological actions such as transpiration; perspiration etc. In case you visit any
hill station, where humidity is high 'almost in all seasons (except summer), you will see how
plants and other organisms in nature adapt to this type 'of environment. Plants that grow in
high relative humidity are classified as hygrophytes (e.g. lichens).

1.2.6 Water
.Water is an essential requirement of life. Do you know. that water forms the maximum
percentage of cell contents in plants arid animals? No life can survive without water. If you
have read any book on the evolution of species, you would know that life started in water. If
you are a student of history, youmust know that most civilisations started near rivers because
water is the basis of life, needed fOf~dQ~estic,irrigational and industrial purposes.

If you visita lake, pond or river in your nearby area, you will see that a large number of plants
and animals live in water. There are organisms that live both in water and land (amphibious,
8 example frog). In rivers, there are fish of various kinds. Fish and other animals living in fast

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 flowing waters have attaching devices and can thrive in fast currents. They are capable-of '-' Our Environment
containing or avoiding strong water currents and can survive in such flowing systems. At the
same time, there are animals that cannot swim actively, and live under stones, in crevices in
the river bed, or within the sand in burrows like snails, clams and slugs.

The requirement of water differs from one organism to~another and the distribution of
organisms depends upon the extent of the need and special adaptations for conserving water. •
For example aquatic plants (hydrophytes) and animals (fish) are well adapted to live in such
.an environment. They have morphological, anatomical and physiological modifications to
allow them to survive in the aquatic environment, Fig. 2(a) shows mangroves that have special
roots for exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide as they grow in areas where little oxygen is
available and 2(b) shows adaptation of leaves ina mangrove species to exude excess salts as
these trees are partially immersed iri saline water. . .

Fig. 2: ~a) Spongy outgrowths from roots of mangroves rtse above the-sand and water (see arrow). These help
ID exchange of g'l.~es. (b) Some species of mangrove exude excess salts from their leaves, that
precipitates on their surface.

Where water is scarce, as in the desert, animals are adapted to avoid water loss. For example,
~he k~ngar60 rat (Fig. 3) is well suited to life in a nearly waterless environment.. Its large
intestmes rcsorb most of the water from waste material and recover most of the water that
evaporates from lungs via condensation in the nasal passage. It.avoids heat by restricting its
movements to night time and hiding in burrows during the day.

.
Fig. 3: The kangaroo rat adapts beautifully to the desert environment.

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 Environment - An Introduction
1.2.7 Soil
Soil is the chief reservoir of mineral elements (nutrients) required by the plants and other
.organisms, Plants take the macro- and micro-nutrients from the soil in soluble form. The
quantity of available nutrients, the water holding capacity, and the aeration of the soil play
.major roles in determining soil fertility. This in turn affects the plant productivity and the
number of organisms the soil '£an support. For example loam soil is a. mixture of sand and
clay particles and supposed to be the best from agriculture/forestry. point of view. It has a
high water holding capacity and holds sufficient amount of moisture and air. Hence, the
penetration of roots and root hairs in loam soils becomes easy.
. ~
If you cut a longitudinal section of soil, there are three distinct layers (A, Band C'horizons,
see Fig. 4). Infact A- horlzon or top soil is the most important one in which we grow seeds
and from which plants take nutrition. This is the reason that we wantto conserve or protect
c. the top soil, by various methods. Removal of top soil by various forces like wind and water
.~ is known as soil erosion and its prevention is termed as soil conservation. There are a
o
J: number of techniques being used for soil conservation. The B-horizon or the subsoil contains
<C'
less organic matter and is therefore less fertile than A-horizon; Below this is the C-horizon
which is a mineral layer made up of the partially decomposed underlying bedroack or
sediment. The C- soil's fertility is low. .

All the environmental factors viz., sunlight, temperature, rainfall,atmosphericJhumidity,

wind, etc. do not function in separation. There is a close linkage between these (actors. Light
and temperture are very closely linked. Land surface and water bodies receiving sunlight get
.heated. Re-radiation from the earth' surface warms the atmosphere near the earth.

When light falls on an area having green vegetation, most.of the light is intercepted by green
plants and a very little fraction of it reaches upto the ground surface. But when light falls on
places devoid of vegetal cover, the soil surface warms up very quickly .. The surface heating
is more in case of stone, gravel, sand or even bricks. This is the reason that the microclimate
(climate near the earth surface) of urban areas, which have concrete constructions are
markedly different from that of villages, where houses .are usually made of mud and have
more greenery in their surroundings.

Similarly, there is a close relationship between temperature and rainfall. High temperature
is responsible for higher rate of evaporation (from the open surface of water) and
transpiration (from the plants). The hot air masses moving from the sea, lake and ponds are
extremely moist. This warm and moist air while moving to higher regions becomes cool,
condensed and ultimately turns into precipitation (rainfall), which is a majbr source of fresh
water on earth.

1<'10. 4. Soil Zones. I'emperature is also related' to circulation' of air and a number of other factors like
atmospheric pressure, altitude, vegetation and soil moisture. Hence, it can be concluded that
'. th~ environmental factors have a close linkage with each other as well as with the living'
organisms.

Check Your Progress-l

1) Define Ecology and Environment. What is an Environmental factor?

...............................................

2) How could a soil profile effect the number of plants that can grow in an area?

3) After reading this Section can you explain in afew lines why is it 'important to know.
, about the environment of a place?

10 • 0" ••••• '." • • • •• • ••••••••••

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 Our Environment
1.3 ENVIRONMENT CHANGES WITH TIME
The history of our solar system or planet earth provides us enough evidences that there have
been gradual but continuous changes in our environment. Some changes are slow whereas
some are fast.

1.3.1 Slow Changes

Slow changes cannot be seen in a lifetime or even in a span of 100-200 years. We can study
such changes through fossil records. For example, the rocks brought back from the moon
were found to be about 4000 million years old and the oldest rock recorded on earth is about
3000 million years old. From the fossil' records, we can study the slow change in the
environment and organisms of a particular region.

The first organisation of earth system took place when it melted within 800 million years of
• its'formation. Iron and other heavy metals sank towards the centre or core of the earth and
lighter metals were expelled as gases to form its first atmosphere. At that time there was no
free 02. When the planet cooled, the outer surface of the mantle solidified into a crust After
that many changes took place through falling meteorites which not only punctured the
primitive earth. crust but caused it to heat up, This drove awaymost of the atmophere's original
gases. The earth became geologically active and volcanoes threw up huge quantities of lava
ash composed namely of gases. Evidence suggests that at that time and even nowadays gases
like carbon-dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour are important constituents of volcanic
emmision, (released from hydrated minerals). On cooling of water vapours clouds were
formed and due to the rains that followed, formation of oceans, rivers, etc., on this planet
took place. There was a significant role of thunderstorms, that accompanied these rains, in
conversion of elements of primitive atmosphere into complex molecules which are the
building blocks of life.

Over a period of time, earth's crust became more and more thick. Sunlight provided heat to
the earth's surface and uneven heating of earth's surfa~e and change in the temperature
caused flow of gases and water in the atmosphere. The complex molecules of carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen forged by lighting discharges in the atmosphere, accumulated into the
ocean to form the first living organism (life started for the first time in the ocean). There
were gradual changes in the nature and atmosphere. A new organism appeared containing
a compound chlorophyll which could trap sun-energy and utilize carbon-dioxide and water
of the sea to form carbohydrates giving out free oxygen as a by product. Before that the
, atmosphere was made up of nitrogen, carbon-dioxide and hydrogen.

Today, we can not imagine that in the early life of the earth there was no oxygen in the
atmosphere. In fact early organisms were extremely prone to oxidation. As oxygen started
accumulating in the atmosphere due to photosynthesis by green plants, carbon-dioxide
correspondingly started decreasing. Some of the newly formed oxygen was siphoned off by
the iron dissolved in the oceans. 11.1 this new combination of gases alongwith oxygen, new
organisms might have evolved, having higher tolerance for oxygen and ability to use it todrive
life process much more efficiently. This way oxygen became the second most abundant gas
after nitrogen in the atmosphere, and the concentration of carbon-dioxide reduced
significantly.

Addition of oxygen in the atmosphere mad~ another significant change when some of the
oxygen was converted into ozone. As you know, the ozone layer in the stratospheric zone of
\ atmosphere is a protective layer for a number of organisms against ultraviolet radiation
emitted by sun. Around 600 million years ago, through the process of slow changes our
atmosphere reached the stage we are living in now. This is the most comfortable state of
. atmosphere for life. But by increasing activities of man, this state of atmosphere is also
i changing rapidly which will be discussed in other Units.

Changes in land-mass or continental movement

According to the German Scientist, Alfred Wegener, about 200 million years ago there was
I. a single continent called 'Pangaea' (Greek word meaning 'All Lands', see Fig. 5.).'

.Scientists believe that the continents do drift slowly, about 15 cm every year. This gradual
shift in 400 million years has shaped the earth as we see it today. There are scientific evidences 11
that the Indian plate also,drifted from 'Gondwana Land' and met 'Laurasia' to give the present
. .

I I
 I Environment - An Introduction shape to this continent. The formation of Himalayas took place because of the impact of this
union of the two continents.

There are many slow activities and events taking place inside the earth too. The core or
interior of the earth is composed of a dense intensely hot mass of molten metal. Surrounding
the core is the mantle - a hot, pliable layer of rock ..Vast flow of convection currents circulate
in this region. These are res~onsible for volcanic erruptions, earthquakes, formation of
mountains, etc .

•
Equator _

Fig. 5: Position of continents at the be~inning of the Mesozoic era when the land masses were
joined to form Pangaea.

Hence, it is clear that there has been a continuous change in the atmosphere, within and
outside the earth. The entire evolution of species on this planet depends on adaptation of
organisms to the- environmental conditions. These changes have obvious implication on
--climate which has changed drastically since the origin of the earth.
~_----.- ----
1.3.2. Fast Changes
There are certain human activities which have brought about fast changes in our environment
as well as in the climate. Since the industrial revolution, technological progress and economic
achievements have made tremendous contribution to modern civilization and brought the
human society unprecedented prosperity. But they have also led to unprecedented risks and
/ crisis which must be solved quickly for safeguarding the future of the mankind. If you visit
some industrial towns like Bombay, Delhi, Kanpur (U.P.), Mandi Gobind Garh (Punjab),
Korba'(M.P.), Surat (Gujarat), Vishakhapatnam (A.P.), etc., you will observe that the
environment of these cities is changing. In metropolitan cities the vehicular pollution is
increasing day by day and is mainly responsible for atmospheric pollution. If you ask your
parents and grand parents, they will tell you how fast the environmental conditions have
changed in rural and urban areas. Some global environmental issues like climatic changes,
are mainly caused by human activities such as burning coal, oil and other fossil fuels, large
scale deforestation and mining, etc. This is one example of fast changes in our environment,
which can be seen not only within a generation but even in one or two decades.
Table 2: The Sources or Pollution.
Greenhouse effect and the changing atmosphere
Source Pollution
percentage Chemical pollution is changing the structure of the earth's atmosphere and threatening to
alter the climate, change plant growth patterns and expose people and animals to higher levels
Transportation 42% of dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation. The main sources of pollution are given in Table 2.
Fuel 21%
Industries 14%
Solid waste disposal 5% Out of these sources of pollution, burning of fossil fuels and destruction of forests have
Others 18% resulted in an imbalance in C02 cycle. Recently, more C02 has been released than the trees
and green plants can absorb. Increasing amount of C02 is hanging in the atmosphere and
has formed a thick blanket which is transparent to solar radiation and allows the visible light
to pass through and reach the ground surface, but on reradiation, the outgoing heat waves
(infra-red radiation) are trapped by them. The heat is sent back to the earth, thereby causing
12
a 'GREENHOUSE EFFECT'.

/
/
The five gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect are: Our Environment
Carbon-dioxide (C02) 50%
Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) 14%
Methane (CH4) 18%
Ozone (03) 12%
Tropospheric Nitrous Oxide (N20) - 6%

It is clear that out of these gases, C02 contributes malimum in the gree-" ,use. effect or
atmospheric warming. There has been rapid increase in the C02 concentration in the
atmosphere in the last two decades. The average C02 concentration increased from 315
parts per million in 1958 to 353 ppm in 1990 and is increasing byabout L5 percent annually.
This sounds very little butthis increasing level of C02 is alarming and scientists are predicting
that if it continues to increase at the same pace, the average earth temperature will increase
by 3-4°C by the year 2030. The oceans will rise 3-7 feet and submerge many small islands and
coastal areas of different continents.

Box 1: Greenhouse Effect

You would have noticed that.if you close all the windows of a car parked in the hot sun, the
insides become unbearably hot. This is so because light can pass readily through the glass of
the windows and is absorbed by the objects inside. The light energy is converted to heat
energy which becomes trapped inside, heating up the car. Greenhouses built to cultivate
plants work on the same principle. Since they are built of glass, light can enter in but heat is
not allowed to escape. Carbon dioxide has similar property of allowing the sunlight to pass
through the' atmosphere but prevents the heat from escaping from the atmosphere. In normal.
amounts carbon dioxide thus maintains the temperature of the atmosphere. But if the levels
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increase, more heat would be retained raising the
atmospheric te'inperature. This trapping of heat in the atmosphere is known as the
'greenhouse effect.' '-i
. .. )It-wavelength radiation
m sun ..
I Long-wavelength re-radiation from
surface of earth absorbed by COz and
methane warming the 8ImOSpbc.tc

Fig.6: Schematic greenhouse effect Short wavelength radiation pass through the atmosphere and carbon
dloxide and other greenhouse gases absorb the long-wavelength (infrared) radiation from the heated
earth surface.

Second important fast change in our atmosphere is the depletion in Ozone layer. You learnt
in the earlier section that the ozone layer in the stratosphere absorbs the incoming UV
radiation (short wave lengths between 200-400 nm). In case this UV light is not ftltered, it
can kill all the microorganisms,and can cause a number of diseases in animals and man. It
can damage plants and trees, plankton and other sea life, plastic produces and also the
immune system in humans.

There are certain chemicals, mainly chloroflurocarbons (CFCs), and to a lesser extent halons,
carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform which are being released in the atmosphere .
.CFCs are Widelyused as coolants in refrigerators, air conditioners etc. , and as propellants,
in aerosol spray cans. These CFCs migrate upward in the stratosphere. At about 25.km the
CFCs are broken down by UV radiation causing them to release chlorine, a gas that reacts
readily with and destroys ozone. Through a chain reaction one chlorine atom. destroys
1,000,000ozone molecules. By this slow reaction the layer is getting thinner, and scientists
13

/
 Environment - An Introduction have observed some places where ozone is depleted to such an extent, so as to form an 'ozone
hole'.
The ozone layer is thinning all over the world but more effects can be seen at polar regions.
particularly in the Antarctic. When the ozone layer is depleted, UV radiation reaching the
earth increases. A portion of the UV radiation that reaches the earth's surface is responsible
for sunburn and causes or contributes to skin cancer. As a rule of thumb every 1% decline
in stratospheric ozone concentration means a 2% increase in intensity of biologially effective
radiation that passes through the ozone sheild. Scientists expect a 5-20% increase in UV
radiation during the next 30-40 years. .

Now there is a lot cif awareness regarding this and efforts are being made at national and
international levels to check various types of pollution and to protect the ozone layer.

Having briefly considered the several components which together make up the environment.
We need to re-emphasise that it is as a complex of all these components, that the environment
acts upon the organisms. It must be remembered that if one factor is disturbed, there is often
•
a chain reaction ending in results that were never anticipated. .

Check Your Progress - 2

1) How can you study slow' changes in the environment during different geological
periods?

2.) a) Name few greenhouse gases.

b) Which gas contributes maximum to the greenhouse effect?

3. Ozone layer depletion is mainly because of which chemical(s)?

1.4 LET US SUM UP

Environment is the surroundings of an organism. It is of two types, biotic and abiotic, there
are various environmental factors affecting the living'organisms, plants and animals and
responsible for variation in vegetation, flora and fauna on this planet earth. The abiotic
environmental factors do not function independently but are closely linked to affect the biotic
factors. Environment was never static, it was and is always changing. Some of the changes
are so slow that we can not see in 100-200 years for example drifting of land mass and
formation of different continents. But some of the changes can be seen very easily. In the
present age, with the technological developments, human beings have created some serious
environmental problems such as global warming of atmosphere and ozone layer depletion.
These problems not only need national attention but also international cooperation. Besides,
14 a massive people's awareness campaign is needed in this regard.

/
/
 "
• ,

Our Environment
. 1.5 KEYWORDS

Chemical energy , Here it is the energy stored in the form of chemical bonds.

GondwanaLand The large land mass that separated from Pangaea in the southern
hemisphere in the Triassic period 213 to 248 million years ago.

Laurasia The large land mass in the northern hemisphere that separated
from the single land mass Pangaea during the Triassic period 213
to 248 million years ago. .

Meteorites Mass of matter.Tragment of rock or metal reaching the earth's

surface from outer space,

Morphological Changes in the structure.

Changes
•
Photoreceptors Receptors in the body of organisms that respond to light.

Photosynthesis : The biochemical process by which green plants and some bacteria
capture light energy and use it to produce chemical bonds, Carbon
dioxide and water are consumed and oxygen and simple sugars are
produced.

Solar energy Energy derived from the Sun.

. '1.6 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

I Check Your Progress -1

1) Refer to Sec. 1.1.

2) Refer to Sec. 1.2.

, 3) Give your own explanation.

I Check Your Progress - 21

1) Refer to Sub-sec. 1.3.1.
I
2) (a) Carbondioxide, CFCs, Ozone, Nitrous Oxide, Methane.
(b) Garbondioxide

3) Chloroflurocarbons (CFCs).

15

I
• \

I
Environment - An Introduction
UNIT 2 LINKAGES IN NATURE

Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Ecosystem
2.3 The Components of Ecosystem
2.4 Food Chain, Food Web and -
Trophic Level
2.5· Interrelations and Interdependence
2.6 . The Linkages
2.7 Tourism Industry's Attempt to
Relate to Nature
• 2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Keywords
2.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
.: Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES ,
I
.1
After studying this Unit you should be able to:

• define an ecosystem,
• describe the characteristics of an ecosystem,
• describe the components of an ecosystem,
• distinguish amongst the different classes of the biotic components,
• explain the basis of relationship among different living organisms in the ecosystem,
• define food chain, food web and trophic level and show their functional relationship in
ecosystem,
• discuss the flow of energy in ecosystem and highlight the implications of energy transfer
through trophic levels,
• understand that no component of the ecosystem can exist in isolation, and
• relate the activities of the tourism industry to nature conforming to the ecological
'principles and relationships.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

If you are asked to list five commonly discussed themes in present times, surely 'environment'
would figure in your list. Environment means different things to different people and
accordingly people interpret it in a variety of ways. In the previous Unit you have seen an
ecologist's definition of the environment. In whatever way you, we and others may describe
. the environment, all these descriptions directly or indirectly refer to the dynamic aspect of
the nature. You may 'ask what makes the environment dynamic? It is plethora of life forms
that it encompasses. Further, the linkages between the innumerable life forms make the
environment a dynamic entity. You may now ask - what ~re these linkages? Linkages refer
to the relationships between the various components of the environment, and this is precisely
what we are going to discuss in this Unit. As we go on to explore the linkages in nature, always
. remember the concept of interdependence, and note that it is the underlying theme of all the-
ecological relationships.

2.2 THE ECOSYSTEM

Try defining the environment, and the nature. Do these descriptions overlap? Generally
speaking, the environment and the nature seem inseparable. Infact, these words are often
16 used as synonyms and we shall continue to use them in this way in th~s Unit too.

/
/
 The expanse of environment is very large and it covers the whole biosphere (Fig. 1). As you Linkages in Nature
know, the 'environment includes numerous components. There are so many kinds and
number of life forms - biotic factors, that stagger one's imagination. These living forms,
forming the web of life, spread out almost throughout the biosphere - from the earth, down
to the oceanic floor, and up even above the highest mountains, in the air. In addition, there Biosphere - it is a thin
are equally diverse kinds of abiotic factors constituting the physical environment that 'create' zone over a dozen
conditions suitable for life to exist. If we intend to make an ecological expedition to· kilometre broad
stretching from the ocean
understand our environment, making use of all the efficient technololgical aids available to
depth to a fewkilometre
us, a life time would be too short a period for it. So what do we do? And you may also ask, into the atmosphere.
then how come so much is known about our environment, covering the entire planet earth.
Well, what we know today about our environment is the result of
studies of innumerable ecologists, naturalists and other scientists
who have studied its different aspects, putting in lots of efforts, and
time, and even spending their entire life studying only a particular 9 .Kilometre
aspect. .
B t---------(
• For the purpose of understanding the basic ecological principles
of environment, first it is essential to identify an area which one
would like to study. While doing so we have to keep in mind three
6 LIMlTOFHIGHER PLANTs
things: its accessibility, ease in handling and appropriate size,' The
whole biosphere - as a unit for study is too large, and so are its 5 LIMIT OF HUMAN INHABITATION
two main components - the atmosphere and the earth. If we
choose earth, then its subdivisions - the continents are. again too 4 LIMlTOFCULTIVATION
large. Their subsubdivisions - forests, deserts and so on, also seem
to be unwieldy: We continue to sub, sub .....subdivide earth and 3~-----I
select a small area such as an island; a pond or agrassland etc. for
our study: The selected area (say an island), besides fulfilling the 2 FORESfSPRASSlANDS etc. I

above three requirements, seems to be a manageable system to'

study the ecological principles and relationships in the nature.

What is the crux of the above discussion?

One, the ecosystem is what we choose it to be; It can be the
biosphere, earth, forests, rivers, ponds, islands, wheat field, an
aquarium, a jar of pond water and even a rock with lichens growing OCEAN
on it. Ecosystem is, thus, a handy operational term that can be 2
applied at any scale. In tourism it is often applied in the context of
3
a destination, i.e., the ecosystem of a destination.
Two, there is an ecosystem within an ecosystem and yet another .4
ecosystem within it. It is just like the dolls made of wood. As you ,. ---- .•.
open one, there is one in it, which in turn has another and so on. 5
The whole biosphere is an ecosystem, so are its components - the
earth and the atmosphere, which in turn have smaller ecosystems. s
Three, the ecosystem is a unit' of the nature that is in itself an
independent functional entity. 7
Four, the ecosystem is an intricate network consisting of biotic and
abiotic factors, connected through complex interactions that arise 8
between the biotic and abiotic components.
Five, Ecosystems vary in complexity.
9 -- -- - -
Six, despite the variations in different ecosystems, the underlying
basic ecological principles and processes are similar.
Fig.l: Diagrammatic representation
So far, we have dealt with two aspects of the ecosystem; The first ofbiosphere givinga conceptual
is, what is an ecosystem? Second is, what constitutes it. The third idea of its extent.
aspect that needs to be looked into is that how does it work?

2.3 THE COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

We come back again to the example of the island ecosystem that we have identified here for
the purpose of our study. From a distance the island appears lush green and full oflife. There
are tall trees, shrubs, herbs; rodents, birds, butterflies and many other life forms. The ground
floor is covered with heaps of dead leaves, twigs and fallen branches. At a casual glance these
appear to be lifeless, rotting masses. Actually they form the roof tops of the hidden world of
the soil that consists of various kinds of worms, insects, fungi and numerous microscopic
17
forms. The soil beneath this layer too is full of activity, as there are burrows, tunnels and

/ I
 Environment" An Introduction
underground nests of various kinds of animals. In addition to the wide range of biotic forms
found on the island, abiotic components such as -soil, water, air and light too constitute an
integral part of the island ecosystem. The complex interactions between these factors create
conditions suitable for the existence of life. Both the biotic and the abiotic components
.togetht.':~Jorm the ecosystem (Fig. 2).

Abiotic
--------'-.------------~

Ecosystem

..
Biotic

l'ig. 2: The abiotic .and the biotic components together constitute the ecosystem.

The living organisms require energy for their life processes and materials for the formation
and maintenance of body structures. The energy and materials are obtained from food taken
up by the organisms. All living beings in an ecosystem are related among themselves through
food. Organisms are broadly divided into two categories viz. producer and consumer. The
green plants are producers, as they have the capacity to manufacture their own food from
existing supplies of water and carbon dioxide, utilizing sunlight as the source of energy. This
Green plants use light for process is known as photosynthesis. Not only big trees are efficient in this solar energy fixing
photosynthesis as a source of
process, but diatoms, green algae and phytoplankton also produce food (see Fig. 3).
energy for making food using
carbon dioxide, water and a
few minerals. Oxygen, the
much needed gas for survival,
is released as a byproduct of
photosynthesis.

A desmid

Tree ' I Spirogyra

)~
A"\~tt
:~~~,Ch/am.Yd.omonas -
~ ~ 0~
~~\ ~
)~i\ Y vrr: ..,
..
,; ,.,> .
A dinoflagellate

y~'~~~"•.':
Herb Chlorella . A diatom
I

Fig. 3: Diverse kinds of producers, The various forms shown in the figure are not drawn to the same scale.
18

/
 Therefore, animals and most microorganisms unlike plants, cannot capture energy from the Linkages in-Nature
sun as plants do. To obtain energy and nutrition they eat plants directly or feed on plants
indirectly by eating other organisms. Therefore, animals and most microorganisms are
consumers.

Consumers may belongtoone ofthe four classes on the basis of their food sources:

•. herbivores,
• carnivores,
• omnivores, and
• detritus feeders ..

A consumer that eats only plants is a herbivore, and the animals which prey on the animals
are known as carnivores. A consumer that eats both plants and animals is an omnivore.
Surely, you can generate a long list of examples for all these categories. In which category
would you place yourself? Detritus feeders or decomposers feed on detritus - the dead or
• partially decomposed remains of plants and animals and obtain both energy and nutrients
from dead organic niatter helping in recirculation of' the materials in the environment.
Numerous kinds of bacteria, fungi, earthworms, termites and maggots are all examples of
decomposers.

Check Your Progress-l

1) List the components that make up any ecosystem.

2) What is an ecosystem? Name two biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.

. '.

3) Distinguish amongst herbivores, carnivores and omnivores and give two examples of
each.

.'

~) . 19
,

I I
 Environment '-An Introduction 4) A bumber sticker asks - "Have you thanked a green plant today?" Give two reasons'
for appreciating a green plant.

5) Why are the producers an essential component of an ecosystem?

•

'.

6) List two important groups of decomposers. In what way do their activities differ from
those of other consumers?

, \

'.

t
.
"
. - ,. '.......
.
,

.
~
Snake. t 7) Can you visualize what would happen if all the decomposers discontinue their work for
a~e~ .
.. ..:.:...
'~§)'i.''''~ •
...
'
,."
:-- ..
".

Frog *"

. t
GraSShoppe~""~'.
~

t
2.4 FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB AND TROPHIC LEVEL
The organisms belonging to different categories as described in the previous section are
Fig. 4: A food chain. ~':,." of related to each other in terms of food. The energy fixing green plants - producers are eaten
energy and nutrient", " by herbivores, which in turn are eaten by carnivores or predators. Thus the living organisms
established as one
organism feeds on the are related through energy, forming a food chain or in other words, through eater and eaten
20 others. relationship (Fig. 4).

/
/
 The food chains 'ire mostly sequential and begin from green plants followed by herbivores Linkages in Nature
and two successive sets of carnivores or predators: Such food chains are called Grazing food
chain or Predator food chain (Fig. 5a). In
addition, the food chains that start from dead
organic materials that are consumed by a series of parasites and hyperparasites is called
Detritus food chain or Saprophytic food chain (Fig. 5b). These food chains are invariably
linked to one another in nature (see Fig. 5c).

(a) Grazing (c) Linkage-of Grazing and Detritus

Food Chain (b) Detritus Food Chain
Food Chains
Grazing food chain Detritus food chain
Plants Plants __ Remains
Remains and

• j wastes of living
beings ,

IDetritus feeders
l
Rabbit_
r Bacteria I
Rabbit

, .
j
Wolf
I Remains and
' wastes
I j
Wolf --.-
Remains and
wastes

Bacteria and
fungi

L L..:::::.. :_,' -'

Fig. 5: a) 'Grazing food chain; b) Detritus food chain. Bacteria and other organisms feed on plant and animal remains. c) The Grazing and
Detritus food chains are linked.

Let us consider a simple food chain consisting of five links (Fig. 4). The sequence is as follows:

Grass - Grasshopper - Frog - Snake, - Vulture

Each sequence or link in the food chain is called a trophic level or food level (Fig. 6). The
green plants make up the first trophic level and the herbivores make up the second trophic
level, and the higher trophic levels (third, fourth and so on) are composed of carnivores. See
the above food chain once again. The trophic level of an organism indicates its position with
respect tothe producers, that is, the green plants.

Food Chain __ -I"~Grass ___ ~•• GraSS/hopper ••••••.

Frog ••••.Snake ----'--I••.••
Vulture

~ ~
~ ~

Kind of
Organism
Primary
Producer '1,_Pr..,..'_imary
_
__ I~_. Se_con_dary
__ U_'
Consumer,
Te_rtJ_.a_ry
__ U Q_ll_atc_,
n_la_
IY
....".J.

Fig.6: A trophic level diagram of the food chain depicted in Fig. 4.

A food chain is a flow chart that follows the course of food energy through an ecosystem (see
Figs 4,5 and 6). It is important to remember that energy flow through the ecosystem is
unidirectional from lower trophic level to higher trophic level (also see Fig. 7).

21

/ \
/ \ I
 ,
Environment - An Introduction

p
-,
\ ,
Death and wastes of organisms
,.
~j
Decomposers
ItL....-------ol
Fig. 7. Energy flow through the food chain. Solar energy fixed by producers, passes on from one trophic level
to another. Eventually the energy passes to the decomposers. Note that only a part of energy is
transferred (represented here by different sizes of Letter E) to the next level, and a considerable portion
1
is lost as heat. P - Producer; C - Consumers.

Let us have a look at the energy status at various levels of the food chain (see Fig. 7). As we;
go along the trophic levels, at each step, a large portion of energy is lost as heat and only a
small fraction about 10% goes on to the next level. Therefore, the quantity of energy
decreases successively at a. rapid rate from primary producers to the top consumer
(carnivores). This explains why the food chains have fewer links; After fourth or fifth link, not
enough energy is available to support another trophic level. Extending this concept a bit
. further, in case we Want to support more human population on earth, this could be' possible
by providing them with vegetarian diet rather than non-vegetarian food. This way maximum
energy can be made available as it involves one step in the energy transfer from primary
producer, thus minimizing energy loss at subsequent transfers. Figure 8, is the conceptional
model of the above discussion on energy flow.

Wheat (1500 kg)

(h)
Fig. 8. The use of vegetarian and carnivorous diet for supporting human population. If on a vegetarian diet,
1500 kg of plant matter can support 25 people for the same length of time (shown in a) that 1500 kg of
plant matter can support only one person who eats meat (as shown in b). The data given is hypothetical. .

Also compare the following two food chains depicted in the trophic level diagram (Fig. 9).
In the light of the above could you tell which of the two food chains can support larger number
of people?
___ 1st
Trophic Levels 2nd 3rd 4th
Food chain
(a) Green plants

22
Fig. 9: A trophic lev~ldiagram
I (b) Green plants

showing two food chains (a,b) in which man occupies the terminal trophic level.

/
 From the above discussion you should not be tempted to believe that the food relations in an Linkages in Nature
'ecosystem are simple having only linear food chains. Actually, in nearly all the natural
ecosystem's, the patterns of consumption are so complicated that there are many cross links
connecting various organisms. So when the consumers have more than one food source, this
results in branching off of food chains, In this way chains become interconnected to form a .
food web (Fig. IQ). A food web, thus,·i$ a composite of all the food chains giving us a complete
. picture of who consumes whom in.·itn!cosystem. Food webs represent transfer of energy
and nutrients among the organisms through the ecosystem, whereas a food chain traces only
.one pathway or represents one strand of the food web .

.
,

\
.Fig. 10: A simplified food web showing int~rconnected network of food chains. \
In a food web, many species can occupy more than one trophic level. They are known as
multilevel consumers or omnivores. Humans are good examples of.this situation. The humans,
when they consume food derived from plants - they are primary consumers occupying 2nd .
trophic level, and when they consume animal products they may occupy 3rd or higher trophic
levels (see Fig. 11). .

Trophic Levels

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Wheat --f-tI--

Plants

Grass --t-tI--

Wheat _ .•..•---

Fig. ll: Four food chains showing how an organism (man) can occupy different
trophic levels.

. 23

/
/ I
 Environment - An, Introduction
Check Your Progress-2

1) What are two major types of food chains? How are they different? How are they
similar?

2) How do food webs differ from food chains?

•
.~.

3) Why energy flow in ecosystems is unidirectional and not cyclic?

4) To meet the food requirement of the growing population, would you recommend
vegetarian or nonvegetarian diet? Explain.

5) 'All flesh is glass'. Give an ecological interpretation.

6) Why one kg of meat is more expensive than 1 kg of wheat. Explain in ecological terms.

24
~.'. :" 'I •

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/
 .~.. ~..
, ".

, Linkages in Nature
2.5 INTERRELATIONS. AND INTERDEPENDENCE
The trophic relationships of an ecosystem can be summarized in the form of ecological , I

pyramids (Fig. 12). The base of the pyramid represents the 1st trophic level consisting of
producers; and the rest constitute the consumers, while the apex represents the tertiary ,
consumer. There are three kinds of ecological pyramids. Pyramid of numbers represent the
number of organisms at each trophic level (Fig. 12a). The second is the Pyramid of biomass
'(see Fig. 12b). Biomass is the dry weight of living matter at a particular time. To calculate the
biomass of, say the producers, it is necessary to collect and )Veigh the plants of a given area.
The biomass of consumers can be determined, by first counting the number of different
types of animals. Then the total number is multiplied by the average weight per- individual,
that gives the approximate biomass at each trophic level. The third type is known as Pyramid
of energy, which illustrates the ~nergy structure of ecosystem (see Fig. 12c).Less energy is
available at each succeeding trophic level. Can you recall why is it so? May be you would like
to refer to Fig. 7 once again.
{

r
I "
j400j
1 100
, '11
Total number Total combined weight
of carnivores
of4 vores

5 I 1,100 1,000'
I.
Total combined weight
of all herbivores'
I'

9,600 10,000
2000
I \
Total numberj Total combined weight
of all producers I of all producers -\

J \
...L..-.l1
[
(a~ V(b)I..l..------L...,..L(C)
Pyramid of numbers Pyramid of Biomass Pyramid of energy
, (in numbers) (g dry weight! sq.mt.) (Kilocalories/ sq. mt/ year)
fig 12: (a) Pyramid of number, (b) Pyramid ofbiomass; and (c) Pyramid of energy. Numeric values in parantheses are hypothetical and the'
organisms are not drawn to the same scale.

,
As you know, the producers constitute the base of the pyramid, and the various level of
consumers form the top portion of the pyramid. The pyramidal shape 'reflects a 'balance'
amongst the various trophic levels, in the ecosystem. The utility and relevance of studying
ecological pyramids is illustrated by the three examples discussed below; Try to figure out
what kind of ecological pyramid would result in each of the following situations, Sometimes, .
the interrelationships and linkages between the various trophic levels get disturbed by
human activities, For example, if we kill all the tigers, lions and other top carnivores. in a 25
"01." ~-i .•

I!I

I
 Environment- An Introduction
- Endemic species - species restricted
to certain area or part of the world.
forest, the number of herbivores such as deers, stags, rabbits etc. will increase, resulting in
an imbalance of the entire ecosystem. Try to visualize the shape of the ecological pyramid to"
depict such a situation. Let us see another example. If large scale deforestation is carried on:,
in any area, the herbivores which are dependent on green plants would either migrate to
nearby areas or those unable to adapt or withstand such a change would perish. Deforestation
in one stroke drastically alters the habitat and wipes out the food source of herbivores. This
is one of the main reasons (or the steady loss of endemic primate species which once'
flourished in the natural fore;ts of our country.

Similarly, in the croplands, which are man-made ecosystems, we are applying large amount
of biocides - insecticides and.pesticides to save our crops from pests, and to get better yield.
We pay a heavy price by using pesticides because their use over a period of time disturbs the
ecological balance. How? In nature, the various kinds of insects are not unwanted creatures,
but they have some specific roles to play. Some of them act as pollinators, as they carry pollen
grains from one flower to another. By doing so they effect fertilization and seed setting process' --I
in crops and wild plant species. Transfer of pollen from one flower, to another by biotic
• agencies help in promoting much needed genetic reshuffling which eventually helps in
producing species and varieties with superior genetic make up. Let us weigh the advantages
and disadvantages of the use of biocides. There is one advantage that it checks the pests. But
disadvantages are many. Excessive biocides use besides resulting in accumulation of biocides
in the natural reservoirs also wipes out many useful and non target organisms acting as
pollinator~. It is natural that seed set or yield will be greatly reduced in the absence of
pollinators, Those of us, who have an attitudinal closeness to the nature, and care to
understand the delicate relationships, are careful of their choice of actions in such kinds of
situations. Nowadays, the educated and environmentally conscious farmers too evaluate the'
cost and benefits of the use of these chemicals on the overall production of different crops
vis-a-vis preserving the nature. -

2.6 THE LINKAGES

I

After having studied the major ecosystem components and their linkages let us view an . I
ecosystem in totality. Try to visualize any natural ecosystem - lake, forest or an island. One I
- thing that you might have observed is that no organism lives in isolation. Each organism has \
linkages with other organisms existing in that ecosystem. All organisms inhabiting a given area
I
I constitute a community. Every organisms in a community - whether it is a microorganism or
macroorganism is interdependent on each other directly or indirectly. In addition, each
organism is also closely linked with their abiotic enviroment in a complex way. Let us see
how?
..
In order to remain alive all organisms must secure energy and nutrients from their
environment. The primary producers can be viewed as the port of entry for energy into the
ecosystem. The solar energy is the ultimate source of energy for powering all the reactions in
an ecosystem. By harnessing and storing the-solar energy in the form of carbohydrates, the
primary producers form a direct link between the abiotic and biotic components. Herbivores
fulfil their energy needs in form of food from green plants and in. turn serve as energy source
for carnivores. Energy transfer sequence through the food chain and food web provide strong
linkages for interconnecting living organisms in the ecosystem. The energy obtained by each
of these organisms is not utilized hundred per cent. If its reverse was true then how would
the web of life go 011?'Only a fraction of this energy is utilized and it is leaked and dissipated
into the environment in the form of heat - this represents an important linkage between biotic
to abiotic components. The metabolic wastes and dead organic matter provides another
major linkage between biotic and abiotic components. The story of linkage does not end here. ' ,
Bacteria, fungi, worms and other decomposers fulfil their, energy requirements for their life
processes from dead organic matter. In this process, the' Undesirable wastes are processed
and broken into their elementary elements - such as' carbon, oxygen, nitrogen helps in
renewing the supply of nutrients 'for the. use of green plants to the environment.iThis
represents another biotic abiotic linkage. The nutrients absorbed by green plants once again
move into another cyclic journey. The diverse kinds of interwoven linkages between the biotic
- abiotic components are vitally important for the functional integrity of ecosystems.
41
·1
Whatever you have seen so far is not only true for small ecosystems but is also true for . ~
magaecosystem - or earth itself. At the global level too, the same energy capturing and cycling \ I
reactions go on, as seen in smaller ecosystems. Also the decomposers play their crucial roles .;'
26
in recovering and cycling the elements trapped in the wastes and dead remains of organisms.
I ~! '.I.-I'I"··~_~£·'~., ~'~.-,-,-.!.__ .: __ -'--- '. __ .'---__ _ .,~_

~.•.
~~/ . -,
/
/
 .. _.-·--r~···

In addition, water which is a crucial factor for existence of life is also made available Linkages in Nature
continually through water .cycle, which is again powered by the Sun. Thus, there is an
equilibrium between the physical and biological elements in terms of nutrients and energy.
This state is also called natural equilibrium, a term we very often come across when dealing
with problems of ecology and environmental protection. We all must, thus, understand these
basics of existence on this planet lest, we may unknowingly make choices which would provide
a setback to all these processes and eventually the life on this planet.

2.7 TOURISM INDUSTRY'S ATTEMPT TO RELATE

TO NATURE
Tourism is gaining importance amongst the various human activities in the modern world. So
much so that today, the tourism industry is fast emerging as a major economicforce both at
national as well as at the international level. You may be wondering, why we are suddenly
• talking on the entirely different issue, Well, this is the central theme of this course, which we
begin to directly discuss with you from now on. The environmental basics that you. have
studied so far, should set you to start analysing the activities of Tourism Industry vis-a-vis the
environment. After all what tourism is about? Tourism is an umbrella term for all the
relationships and phenomena associated with public travelling and visiting
different parts of the country/world with certain specific objectives. Tourism involves two key
interactive' components - the tourists and the environment. However benign the objectives
of a tourist maybe, it does exert certain, amount of pressure on the local environment. How?
Imagine, a small group of tourists visits and spends a number of days in a certain area, with
a simple aim to watch the beautiful landscape and the wildlife. The bare minimum tourists
needs, accomodation, transport facilities and service infrastructure need to be taken care of.
All these activities alongwith the behaviour of tourists, do exert certairi pre~sure on the
environment. Our attempt, therefore, should be to anticipate such likely pressures and-leave
enough scope for the environment to recover and regain the original status after the tourists
moved out from that site. You should realise that this should not remain at the philosophical
level only, but it should generate a deep environmental concern in you. The interaction
between tourism and environment should be viewed as an important consideration in
designing conservation and protection of the delicate balance of the nature. When we say so'
it does not mean that for the first time any attention is being paid to this aspect. People
associated with the tourism enterprises have felt some of these problems in the past, and many
tourist impact studies have been conducted. Such studies have highlighted the adverse
consequences 'of tourism related activities on the environment. The damage levels were
recorded but the processes by which damage occurs have been rarely identified. Another
weakness of such investigations is that usually a single environmental component of a tourist
spot has been examined, ignoring the relationships and interdependences of the components
for taking a comprehensive view of the total environment. In nutshell, most of these studies
are reactionary, that is, after the event analysis. The following five examples would bring out
this point very clearly to you. These examples, taken from different situations sum up the
adverse after-effects of some tourism related activities and are based on substantial data
which we have not deliberately included here.

• The use of off road vehicles in sensitive ecosystems such as dunes is damaging.
• Wildlife observation by tourists disturbs the feeding and breeding of animals and birds.
ft • Wastes discarded by tourists, at sites visited,get accumulated in huge amounts over the
i
;.I
years. In some places, situation has come to a pass where it is posing grave danger to the
very existence of that area as a tourist spot. '
• In the seaside tourist resorts the untreated raw sewage from the tourist accommodation
is discharged into the sea thereby adversely affecting the marine life and communities
existing on shores and nearby areas.
• Excursions and carelessly conducted educational trips involve uprooting and collection
of rare or important plants by tourists and trampling of vegetation resulting in avoidable
loss of biodiversity. t

There is no dearth of impressively documented examples conveying the same message. All
these remain locked in books, papers or technical journals only. In future too, many such
instances may add on [0 the existing list to make it even longer. Since tourism is almost certain
to become a major sector in international trade in the years to come, a central review of the
--- . _ -;-. ~ . . ". L;A ••• ,-. ~~-"'_:~~"7""'1? .;_:..•..~-:. -.~.(::

/ I
 ~~.!.ironment- An Introduction impact of tourism on environment is urgently .required. A proper ecologically responsive
I, planning and management is needed to take care of such problems. Sensitization of the
people related to tourism industry has to be the key'component ofthe approach which need
to be incorporated at each and every level in tourism enterprises, If we all- the tourists and
the tourism corporates are conscious of the likely impact of their each and every activity on
the environment, the safeguard measures would be automatically implimented without effort.
Any beginning, even at a sma~ scale, would only premeate and spread to the global scale!
;' ~,.r _

"

I Check Your Progress-3

1) What ate the implications of decreasing biomass in the pyramid ofbiomass? Comment
on the relationship of decreasing biomass and the number of organisms,

..

2) In a tiger land, if you kill all deers, rabbits and other herbivores, what will happen to:
a}Growth of trees/vegetation in the area; ,
b)Tigers and other carnivores;
c)Decomposers?

/ "l

I...- "

I· r
/-

I
I·

3) . Construct a food web to explain-the linkages in "thenature,

- '..
..,
28

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-----.---""-..:: - -:J'

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 ...
Linkages in Nature
2.~ LET US SUM UP

In this Unit you have studied that:

• The environment consists of biotic and abiotic components that are interrelated in an
ecosystem. ~
• The ultimate source of energy for all ecosystems is the Sun. The producers are capable
of trapping the Sun's energy and converting it into biomass.
• Herbivores feed on producers and are in turn eaten by carnivores, which may be eaten
by other carnivores constituting the food chain.
• The starting point of grazing food chains is always a producer, followed by a series of
consumers each of which feeds on the latter. Detritus food chains begin with dead organic
matter that is consumed by decomposers, like bacteria, fungi, as well as various soil
• animals.
• Each level in the food cha:inis known as a trophic level. ,
r
• Ecosystems generally have a relatively large producer base with successively smaller
"
numbers of herbivores, carnivores, and, top carnivores.
• Energy flows through an ecosystem. Trophic levels, food chains and food webs track the
flow of energy. Each time energy passes from one trophic level to the next, about 90%
of the energy is lost and only 10% is incorporated into the body tissues of organisms of
the next higher trophic level.
• A biotic community represents interacting populations of organisms in an area. The
organisms are interrelated in a variety of ways through interlocking food chains forming
a food web. Because of this interlocking, changes in one part of the community can have
system-wide effect.
• The trophic relations in an ecosystem can also.be represented in the form of pyramids
of number, biomass or.energy. -
• All the biotic and abiotic components are linked to each other in an intricate manner:
• It is important to understand the linkages in the nature to avoid disruption of the nature.
f
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2.9 KEYWORDS

Abiotic: Nonliving organisms

Biosphere: The entire part of the earth's land, soil, water, and atmosphere in
} which the living organisms are found. .

Biotic: Pertaining to life.

Consumer: Organisms that ingest organic food or other organisms as a food

source .
.,
Decomposer: Organisms such as bacteria, fungi that breakdown dead organic
matter and release their elements back to nature.

Detritus: Fresh or decaying organic matter of plant or animal origin,

Ecological pyramids: A triangular graphic form showing number of individuals, biomass,

or available energy at successive trophic levels in the ecosyst.em.

Ecosystem: A unit of the environment consisting of living and non-living com-

ponents that interact Withexchanges of energy and nutrients .

.t r~ Food Chain: A specific nutrient and energy pathway in ecosystem proceeding

from producer to consumer.
29"
{

/
/ I
 Environment - An Introduction Food Web: The complex interlocking pattern of food chains in a biotic com-
munity,

photosynthesis: The process by which chlorophyll containing cells of plants utilize

energy of the Sun to synthesize simple carbohydrates from carbon
dioxide and water. Oxygen is the by-product of this process.

Producer: O~anisms that convert light energy from the Sun into chemical
bond energy, Green plants are producers.

Trophic level: Functional classification of organisms in an ecosystem according

to their feeding relationships.

2.1,0 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

•

I Check Your PrOgreSS-I!

1) Interacting organisms and their physical environment.

2) Ecosystem is a dynamic, self-sustaining unit of nature, that consists of organisms and

their physical environment. Write examples of your choice.
; .

·4) One, the green plants, by way of photosynthesis store the solar energy in the form of
organic material which is used as food for consumers. Two, green plants continually
generate oxygen, as a by-product of its photosynthetic reactions. This way this vital gas
is available to us uninterrupted. Because of the above two reasons, we ought to appreciate
and thank them.

5) The producers are the entry gates of energy into an ecosystem. By their unique energy
capturing process known as photosynthesis, they are able to fixand store the solar energy
I
I in organic forms viz., the carbohydrates. This stored energy is passed on to the consumers
I~ directly or indirectly. -
i'
i' 6) Examples - Fungi, bacteria.
Decomposers specialize in deriving energy by feeding on dead plants and animals-and
on animals' wastes. By their activities they return to the nature the elements locked up
in various organic wastes.

7) The various forms of organic wastes generated, would collect as huge piles of filth. The
cycle of liberation of elements to their natural reservoirs would come to a grinding halt.
The secondary effects like pollution of various kinds and outbreak of epidemics may also
result.

I Check Your PrOgreSS-2!

1) Grazing food chain and detritus foodchain. Difference - The grazingfood chainstarts
from green plants whereas detritus food chain starts from dead organic matter.
Similarity - Both involve transfer of energy along the trophic levels.

2) - The food webs give a total picture of the nutrient and energy transfers in an ecosystem,
whereas food chain only represents one pathway in the food web.

I
I .1,
'30

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 3) Energy is transferred in unidirectional manner from the producers to the consumers in Linkages in Nature
the food chain. Also the amount of energy successively decreases along the food chain,
and not enough energy is left after the terminal trophic level to support another trophic
level. Energy, thus, flows and does notcycle, '

4), Vegetarian. See Sec. 2.4, particularly Fig. 8.'

55 All flesh - representing the consumers, traces its Origin to the source of nutrient and
energy from producers - represented by grass here.

6) Hint: To form a kilo of meat, an organism draws energy and nutrient in several times
larger proportions from the lower trophic levels. The transfer is an inefficient process,
as any organism is only able to incorporate about 10% of the available energy in its body
tissue. A kilo of meat involves high investments in terms of biomass of the lower trophic
level(s). Also see Sections 2.4 and 2.5 .

•
Check Your Progress-3

1) See Section 2.5. The number of consumers goes on decreasing as we move to the highest
trophic level of the food chain.

2) - a), In the absence of herbivores, the trees/plants would grow luxuriantly.

b) Toe carnivores would be hit hard by the absence of herbivores, which are, their
food. They would die of starvation. '

c) Decomposers thrive on dead organic matter, which would be available anyway.

3) Refer to Sec. 2.4.

" ,

ACTIVITIES FOR THIS UNIT

I' Activity - 1 I
Visit a field and list how many kinds of species constitute the following categories?
a) Producers
b) Consumers
c) Decomposers

I Activity - 21
This activity requires a week's time and careful data recording. Starting from Monday to
Sunday, everyday recordwhat items you consume in your breakfast. Review your data and
answer the following questions.

a) Categorise the items consumed into the various classes (see Section 2.3).

b) Draw food chains to trace the trophic level of 'each item.

c) Based on the kind of food items you consume - categorise yourself as herbivores,
carnivore, top carnivore or omnivore.

d) Which of the four terms mentioned in (c) describe you appropriately?

31

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/ I
 Environment. An Introduttiop

Construct a food web in which you are also include d.

·1 Activity - 41
\
Devise a strategy for sensitizing the tourists and all those involved with tourist industry
towards the environmental conservation. You may choose any example of tourist spot for this
purpose.

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 UNIT 3 , BIOMES ,OF THE WORLD

Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction ,
3.2 Terrestrial Biomes of the World
3.2.1 Tundra
3.2.2 Coniferous forests and Taiga ..
3.2.3 Temperate Deciduous Forests
3.2.4 Temperature Shrublands
3.2.5 Grasslands
3.2.6 Deserts
3.2.7 Tropical Savannas
3.2.8 . Tropical Deciduous Forests
3.2.9 Tropical Rain forests
3.3 The Aquatic Biomes
3.3.1 Freshwater Biomes
)
3.3.2 Marine'Biomes
3.4 Biomes of India
3.5 Let Us Sum Up
3.6 Keywords
3.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
'-- i :

•
3.0 OBJECTIVES..

After reading this Unit you will be able to:

• 'hnderstand the concept of biomes,

• know about the major terrestrial and aquatic biomes of the world as well as about-the
biomes found in our country, .. .I " ..

'. understand the relationship between climate and biome types,

• identify the main features of each biome,

i
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3.1 IN1iRODUCTION
In the" earlier unit we examined the interaction and interdependence of biotic and abiotic
components of an ecosystem. We also learnt that life exists only in the biosphere, and Within
the biosphere there are divers~ types ef landscapes, ve.getation and animal associations,
Some areas may be covered WIth lush green forests while others may be bare/deserts or
I covered with snow. What determines these variations on our planet? In general we observe
that the climate of these regions is different and that regions with similar climatic,
.topographical and soil conditions often share similar kinds of plant and animal associations.'
Let us explain this with the help of an example", a tropical rain forest in Kerala has tall trees,
with large leaves with multicoloured birds and butterfiles flying through them. Thousands of
miles away the tropical forests of South America or Africa look the same. Though on close
examination the species of trees, birds and butterflies may be different from that of Kerala.
Ecologists call these large, distinct, easily differentiated formations or communities having
distinct flora and fauna biomes. Biomes are generally recognised by and named after the
dominant plant species or community. .
.. ".. I

When we talk of the biomesof the world we must remember that the major community
.. formations include the continents as well as the watets of the oceans, rivers and lakes,
r Therefore, in this Unit we will describe the terrestrial biomes as' well as the large aquatic
; biomes, Seldom the boundaries between two adjacent or neighbouring bi~mes are discrete
, or distinct .insteadthey blend with the neighbouring biomes through a transition zone known
as 'ecotone' this transition zone between two biomes generally has high species diversity and
density as compared to any of the neighbouring biomes. 33
/1
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 Environment - An Introduction In this Unit we describe the major biomes of the world and subsequently of the Indian
regions. We. describe briefly the physical conditions and the biological communties of
specific biomes. Reading through this unit will give you an understanding of the diversity in
the biosphere and set the stage for further discussion on the impacts of human intervention
in later blocks.

3.2 TERREST~ BIOMES OF THE WORLD

Figure 1shows the major terrestrial biomes of the world. As we have said earlier the primary
factors that influence the formation of these biomes are climatic, like precipitation,
temperature, seasonal extremes and winds. However, topography and light are also
important factors. Of all these, precipitation is the chief limiting factor that determines
whether a biome would be a forest or a desert or' a grassland. If the average annual
precipitation in the region is less than 25 cm the place would be a desert containin10itt~
vegetation. This would be true regardless of average temperature, ligh~(Lqualitf of soil. -
If a region has moderate average precipitation, aroun~75-em-(f ear, grasslands would be·
formed. A region would be a forest-iftheaVerage~nual precipitation is more than 75 cm.
The combination of average temperature and average precipitation, however, decides the
type of desert, forest or grassland present in a region.' .

"

"

,
, C~~JTundra F(J'
..•..•
;r,:.
ChapanallMeditelTanean
5CJUbland> .
• Tropieall<fUb (Of'"'

Tropi<al oatanna .
. •
• <
~Bon:al forest (tRiga).': .•.
\'1'" \ - .,~•...,."
!
.thorn fornl

.lTcmp.nte. forest
• T"~te sJassland

Fig. 1: The terrestrial biomes of the world can be identified according to the climax vegetation. Note that the
taiga and tundra are roughly like a belt around the globe, other biomes have a less continuous
distribution (after Starr and Tagart, 1987).

34

/
If you look at Fig. 1 you would realise that terrestrial biomes tend to be arranged according Biomes in I the World
to particular latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Interestingly at any given geographical
location you would find that the climate and vegetation change as the altitude changes.
Therefore, we fmd that at the foot of a mountain there would be complex vegetation and as
we go up the slopes of the mountain we find the vegetation becomes sparse till we reach the
moss and lichen dominated tundra like regions at the top of the mountain.

Tundra

Taiga

',1>

Temperate,
deciduous forest

(.

Equatorial
Pig. 2: The altitudinal variation often mimic thelatitudtnal varIation.

Now let us suppose you had the time and the resources to travel around the world and you
plan to start your journey from the north pole towards the equator, let us see in a general way
the biomes that you would encounter. Youcould start your journey ofthe biomes ofthe world
from the blocks of ice floating on the sea about the north pole. This is a cold barren place.
As you travel southwards youwould reach arctic tundra where the sea meets the land which
represents the northern most biome. As you travel further south towards the equator, the
biomes you would pass, through would be taiga (coniferous' forests), temperate deciduous
forests, deserts, grasslands and finally the tropical regions of the planet.

Let us study briefly the main characteristic of each major world biome. Starting with the
tundra which is the least complex of all biomes.

3.2.1 Tundra
. "

The northern most biome on

our planet is the arctic tundra.
It lies as a treeless wet
circumpolar band between the
polar ice caps and the forests to
the south. The predominent
plants are lichens, grasses,'
sedges and dwarf woody plants.
Despite the lack of trees
animals are found on land, in air
and nearby oceans. Similar
communities are found at high
mountains of all latitudes
forming the alpine tundra. The
climate is very cold with a short
growing season. The soil is
frozen for most part of the year
and onlythe top 0.5 meter melts
during the short summers in the
arctic tundra (Fig. 3). The
permanatly frozen soil below is
known as permafrost. In
summer you might see huge
herds of caribou, flocks r
waterfowls and huge swarrr
. I

mosquitoes! With such?

/ I
 Environment - An Introduction climate it is not surprising that only a few kinds of plant and animal species are found here
though, in the short growing season moss, lichens, some grasves and fast growing plants,
dominate the landscapes. Swarms of migratory birds invade the tundra in summer to raise
their young and fly south as the summers comes to an end. Some of the common permanent
residents are musk ox, polar bear, grizzlybear, wolves, snowy owl, arctic hare, weasels, minks,
etc. Tundra is a very fragile ecosystem as the rate of organic matter decompo~ition is very
slow. Therefore, plants grow very slowlyand the tundra takes a long time to recover from any
disruptions. ~

3.2.2 Coniferous Forests and Taiga

As you travel south from the tundra you will enter the circumpolar belt of coniferous forests
which stretches across North America to Eurasia, this region is called taiga, a world derived
from Russian word meaning 'primeval forest.' The taiga is a land of lakes, bogs and marshes.
The climate is cold with long winters and short summers, The dominant trees are conifers
like spruce, pines and firs (Fig. 4) with needle like leaves, that can survive extremely cold
•• winters. Typical animals found in this region include moose, wolves, lynx, bears, gray jays.
Many of these rely on their stored body fat for survival during the cold months.

.
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Fig. 4: Taiga 4n summer.

3.2.3 i Temperate Deciduous Forests

'r
Going south oftaigayou would reach the temperate regions of the planet (see Fig. 1). These.
regions experience moderate temperatures on average that change during four distinct \
! seasons. They have long summers, not too severe winters and abundent precepitation spread'
{ over the whole year. These regions.are dominated by broad leafed deciduous trees such as
oak, hickory, maple, poplar, beech, sycamore, etc., that can survive the winter by dropping
their leaves and going into a dormant state (Fig. 5 a and b). Temperate regions are the most
productive areas of the world with the best agricultural lands. You would recall that the
,36 tundra. soils are poor because of extremely slow rate of decomposition of matter but in the
temperate regions the decomposition rate is controlled.

/
 .Biomes in the Wodd

Fig. 5: Temperate deciduous forests a) in summer b) in fall wh~n the leaves start changing colour before
droping off. .

3.2.4 Temperate Shrublands

These are areas where woody shrubs predominate rather then trees. In regions with a
mediterranean type of climate i.e., hot dry summers and cool wet winters, shrubs grow close
together having typically leathery leaves. Remarkably similar shrublands are found in the
coastal mountains of California in USA and in Chile; at the tip of Africa and south western
Australia. However, in USA such communities arc called cbaparrel (Fig. 6). Fires are of
common occurance and plants and animals have developed adaptations to these special
habitat features. 37

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Fig. 6: Chapparral biome.

3.2.5 Grasslands
n the northern hemisphere grasslands are found over large areas in huge plains. Such
rasslands are known as prairie in North America, steppes in Asia and pampas in South
.merica (Fig. 7). In Australia grasslands cover an area almost equal to the area of the desert

Fig. 7: A Grassland.

in the country. Grasslands often fade away into deserts. Annual rainfall in areas dominated
by grasslands is between 25-100 cm depending on temperature and seasonal distribution -
(grassland occur where rainfall is less to support forest and more than desert). Another factor .
that prevents penetratiotsof forests into grasslands is the frequent occurrence of natural fires. .
Grasslands provide natural pastures for grazing animals. The soils under grasslands are rich
and fertile. Most of our present day food plants (cereals) have evolved from wild grasses by
38 the process of natural selection and it is one of the most important genetic stock for plant

/
/
 breeding research to develop new food species.' Grasslands can be divided into three. BiQDies in the World
categories depending onthe basis of relative height of grasses ., tall grasses (1.5-2 m) mid
grasses (30-60 cm), short grasses (3-16 cm). Grassland biomes generally support large
number of herbivores, whereas carnivores are very few (coyotes, weasels, badgers, foxes, owls
arid rattlesnakes).

3.2.6 Deserts '"

In your tour across the temperate zone. You would find some regions lying between
mountains and grasslands that are too dry and hostile to life. These are the deserts (Fig. 8) .
.If you continue to travel southwards as ybuapproach 20° to 30° north and south latitudes you
will encounter deserts. Deserts bring up the image of inhospitable places but actually they
are quite varied. The worlds largest desert is the Sahara followed by the Great Australian
desert. These have the driestenvironment.with less than 30 cm-rainfall (sometimes higher '.
but, unevenly distributed). In deserts day temperatures are high, rainfall and humidity islow,
butthere are cool northerndeserts too where Wintersnows are common egoTibet and Bolinia .
•• However, all desertsexhibit dramatic day and night temperature variation. The soil is sandy
or salty soil.

The driest deserts the Sahara where the rainfall is less then 2 cm per year support little life
but the less extreme deserts have highly specialised life forms. I;

Three plant life-formsare most adapted to the desert environment.

i) Annuals that avoid drought, growing when there is adequate moisture.

,ii) Succulents - (eg.cactus), that have adaptation for water storage and avoid water loss.
"
iii) Hardy desert shrubs - having short stem, number of branches and thick leaves.

The animals of deserts are.primarily arthropods, reptiles, birds and mammals. Largeanimals
.are uncommon. Small rodents are the. most common mammals, along with small foxes.
, Among the herbivores, insects are dorninent. A number of insectivorous lizards are very
common. However.most animals restrict their activity to early morning or after sunset.

Desert soils are rich in nutrients but water isa serious limiting factor. If water is supplied or.
made available to desert biomes, they can attain very good production because sunlight is '.
abundant. • .' " (" " " .,J .. . " c~~. -;
__:'
.•....•. ~..

"

,'

I I
 Environment - An Introduction
3.2.7 Tropical Savannas
Leaving the deserts as you approach the tropical regions of the earth you will enter the
savanna biome, which is a combination of grassland with scattered or clumped trees. These
special kinds of grasslands often border tropical rain-forests. The climate is warm having
100-150 cm annual rainfall, with prolonged dry season in which fires are common. The rains
are erratic.

These grasslands have scattered trees, that do not form canopy in any part of savanna
(Fig. 9). Trees are up to 20 m height, with thick, deciduous or evergreen leaves. Grasses may
attain height of l-l.Sm and support a great variety of grazing animals.

The largest savanna is found in the African continent. They also occur in Australia and South
America and cover nearly 8 percent of the earth's land. The most prominent animals of this
biome are large grazing animals such as giraffes, antelopes, elephants, buffalo and predators
• such as lions and cheetahs .

..

, Fig. 9: The African savanna has typical flat topped Acacia and dry grassland.

3.2.8 Tropical Deciduous Forests

Before reaching your final destination the equatorial regions, you would encounter the
tropical deciduous or seasonal forests. These are also known as monsoon forests found in
South East Asia, in Central and South America, Northern Australia, Western Africa and the
Pacific.

Rainfall is high, Sometimes higher than tropical rain' forests but seasonal. There 'are
pronounced wetand dry periods, and so arewinter and summer seasons. The soils are brown
in colour and rich.in nutrients.
40

I
 Biomes in the World

I~ -.

'.

Fig. 10: Tropical deciduous forest, '

Vertical stratification in the vegetation is somewhat simple with a single understory tree layer.
The trees loose leaves in one season but ground vegetation remains evergreen. 'Teak' and
'sal' forests are good examples of this type' of biome, Trees are of 20-30 m height, sometimes
reaching a height over 40 m in this biome. Bamboo is also,one of the climax shrubs in these
areas.

3.2.9 ' Tropical Rain Forests

As you approach the equator the climate becomes increasingly hot and seasonal variation in
climate decreases resulting in practically the same climate througout the year. This tropical
region abounds with life and thousands of species of plants and animals can be seen, though
no species predominates. Tropical rainforests are found on both sides of the equator in.South
East Asia, Africa, South and Central America, North East Australia,

Both temperature and humidity are very high and constant. Rainfall exceeds 200 cm a year
and is distributed OVerthe year, .

Soil is nutrient poor because in spite of the high rate of decomposition the nutrients do not
remain in the soil. They are absorbed rapidly by plants or the rains wash them away thus
making the soil virtually useless for agriculture. Tropical rainforests cover about 7 percent
of the earth's surface but house approximately 40 percent of the plant and animal species.
Plants oftropicalratnforests are both familiar as well as strange to us. Familier because most
of the ornamental plants grown in our homes and offices come from the tropics. Thereis a
distinct stratification of vegetation in rainforests. The' dominent plants in these forests are
tall, 25-30 meters high with slender trunks that branch only near the tops forming a dense
canopy of leathery evergreen leaves, The canopy blocks out most of the light, therefore, the
forest floor is fairly open. Whatever the time of the,year, some trees are flowering and some
bear fruit. Epiphytes.and lianna are very common (Fig. 11).

Wherever there is a gap in the canopy, a thick many layered ground vegetation consisting of
bushes, herbs, shrubs, ferns, mosses etc., can be seen. An incredible number of animal species
thrive in this biome, many of which have become adapted to life in the specific layers of the
canopies and subcanopies. Amongst animal species insects and birds are particularly
abundant. . On a very small island of six square mile, Barro Colorado, of Panama, there are
20,000species of insects! Fruits and termites are staple food of animals in rain forests. There
are large varieties of coloured birds such as hornbills, parrots and loucans as well as monkeys
and predatory cats that inhabit this most interesting biome.

41

I I
 ,~
.,..I!-t",

Environment - An Introduction

'.

·r Fig 11: Tropical Rain Forest.

,.I'
..
""

Check Your Progress-1

1) Define a biome and ecotone,

,P"

. ;

..
'

3.3 tHE AQUATICBIOMES

'/

If you look up a world atlas or a giobe you would notice that mostof the earth's surface is
covered' by the waters of the oceans (abo~~ 71%). Beneath the water surface is a fascinating
and world of a wide variety ofhabitats'ahd livingcommunities comparable in diversity to the
terrestrial bi~mes but'different enough fr91lr'them ~o seem to ~elong to a different world
I -
altogether. The main factors affecting the type' ana numbers ~rganisms found in aquatic
, "
ecosystems are :1' ater 'salinity and depth to which sunlight pen~trates; amount of dissolved
'42 oxygen and .t~~6r'a1Jfe of water. " r '. ,
• .' J

1
 Salinity levels ~. usedto mstmguisn the waters Ol me eartn into two categones, freshwater, Biomes in jhe World
and marine we shall first consider the freshwater biomes.

3.3.1 Freshwater Biomes

Low levels of dissolved salts characterise the freshwater biomes. The salt content of fresh
water-is about 0.005 percent. The freshwaterbiomes ceJIsist of inland bodies of standing
water like lakes, reservoirs, ponds and wetlands as well as the flowing waters of the streams
and rivers. Their nature does not depend as much on global climate, but on the individual
site where they occur.

A lake or a body of standing waters can be divided into three zones according to penetration
of sunlight in the water body, littoral, limenetic and profundal. Each of these have their own
physical-chemical features and characteristic array of living organisms (Fig. 12).

The littoral zone is the area where light penetrates to the bottom. Aquatic life in the littoral
• zone consists of free floating and rooted plants, many aquatic insects, snails, amphibians, fish,
turtles and water birds: .

The open water zone is called the Iimnetic zone. This represents the zone or depth of the
water upto which sunlight can penetrate. Phytoplankton along with algal forms, various
zooplankton species and fish abound in this zone. The deep water zone lying below the
limnetic zone is called profundal zone. It is relatively cool and dark, having low dissolved
oxygen content and is inhabited by fish which can tolerate such stressful conditions. The
bottom of the lake is inhabited by bacteria, fungi! blood worms and other de composers which
live on dead plants, organic matter including remains of animals and their metabolic wastes.

Diving beetle ,.
Fig. 12: Zonation in the lake biome.

Precipitation that does not evaporate or penetrate the soil remains on the soil surface
resulting in run off which flows down from the mountains in the form of streams and rivers
which ultimately discharge into the sea. The downward flow of the river comprises of three
phases. . .

. The first phase, when the stream with cold clear water rushes down steep slopes having high
dissolved oxygen content. Most organisms which are adapted to, cold temperatures and need
, 43

/ I
 Environment - An Introduction high amounts of dissolved oxygen are found here. In the second phase the stream flows over
gentle slopes and through wider valleys. Here the temperature of water is warmer and
supports a wide variety of cold water and warm water fish that require slightly lower dissolved
oxygen. At the point where river discharges into sea, the river may divide into many channels,
forming the delta. .

Rivers and brookes which are~flowing freshwater bodies differ from lakes and ponds in three
major aspects.

1) current is the major controlling and limiting factor

2) land - water interchange is greater because of the smaller size and depth of moving water
systems

3) oxygen is alwaysabundant except in case of excessive pollution in river stretches .

•
Plants and animals living in streams and rivers are usually 'attached to surfaces. The free
swimming animals are exceptionally strong swimmers.

.
, The freshwater communities are utilised as a major source offood, for recreational purposes
and for waste disposal as well as waterways for transport. In this manner we exert a significant
impact on individual freshwater ecosystems and their communities.

3.3.2 Marine Biomes

The marine biomes consist of the earth's oceans and its associated areas like the shorelines,
islands reefs and estuaries. The marine waters contain about 3.5 percent salt mostly sodium
chloride and the organisms inhabiting these waters are profoundly adapted to these salty
conditions. As landlivers we generally think of the earth as being mostly land and tend to
forget that 71% of the surface of our planet is covered by oceans. Infact, often our planet is
referred to as the 'water planet!'

Oceans

The oceans playa' major role in determining the climate and sustaining the life on earth.
Oceans help to redistribute the solar energy, through ocean currents and evaporation; they
are huge reservoirs of carbon dioxide, oxygen and other minerals and help to regulate the
ambient temperature and also help in maintaining atmospheric composition and serve as
sources of various natural resources.

The world's seas and oceans are all inter-connected forming a World Ocean. The average
depth of the ocean is 3;7 km. In some parts of the world the ocean is 11.5 km deep. Compare
this with the height of Mount Everest that is 8848m above sea level.

Fig. 13 shows a diagrammatic representation of the vertical and horizontal zonation in the
marine environment. .

Most marine life is found ill the shallower regions of the ocean and seas along the continental
shelves, coral reefs and oceanic islands. Life at greater depths is limited by darkness, cold
temperatures and pressure. Animal life at great depths comprises mainly of scavengers and
predators that feed on the detritus rain and dead organic matter. The food that supports the
large and diverse communities of the ocean is produced in the open water by phytoplankton
iri upper regions of the ocean where sunlight can reach. The average depth of the lighted
zone of the sea ,is 200 meters in clean areas.

The marine habitat faces destruction due to pollution and resource use. Shorelines and open
waters are subject to human activities such as fishing, recreational use, real estate
development; garbage arid effluent disposal, oil spills, radioactive waste disposal and
exploitation of marine natural resources.'

44

I 1
 ,~7"'-
Biomes in"the, World

_______
--Neritic zone--+-,---Opensea- ----------;::9 Depth

~L_~~
-- --
~~~------~~~~~~~~o---
_ - - - __ -- -- ,.....

/
/' I I In meters

III
'(ii
50 ~
C
~
'*
100 ' s:
0..

-- --- -------- --- -- 200-

" 500 .c
F
--' §
";':~: 1000 f-
~
-" e-.
','

•
~..
" ~e;;.
(l.

Q ,~. ••
".

. .
1500-

2000

3000 ~,
Q)
c
-t
40008 •••

5000

10,000

Fig. 13: Zonation in the ocean.

,Shorelines, Oceanic Islands, and Reefs '

, Ocean shorelines include rocky coasts and sandy beaches that are particularly rich ID diverse'
life forms. Rocky shorelines support a diversity of organisms that grow attached to some
solid substratum, Sandy shorelines provide home to organisms that can live in burrows in
,sandy substratum.' '

Sandy beaches' are important in our context as some of the finest tourist resorts and 'I

residences are built along them. - ,

Oceanic Islands are interesting and somewhat specialised biomes. Islands which have broken
away from the main continents have similarity of flora and fauna related to the, continental
source, volcanicand coralislands show results of chance colonization.

, Coral Reefs - form in clear warm tropical seas arid are particularly well developed in the
South Pacific. They are formed by accumulation of calcarious skeletons of tiny colonial
animals called coral~over generations. Coral reefs usually form along the shallow submerged
shelves and their rl~th is limited to 'a depth upto which sunlight can diffuse. Coral reef
communities in terms of species diversity, number of organisms, brilliance of colours and
'interesting life forms are comparable with tropical forest communities.

Wetlands and Estuaries

Wetlands and estuaries are transitional-biomes. Land that remains flooded either part of the
year or permanently with fresh orsalt water is known as wetland. Bogs, swamps, marshes are
/ '
covered by freshwater and found inland. These are known as inland wetlands those found
on the coast and covered by seawater 'are known as coastal wetlands. Wetlands provide a
variety of fish and wildlife and are major breeding, nesting and migration staging areas for
, water birds and shorebirds. Importance of wetlands cannot be underestimated as they act as 45

I ~I I
 Environment - An Introduction traps and filters for water that moves through them reducing flooding. As. a result; sediments
are deposited and chemical interactions in wetlands neutralise and detoxify substances in
water and slow seeping of water into the ground helps to' replenish the underground water
reserves.

Estuaries are enclosed or seq).i closed bodies of water formed where a river meets the sea . ,
forming an area ofjnixed fresh arid sea water. Estuaries usually contain rich sediment forming
mud flats. The estuaries are very productive areas with high species diversity. They an
important nurseries for ocean fish including all economically important fish and mollusks
The estuaries extend inland to form the coastal wellands. . In temperate areas, coasta
wetlands usually consist of a mix of bays, lagoons and salt marshes, while in tropical areas WI •
find mangrove swamps dominated by mangrove trees, the mangrove forests consist 0
evergreen, broad - leaf trees growing in brachish water in tropical areas .

•
Check Your Progress - 2

1) Name three areas of the marine biome, list their characteristics.

/
.:

.' .

.2) Name two fresh water biomes. How do the organisms in them differ?
\

3.4 BIOMES OF INDIA

India can be divided into 10 biogeographical regions as described by Rodgers and Panwar, •
1988 (see Fig. 14). The biogeographical zone, biotic province and biometype for each zone
has been presented in Table-l. You are already familiar with the typical characteristics of the
various biome that you have read in the section on biomes of the world. Some details of these
biomes are given after the table.

46

/
 Biomes in the World

..

TAANSHIMAL •••V•••N 6 DI,CCAN PIN'HIUI.A

2 HIMAL •••V •••N ,1 QANQ&'TIC PI.AN
3 INDIAN DI!'EAT, S HOfllTH~ IA.T rNI),'"
4
5'

, (from: W,A, •••••.•

SEMI-
WESTe"N

III!d IU, P.".._

' 0( I!nvlronml!ll,for_ an4 Wild/If",
"''''D
OHAn

·P'.IiD,' WJf41lf1 -
PflllMld
9
1,0
Af. NIIW~ III
I.I. •••NO.

COASTS

1!I4't VII], [. " •• , ~

Fig. 14: Biogeographic zones of Inlda,

, Table-It The Biogeographic Cfassiflcatlon of India (Rodgers and Panwar 1988).

Biogeographical zone Biotic Province Biome

A Palaeoarctic

1) Trans-Himalayan ' a) Ladakh Tundra

(Tibetan) 'Valley
Lakes and Marshes

2) Himalayan a) N,W. Himalaya all with Alpine

b) W, Himalaya Temperate Conifer
c) Central Himalaya Temperate Broadleaf
d) East Himalaya Sub-Trophical Forests
B Palaeotropical: African
-
3) Desert a) Kutch Saltfiats
, Scrublands
b) Thar .Saltflats
, Desert grasslands
; Scrublands
4) Semi-Arid a) Punjab Scrublands
Bhabar forest
Wetlands
b) Gujarat-Rajwara DIY deciduous forest
Hill forest
Thorn forest
Scrublands
Wetlands 47

/
/
 Environment - An Introduction C Palaeotropical: Indo-Malayan

5) Western Ghats a) Malabar Coast Evergreen. Forests

Moist Deciduous Forests ..
f
Wetlands

b) Western Ghats Evergreen Forests

Mountains
.~
Moist Deciduous Forests
, "
Monlane Forest/Grassland
Wetlands

6) Deccan Peninsula a) Deccan Plateau (South)

0

1) Tamil Nadu Plains Dry Deciduous Forest

2) Eastern Ghats (South) Thorn Forest

b)
3) Karnataka

Central Plateu (North)

Wetlands
.
Sub-Tropical Forest

• Dry Deciduous Forest .

1) Maharashtra Moist Deciduous Forest

2) Telangana Wetlands
,-

, . c) Eastern Plateau Sub-Tropical Forest

,
1) Eastern Ghats Moist Deciduous Forest
2) Chatisgarh & Dandakaran a Coastal Plain Wetlands

d) Chhota-Nagpur Dry Deciduous Forests

e)
1) Chhota Nagpur Plateau
2) Garhjat Hills

Central Highlands
Moist Deciduous
·l'latear Wetlands

Sub-Tropical Forest
Forests
,
1) Satpura-Maikal Dry Deciduous Forest
2) Vidhya-Bagelkhand Moist Deciduous Forest
Wetlands
7) l
Gangetic Plain a) Upper Gangetic Plain Sivaliks
Bhabar-Terai
I :
Alluvial Plain
Wetlands/River
'.
, b) Lower Gangetic Plain Bhabar-Terai
Alluvial Plain
Wetlands/River
8) North-East India a) Brahrnaputra Valley Bhabar"Terai
Alluvial Plain Grassland
- Alluvial Piain-W~dland
Evergreen Forests
Moist Deciduous Forests
Wetlands/River

" b) Assam Hills Evergreen Forests

Moist Deciduous Forests
Sub-Tropical Forests
Temperate Forests
, We,tlands
9) Coasts a) West Coast , Mangrove.
b) East Coast Brackish-Lake-Lagoon
;
.. Mudflats
Sandy/Rockv Littoral
10) Islands , a) Andaman Islands Evergreen Forests
Moist Deciduous Forests
Coastal Habitats
.
b) Nicobar Islands Evergreen Forests
Moist Deciduous Forests
Coastal Habitats
,I'
/ c) Lakshadweep Islands Scrublands
Coastal Habitats

48 7
o

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 \
I

1) Tundra - This biome is restricted to Ladakh region, extended upto part of Sikkim and! Biomes In the Wdrld
Bhutan. There is alpine vegetation in parts of N.W. Himalaya, Western, Central and \
Eastern Himalaya, on higher altitudes. Tundra vegetation consists of low shrubs and'
grassy meadows with a typical fauna of tundra region.

2) Temperate Coniferous Forests - This biome is restricted to 1600 m altitude. on the

Himalaya and Nilgiri mountains. The coniferous trees attain the height of 20-25 Ill' Pines
and oak forests form the climax vegetation in this bidme.

3) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests - This biome exists where rainfall is very high (over .
250 cm per annum). This biome is seen in Western Ghats, Assam, West Bengal, and in
part of Andamans islands. There is great diversity of species in this biome. There are
many storeys of trees of varying heights, shrubs, herbs, epiphytes, lianas. The thick
evergreen vegetation become impenetrable. Apart from woody evergreen species of
Dipterocarpus, Hopea, Anocarpus, etc. there are many fruittrees like Mango (M angifera), '
'Awla' (Emblica) etc., and a number of climber, species .
•
Tropical moist semi-evergreen forests arc seen in northern India only. In thisbiome,
trees shed their leaves for a brief period of time. There are few evergreen species (such
as Arucarpus, Michelia and Eugenia) mixed with deciduous species like Terminaiia,
.
, Shorea (Sal). •• .

4) Tropical DeciduousForest - it can be divided into two parts:

(a) Tropical moist deciduous forests - This is common in Kerala, Karnataka and'
Madhya Pradesh as well as part of V.P., Bihar, Bengal and Orissa, The forests are
closed with dense canopy. Well known Sal and Teak forests are good examples
of this biome. In Karnataka Sandal Wood forests come under this category.
(b) Tropical dry deciduous forests - This biome is restricted to V.P., Punjab, Bihar
and Orissa. In this forest type; there are trees of moderate height with wide open
canopy. Thorny scrubs, grasses,bamboo with dominant trees like 'Imli' (Ter-
minalia tomentosa), 'kikar' (Acacia), 'Awla' (Emb/ica) mixed with 'Sal' (Shorea)
and 'Chirongi' (Buchababua) trees are characteristic feature of this biome.

Fauna of both these biome is common and similar as described in tropical deciduous
forests .earlier.

'5) Savanna - There is no true savanna biome in India as in Africa and part of Australia.
But Misra (1983) was regarded all tropical grasslands of India as savanna. In savanna,
there is grassland vegetation with scattered trees and shrubs. There are tropical
grasslands with mixed Acacia, Mimosa, Zizyphus, Phoenix and Caiotropis species.

6) Grasslands - Indian grasslands are not true grasslands as of America and Canada.
Always there is mixed growth of trees and shrubs. Some of the scientists have termed it
as savanna as described earlier. There are 8 types' of grasslandsbased on dominant
species. This biome is wide spread from Northern to Southern and Eastern to Western
part of the country.

7) Desert - This biome is in parts of Rajasthan.Punjab, Kutch and Gujarat. It has typical
climate of desert with hot and dry summer and cold winter. Rainfall is between 30-70 cm
and in some regions as low as 10-15 cm only. Acacia. arabica (Kikar or Babul) is the
dominant shrub.

Recently, some species are being planted in deserts such asAcacia species, Parkinsonia,
Sacchasur munja, Tamarix; Prosopis sp, etc.

India is a'vast country with different climatic regions and hence different biomes. This is a
unique countty having much variation of soil, climate, vegetation, flora and fauna. The cultural
. and genetic diversity of this country is a great attraction for foreign tourists/visitors.

o 49

1 \ I
 Environment - An Introduction
Check Your Progress - 3

1 How many biogeographical regions are there in India?

~. /.

' ..
2) In which regions are tropical forests found?
•

..

I
3.5 LET US SUM UP
Biomes are climatically distinct regions having specific plant and animal species. Very
broadly, the biomes of the world can be divided into terrestrial and aquatic. There are IQ
major terrestrial biomes and these are named after the dominant vegetation of the region.
The northern most extremely cold land biome is the tundra which is dominated by low lying
cold resistant plant species. There are relatively few species with a great number of
individuals of each species. The talga is a biome dominated by coniferous trees and is found
like a' circumpolar belt on the continents in the northern hemisphere. The temperate
it
deciduous forest is a biomedominated by broad leafed trees that shed their leaves during the
cold winters. The summers are warm and moist in these biomes. Temperate shrublands
occur in coastal regions marked by winter rainfall and summer droughts and are dominated
by evergreens adapted to these conditions. Grasslands occur where the rainfall is more than ,
deserts but less to support forests, in the dry interiors of the continents like America, Asia
and Australia. Deserts have hot days and cold nights with very little rainfall. Plant and animal
species found here are very well adapted to these conditions. In the tropical regions
grasslands with scattered trees are known as the savanna. The tropical regions with maximum '
plant and animal species are the tropical rainforests where high temperature and rainfall
permit plants to grow throughout the year. In tropical areas where rainfall is high but
seasonal, monsoon forests or deciduous forests occur.

The aquatic biomes ofthe world can be' classified as fresh water and marine according to the
salinity of the waters. The fresh waters biomes are the stream rivers and lakes and animals
and plant species are adapted accordingly.

The marine biomes consist of the oceans, coastal regions and islands. The distribution of
animals and plants is limited by availability of light and nutrients .: Some specialised marine
biomesare the coral reefs, estuaries and wetlands. ' ,

The Indian subcontinent has a lot of variation in climate, soil type and therefore, in vegetation..
This is the reason why all the biome types of the world find a representation here.

i'

50

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/
 Biomes In the World
3.6 KEYWORDS
..:Jt..'

Arthropods Animals without vertebrae with jointed limbs. Their common

- examples are: insects, crabs, spiders and centipedes.

Deciduous forest With season variations, in wbich trees drop their leaves in the
unfavourable season.

Epiphyte A plant that grows non-parasitically on another plant or some-

times, on an object, eg., orchids.

Estuary Area where rivers and streams empty into ocean, mixing fresh
water with salt water.

Liana :. A climbing tropical plant.

•
Limnetic Zone The open waters of a lake beyond the littoral zone, but including
only the depths through which light penetrates and in which
photosynthesis can occur.

~ Littoral Zone -1) a coastal region including both the land along the coast, the
! water along the shore, and the intertidal area. 2) a similar area in-
lakes. -

Permafrost In arctic and high-altitude tundra, the permanently frozen layer of

soil or subsoil or both.

Profundal Zone The depths of a lake below the penetration of light.

I

Savanna A grassland biome with alternating dry and rainy seasons. The
grasses and scattered trees support large numbers of grazing
animals.

Taiga A subarctic forest biome dominated by spruce and fir trees; found
in the northern latitudes or at high altitudes.

Temperate Zone In which the dominant tree species and most other trees are
deciduous, and are bare in winter months.
f
- .
I

Tundra A biome characterized by level or gently undulating treeless plains

of the arctic and subarctic that support dense growth of mosses
and-lichens as well as dwarf herbs and shrubs; underlain by per-
mafrost and seasonally covered by snow.

Wetlands Areas such as bogs, swamps or marshes where the soil is either very
moist or covered with water.

3.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress-l

1) A biomes is a large climatically distinct region identified by the presence of charac-

-- teristic plants and animals. Biomes are named after the dominant plant species.
Ecotone is the region of transition between neighbouring biomes.

Check Your Progress-2

1) Refer to Sec. 3.2 (Tundra and Desert biomes).

2) In both biomes grass species are dominant. In savanna there is grassland with scattered
trees.. J<;aunaof these two biomes, however, vary greatly.
51

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I
 Environment - An Introduction
Check Your Progress+S

1) Open seas, coastal wetlands, estuaries. Refer to Sub-sec. 3.2.2 for details.

2) . Lakes and rivers. Organisms present in lakes are adapted to 'oxygen content and
presence or absence ofJight.

Organisms of rivers are adapted to the currents and oxygen content. Infast flowing
portions of rivers the animals present are good swimmers or with strong attaching
devices so that they can attach to rocks, subtratum and they are not washed away by
the current.

Check Your Progress - 4

•
1) Ten.

.
, 2) Assam, Western Ghats, West Bengal and parts of Andaman islands.

ACTMTIES FOR THIS UNIT

Activity-1

If you have to take a tour of ten people to show a tropical forest biome. a) Where in India
would you take them? b) What salient features of the biome would you describe for them
before actually reaching the tropical forest area?

Design a list of rules to protect the beaches, estuaries and wetland while still allowing them
to be used for recreation and ecologically sound development.

.Activity-3

•. Draw up a chart in which you list the major terrestrial biomes, with the rainfall and vegetation
characterising each of them indicating where the Indian biomes fit.

Major biomes in the Rainfall Climax vegation Indian Region

world
. ~
,

;
.,'
.,
;,
r
)

, ,.
r

~-1"V

52
. ,

1
 COMMUNrrIES IN NATURE
-,-----
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction I
4.2 Community Characteristics !
4.2.1 Productivity . .)
4.2.2 Diversity
4.2.3 Resilience
4.3 Species Interaction within Communities
4.3.1 Dominant Plants Define the 'Conditions
4.3.2 Kinds of Interactions
4.4 Organization in Communities,
4.4.1 Resource Partitioning

4.5
4.4.2 . Stratification
Biodiversity
..
.
,
4.5.1
4.5.2
What is Biodiversity?
Importance of Biodiversity
4.5.3 Biodiversity and the Ecological Balance
4.5.4 Causes of Biodiversity Loss
4.5.5 Conserving Biodiversity
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
.4.7 Keywords
4.8' Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises,

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit you should be able, to:.

• understand the basic characteristics of a community,

q'

• appreciate the nature and importance of interactions among" different species and
individuals in a living community,
• learn 'about the: strategies adopted by living organisms to share and utilize th~ available
resources, ;
• realise the importance of the concept of interconnectivity and to, develop a holistic-
perspective of nature, and

-, • formulate biodiversity-friendly tourism norms and practices,

4.1 INTRODUCTION

You have studied that
have also seen that the
even rocks affect the
neighbourhood plants,
a variety of biotic and abiotic factors constitute an ecosystem. You
various abiotic factors of an ecosystem viz. air, light, water, soil and
survival of living organisms. So do the biotic factors, i.e., the
animals and. microorganisms.·
(I

Within an ecosystem, each living being or an organism has a place, an actual area in which it
resides. This space including all the factors within it is the organism's habitat. An organism
does not exist in isolation but has dynamic interaction with other organisms as well as with
l. the abietic environment. Each organism plays a specific role in an ecosystem which is referred
to as its niche. A niche includes parameters like food, space, temperature, water, and
,appropriate conditions for mating. It also includes the organism's behaviour and the ways in
which this behaviour changes with different seasons and at different times of the day. To put
it in simple terms, habitat refers to the actual physical site occupied by an organism or its
address whereas niche is related to its profession. .
L '

The interactions among organisms within ecosystems arc varied. These can be at two levels
- at the level of populations, and at the level of community. Before we go deeper into these 53

:,

/ I
 Environment: An Introduction
, . .
interactions, fir~t let us understand the ecological meanings of: a population, a community
and an ecosystem, and see how these are related. Individuals of the same species constitute
a population. Populations of different species of plants and animals inhabiting and sharing
resources of an area are collectively called a biotic community or simply a community. A
community together with its surrounding non-living environment is called an ecosystem.

With the understanding of the fundamental ecological concepts, linkages in nature and the
world biomes in the earlier Units, you will be able to appreciate the nature and dynamics of
biotic communities and their interactions, which constitute, the main focus of this unit.

4.2 COMMUNITY CHARACTERISTICS

• After having discussed what is a community, and what constitutes it, let us now have a closer
look at biotic community. A community has three basic characteristics: productivity,
diversity and resilience. All the three are interrelated. Familiarity with these characteristics
is essential to understand the nature and function of natural communities.

4.2.1 Productivity
The word productivity is derived from production which refers to the production of biomass.
!
l(iomass- The total mass
In Unit-2 you have studied that the production of biomass is a manifestation of energy
storage-transfer reactions. All the organisms after the first tropic level, obtain their energy. I

o{all the living and nutrient requirements from lower trophic levels.
organisms in a given
area.
A community's productivity is measured as the rate of production of biomass. Productivity
is dependent on physical factors like climate, air, water currerits, soil type, land forms and
altitude or depth. The variatio~ in the productivity in different communities is due to the
variation in the above mentioned factors. Generally speaking, the average productivity of
terrestrial ecosystems is higher than the marine ecosystems, except shallow coastal waters
. which are highly productive. Oceans cover about 71 percent of the earth's surface, still the
average marine productivity is less than 25 percent of average terrestrial productivity.

4.2.2 Diversity
A community consists of a variety of species of plants and animals. This 'variety' is referred
to as 'diversity' and is also known as 'species diversity' of the community. To know the
species diversity of a community, one has to determine the number of different species present
in an ecosystem .. Species diversity is dependent on three variables: the number of different
species in the community; the number of individuals in each species; and total number of
individuals in a community.

4.2.3 Resilience
You might have noticed that if there are some natural disturbances, the communities 'recover'
to their original state after a period of time. This capacity of a community to recover from
any kind of disturbance is known as resilience. In nature, the physical environment poses
continuous challenge to the life forms with disturbances of various kinds. For example, ·1
consider weather conditions which are seldom same for a few days at a stretch, or for that I
matter, even during' one day. There are daily changes in temperature, wind velocity and its.
direc!:·~lD. Besides the natural disturbances, the human factor also inflicts minor
i pertur+iations to major disruptionsin the communities. How? Think of a situation when ap.
1

area with thick natural vegetation is cleared for construction purposes. This onslaught may
be too severe for the community to recover back. Consider another situation, where a large
tree in a forest had fell resulting in the formation of a vacant area. After a span of time, the
natural growth of plants of various kinds 'seals' this gap. This recovery reflects the
54 community's resilience, i.e., the inherent tendency of the community to attain a dynamic
- .-:"

I
 , \
i,
.' ....r t-

equilibrium. To say it in ecological terms, homeostasis is inbuilt in community resilience. Communities in Nature I

Homeostasis means inherent capacity of a system to revert back to normal state after
perturbation. .

. i
:. «,

Check Your Progress-l

1) Distinguish amongst ecosystem, biospher.e, population and community. .Give one

example of each. Rank them in an increasing order of complexity in terms of their
structural organization. .

I ~

2) Compare the ecological niches of people in a small village and in a large city.

3) Identify and mark the correct ecological termsfor the descriptions i-viii, in the alphabet
square given below,
[Hint: Look for these words in both horizontal (left to right) and vertical (top to
'bottom) directions in the alphabet square. Two such words, not related to this exercise
are marked for your guidance.]

a e c 0 y s t e m a Cb 0 t c)s
.i c 0 mu n t y a c a c i a 0 b
f 0 r e s t e p i P h Y t e s m i'
p I a n t s a b c d b i r d t m 0
r 0 p r 0 d u c t i v i t Y r e d
e 9 d e s e r t u v y p P t a n i
y Y I s x s t 0 n e s 0 r e t s v
h b i t a t y d r a p 0 'a i a e
b p c I i m a x r s n u d c f r
i r n i c h e z a t d I u 0 i s
0 e e e I f 0 0 d t x a c m c s i
t d s n me c 0 s y s t e ma m t
I a t c s y m b I 0 s i r u t f Y
c t 0 e t s I a n d x 0 e n I b
b I 0 s P h e r e z y n a I 0 s e . t
c 0 n s e r v a t I 0 n t t n h e I
n c 0 m p e t e t 0 n y a n t
f

-:-,
I
55
\:

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I
 Environment - An Introduction Descriptions

i) The area in an ecosystem where an organism resides.

ii) A group of individuals of a species In.a given area. :

iii) The community and the physical environmental components surrounding them.
~
iv) The rate of biomass accumulation in a community.

v) The functional role played by an organism in an ecosystem.

vi) All the living members of an ecosystem.

vii) The variety of species present in a natural community.

viii) The inherent capacity of natural community in overcoming any disturbance.

4.3 SPECIES INTERACTION WITHIN COMMUNffiES

In a community, the populations of both plants and animals live together, share common
resources, depend on each other and meet their requirements through mutual cooperation "-
and interaction. '

4.3.1 Dominant Plants Define the Conditions

As you have seen in Unit -2, the organisms of a community are either producers or consumers
based on their food procuring mechanisms. The producers exert a dominant influence on
the community, Think of any terrestrial community with which you are familiar, say for
example a forest? The community in a forest is dominated by trees. Some forests even have
• specific names depending on the dominating species of tree, e.g., Sal forest, Pine forest and
.so on. The dominant 'plant species are usually the largest in size or are in highest numbers
amongst the other life forms.' You may recall that plants fix solar energy and make up the
largest proportion ofbiomass in a community. They not only constitute the food base of the ,
community but also modify the environment, determining by their presence what kind of
organisms can live in that area. In a forest, for example, the different kinds of trees modify
the local environmental conditions under their canopies. The microclimatic modifications
'create' new conditions enabling the survival of different kinds of plants and animal species
which may not survive in the absence of the micro climate created by the canopies. The
dominant plants have a controlling influence in the area and govern the community
composition.

4.3.2 Kinds of Interactions

Things do not remain quiet and static, after different plant and animal populations have
inhabited an area. Each individual organism actively' interacts with the biotic and abiotic
components of the habitat. In the Units 1 and 3 you have seen the ways in' which these
organisms interact with their physical environment: In this Unit we shall concentrate only on
the interactions among the living members of the communities.

Basically three types of interactions namely, predation, symbiosis and competition exist in a
living community.

a) Predation

In any ecosystem, only the producers are capable of manufacturing their own food whereas
all the consumers - be the herbivores, carnivores or omnivores, or even the scavengers and
'- decomposers depend on other sources for their food. Some of the consumers are also known
as predators. A predator is an organism that feeds directly upon another organism (Fig. 1),
and the prey mayor may not be, killed in the process. This definition, while separating the
live-feeders from dead-feeders, includes a wide spectrum of organisms. The herbivores,
56 carnivores and omnivores are predators, So are.t~e various kinds of parasites. Parasites ary,

I
/
 organisms that live upon a host organism and derive nourishmen~ from it,. usu~lly without Communities in Nature
killing it. Pathogens that cause disease in host organisms are also included m this category .

Fig.l: A common example of prey-predator relationship.

Predation is an important factor that determines balance in communities. The adult prey
organism, (Fig.l), their eggs and young onesserve as food for predators. Which of these
developmental stages of the prey is consumed by the predator, is crucial for the regeneration
. and growth of the prey population. The prey species are able to survive despite the predator
pressure, because of their adopting the following strategies: the ability to regenerate the lost
part; development of tough, sticky exterior; and development of toxic covering to counter or
escape the predators.

b) Competition

It is another kind of interaction within the species of a community. This interaction is mainly
of antagonistic type as the organisms compete with each other for basic environmental
resources required for their survival. These resources are mainly energy and matter in usable
forms, space and specific sites for various life activities. The plants compete with each other
for space for spreading roots and shoots to ensure maximum absorption of sunlight, water
and nutrients. Animals too compete for space for living, reproducing and feeding purposes.
An organism whether plant or animal faces basically two kinds of competition. One from the
members of the same species - intraspecific competition, and second with the members of
other species - interspecific competition. The interaspecific competition is intense as the
members of the same species have similar requirements for space and nutrition. Therefore
they compete directly for these environmental resources. The plants limit and cope with
intraspecific competition through following ways. The seeds of many plants are unable to

.•.....
germinate and establish under the shade of the parent plant. Another strategy is development
of diverse seed dispersal mechanisms in plants that ensure wider dissemination of their seeds
to far away places (Fig.2). You might have seen some hairy or feathery; free-floating ;
structures in air during the dry season. These are the seeds representing active dispersal /17/,I .
strategy. A third strategy to limit competition is by way of secretion of some substances by (e)
leaves and roots of certain plants. These substances have inhibitory effect on the growth of
other individuals - of the same or other species in their vicinity. .

The animals too have strategic 'ways to minimise or eliminate completely intraspecific
competition. The phenomenon of territoriality exhibited by some animals is one such
strategy in which the area surrounding their home site or nesting site is defined and defended
against intruders. In this way, birds and many invertebrate species spaceout and avoid
competition among members of their populations. You might have noticed this phenomenon
in sparrows. They very aggressively defend and guard their 'territory' especially during their .
Fig.2: Seeds with wings (a-c)
breeding season. The 'territory' may be occupied by a 'mated pair' or it may bea 'family-based . and hairs (d-I) for their
unit' in case of social animals like wolves and elephants. .In addition to defending their dispersaL
territory by aggressive behaviour, certain .animals make use of specific body secretions to
mark and delineate the boundaries oftheir territories. .
57

I I
 . -intestinal hookworms, entamoeba, and malarial parasite infesting a large number of humans Communities in Nature

from.time totime. Hair flea is another example of human parasites. The colour of the flea
matches with human hair and their flattened bodies enable them to hide and slip through hair
easily.
Among plants, the best known example of parasite is the dodder plant. It is a wi~e-like
plant devoid of any leaves (Fig.5a). This parasitic plant ~tablish~s co~tacts with the
host plant by means of peg-like structures called - haustona (FIg.5b shows a
haustorium). Through the haustoria, the parasite draws nutrition at the expense of the
host plant. As a result the parasite flourishes and the growth of the host is impaired.

Check Your Progress-2

• 1) 'Competition among dirrerentspecies is often greatest between organisms that

obtain their food in different ways'. True or false? If it is false, change the
statement so that it is correct. .

2) Write distinguishing features of commensalism, mutualism, and parasitism.

What do they have in common? Give an example of each.

Fig. 5: a) A paet of host plant,

surrounded by the parasite -
dodder. It is a pale, wire-like ~
structure, that produces
certain peg-like growths (see
arrow, figure b) into the host
tissue and robs it of nutrients.

4A ORGANIZATION IN COMMUNITIES

The various interactions between organisms of a community represent strategies employed

by different species for securing basic needs for survival and sustenance. All these
interactions form the basis of community organization. The organizational pattern of a
community provides the framework for the organisms to interact in various ways. You may
be thinking what is meant by community organization? It refers to the organic and systematic
structure of the community. To put it in another way it is the arrangement and functional
relationship of the various strata oflifein a community. Usually this arrangement is typical
of an ecosystem. That is why it is possible to distinguish one ecosystem from another, i.e., a
forest from a grassland; a grassland from a tundra, and so on. To get an overall picture of
community organization, it is necessary to know about two aspects of the community-
resource partitioning and stratification.

4.4.1 Resource Partitioning

As you know, a community is an assemblage of populations of various species of plants and
animals. These coexist in a given habitat by sharing the available resources through their
partitioning among themselves. In any community the resources are finite. Then the question
is how the organisms ensure: effective partitioning of the resources amongst themselves. 59.
'Each and every species over a geological time period has evolved a clear cut strategy for this

/
/
I
 Environment - An Introduction purpose. Each species follows some sort of an unwritten code and knows which resource-is
to be utilized at what time, and from where. All this information"is inbuilt in their genetic
make up. A few examples discussed belowillustrate various aspects of resource partitioning ..
Resource - A substance or
object requiredby an organism Which Resource to Harness? The organisms can be categorised as herbivores or carnivores
.for maintenance, growth and based on the nature of the food they consume, i.e., whether of plant or of animal origin. Thus
reproduction. It has various
connotations, It is known as a
the animals in a community consume either green plants or feed on other animal species.
, limiting resource when it is Herbivores just do not eat' any green plant, but have their own liking for a particular grass,
scarce to demand. Resource shrub or tree species. They are selectivegrazers. The insects and birds too are selective
such ascoal is non-renewable feeders as they feed on specific plant parts, i.e., leaf, fruit or bark. Depending on the kind of
as it occurs in flxed amount s, .
and when fully utilized cannot
food source to be tapped, the organisms have developed various kinds of specializations in
be generated, The renewable their bodies/parts. The following example of many species of birds in a forest would clarify
resources, such as food, water this point. In a forest there are birds that consume grains or seeds, and there are birds that
are regenerated continuously. live on carrion. Their beaks are evolved accordingly (see Fig.6). The grain eaters have long,
thin-beaks; and the carrion-eaters have long, strong curved beaks to tear the flesh apart
Their claws have also evolved in line with the same objectiye (see Fig.6 again) according
• to the seeds, insects or whatever they have chosen to eat. The carrion eaters have strong
fierce claws with which they can hold and tear their prey. In addition to the structural '
(a)
Sparrow
pp
~,1
specializations, the seed eating birds further specialize in their choice of seeds. Thus
two populations of seed-eating birds can share the different seed resources in a
'. seed crushing community and avoid competition. .
',( ~>
~ -.
.:
From Where to Harness? In addition to developing structural specializations, the
(c) \ .••I
Parrot '~~ organisins have specific sites in the habitat for tapping their resource, i.e., they have
fruitscooping
subdivided their habitat for: this purpose. Forexample, in a forest, different bird
species occupy or live at different heights. Some of them nestand forage at the higher
branches, some at middle level, some near the ground and some actually forage from
the forest floor. There is a classic example of resource partitioning seen in small birds
known as Warblers found in North America. These are small colourful birds whose
different species coexist in the same forests. All these species feed 'on insects living in
the Spruce tree. But they forage in different zones of the tree (see Fig.7). Though
there is slight overlap in. their feeding domains otherwise each species has its own
marked area that varies with height in the tree and distance from the middle.

Fig.6: (a-f) A variety of beaks suited to
specific modes of feeding. (g-k)
Some adaptive variations in the
feet of birds.
A similar partitioning of resources exists among plants also (see Fig.8). Three species
of annuals growing in a field have a short time span to complete their life cycle. Solar
energy is available in plenty but they derive nutrients and moisture largely from the
same soil. Let us see how these closely growing species manage to. produce the
essential resources required for their growth and reproduction while they coexist in
the same habitat (see Fig.8). The three species have different root structures
occupying, different, soil depths. This helps them to avoid direct competition and
enables them to draw the required nutrients from different soil strata. The above
examples highlight different patterns of resource allocation to avoid interspecific
competition is in action. Different species coexist by dividing the resources in some
manner avoiding direct competition with the otherts).

Cape May Blackbumiam Black-throated Bay-breasted . Myrtle

warbler warbler green warbler warbler warbler

Fig.7: Five species of Warblers use Spruce tree for feeding andnestmg, but each has its own zone. The darkened
areas indicate where each species spends II)Ost of thelr feeding time. By exploiting different parts of the tree,
the species avoid direct competition, thus they can occupy the same habitat.

I \ I
 Communities in Nature
Box 4.1: Resource Partitioning in Birds Inhabiting the
Howrah Bridge.
Ground Level

The 58 year old, majestic cantilever Howrah Bridge across'

Hooghly in Calcutta is well known the world over -. The 10
bridge is not only an engineering wonder but also is a habitat
pf a large number of birds. A variety of birds have identified 20
!this bridge as their nesting site and have built nests in it. Its
Inodal joints provide ideal locations for nest building. The 30
.birds obtain food grains from the nearby Burra Bazar's
Posta area where food grains are stored, and also from the 40
discards left by the hundreds of vendors and hawkers that
use the bridge pavement. It is interesting to note that 50
different species of birds have chosen different heights to
set up their homes. Pigeons stay at the lowest level at about 60
• 10 metre height, Crows in the middle and Kites which fly
70
high perch at a height of 90 metre.
b
80
When to Harness? In addition to utilizing different structural
.
,
devices and different places as tools in resource partitioning, .
90
'timing' is another factor that organisms utilize in resource
partitioning. For example, flowers of different species bloom '( cm)
at different times of the day and night to attract specific
c
pollinators. Similarly, various kinds of insects are the food of Fig.S: Partitioning of the soil resource at dmerent
levels by three species of annuals growing in
birds and bats. Some insect species are active during day time
open field. a) Setaria sp. has fibrous, shallow
and others at night. This strategy provides non-competitive root system; b) Abutilon sp. has a sparsely
feeding opportunities for day-active birds and night -active branched tap root extending to intermediate
bats. Similarly, migrating and seasonal birds have also worked depths; and c) Polygonium sp. possesses a tap
root that is moderately branched in the upper'
out a rule of rotation in which they follow and get replaced by
soil layer and develops mostly below the
others according to the season and thus overcome rooting zone of other species.
competition.

One of the best example of resource sharing on the basis of differential timings is the Serengeti
National Park in Africa. A large number of wild animals living in the Serengeti ecosystem
have remarkable adjustment for the available resources. Many species of Zebras and more
than two dozen species of antelopes constitute the major populations of grazing animals that
inhabit the Serengeti ecosystem. So many grazing species coexist by feeding on different
grass, herb and shrub species (Fig. 9). So far so good, as there is no overlap in their resources.
But there are some species of antelopes which have common preference for certain plant
species. The point worth appreciating here is, .that these species graze on these common
plant resources at different time of the plant growth. This strategy of sharing food resources
involving differential timings by the grazing/browzing animals thus does not affect the
__ community adversely. This is the reason that a multispecies community of the Serengeti
ecosystem is so stable and sustaining. . .
. "'"""~'
'--=:::"--~~~1G-C£~?C"
~------- ~ --.
---.-------=:~~~-~-. . --_::>-.-
. Jb."t:=--~ ~--~. ----

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-:::.
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-~<'~.: ~~!-!~
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--~-;--~:7~~' -~ - :;;L . :J. .<~!~~{~~:~:_~

..:::::::.::_:~::,
.-:.~~~~~~~~.:~
~''''''''''-~~M' ".. ,J~.\.r;;;~:<.:..,."",,,"- •.. 1_ -
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• 0"\

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~.1I~.~~~_~,~
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-tt\I,.-a:: /11/
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•

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•.J q,~~' I ,nJr, ';". ·-<-.-,if'''·
i ,~~ ,Ii 111~1'1~~~ _ '" (-r'!"-?1i"""" /

(OJ~"""'.""I''''_''''~''''''
~ 11"" ... :; .... ; .
.....~;,..~;:>.:":'::'~~;'~: ·~.".l.~.: ~ .' .:.:.'.. '" .:",..••
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" ,)' c ...•. ." a., ' ..•. ~<;c ,¥ ...
• \'1 " \'" ,•••• "ri, If:. '1'.";/";'
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"" ii;,,;~
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I\\I'~
1(~.~;;~;:.;:;::'~~~"/
.~'r(, I.•.d'lflr.
~"jf!;,~ /?'d7. ,1/
,,:!f!jJ!1'/,/1 1 '. e
Fig.9: Serengeti National Park landscape showing Zebras and Thompson's gazelles (an antelope
61
species) feeding side by side, by utilizing different plant species (After Rieldefs, 1993).

I I
 Environment - An. Introduction
• Light is the crucial-factor that governs the vertical structure of a plant community
.
,
Fig.IO: A segment of forest showing
different strata. There are
tall trees (canopy),
understory trees, shrubs,
small tender plants near the
surface - the forest floor. ,
In addition, there are also the
climbers that go around the
tree trunks.
62
4.4.2 Stratification
Stratification is a distinctive feature of a community, The dictionary meaning of the
term is 'the arrangement in strata or layers'. In context of a community, it means how
the life forms are arranged in a vertical order. Stratification of a community is
determined largely bythe lifeforms of plants - their size, branching pattern and leaves.
which in fact provides a physical structure or a framework for accommodating
different, animal species. .
Communities have characteristic stratification patterns. For example, a well
developed forest ecosystem may have' upto 7 or 8 strata (Fig.lO) which can be
differentiated into canopy; understory; shrub; herb or ground layer; forest floor; root
layer and the soil strata. The vines, epiphytes and parasites represent separate strata.
The canopy, which is the primary site for capturing the solar energy has the major
influence on the structure and life of the rest of the' forest. In an open canopy forest
considerable amount of sunlight reaches the lower layers and the forest floor. As a
result, the understory trees, shrub and the herbaceous ground layer are well
developed. In a closed canopy forest enough sunlight is not available to the underlying
substrata. In such a situation the understory trees, shrub and herbaceous layer are
poorly developed. In addition to light, soil moisture is another factor that influences
stratification. The herb layer, particularly depends on soil moisture conditions. Other
factors, such as the slope, density of the overstory that vary from place to place in a
forest, also influence the nature of the herb layer. '
The lowest, aerial layer of the forestis the forest floor. It is the site where the important
process of forest litter decomposition takes place and nutrients are released for
nutrient cycle. The status ofthis layer is dependent on all the above factors. A forest
.having, all the well-developed strata, generates a vast amount of litter making the
forest floor also an immensely active stratum.
a
The degree of vertical stratification has profound influence on the diversity of animal
life in the community. A strong correlation exists between the foliage height diversity
and bird species diversity. In the places having increased vertical stratification, there
is increased availability of resources and living space; which favours a certain degree
of specialization. The examples discussed in Subsection 4.4.1, illustrate this point.
The grasslands with their two strata, hold about 6 or 7 species of birds, all ground
nesters. On the other hand, a well stratified forest may support 35 or more species,
occupying different strata according to their specializations. As mentioned in the
beginning of this section, we have seen how stratification and partitioning of resources
are two important and mutually dependent dimensions of a community.
Aquatic ecosystems like lakes, and oceans too exhibit stratification (Fig.ll). Their
stratification pattern is determined by light, temperature and oxygen regimes. A
well-stratified lake usually has the following layers. First, is a layer of freely circulating
surface water, the epilimnion. Since light is available in plenty, therefore, it is
dominated by plants. It is the chief site of photosynthesis. The second layer, the
metalimnion, is characterized by thermocline, i.e., a steep and rapid decline in
temperature. Besides the presence of few, plant species adapted to low light,
decomposition is most active in this layer. The third layer, the hypolimnlon, is a deep,
cold and dense layer of water, often with low amount of dissolved oxygen. Next, is a
layer of bottom mud.
What is common in the community stratification in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems?
They both possess an autotrophic layer concentrated wherelight is available in plenty.
You may recall that the autotrophic layer harvests solar energy and manufactures food
from simple substances. In forest this layer.is largely confined to the canopy layer, in
grasslands, in the herb or the ground layer; and in lakes and seas in the upper layers
of water. Along with autotrophic layer there is also a heterotrophic layer. The strata
constituting this layer obtain their food from the autotrophs, transfer energy, and
circulates matter by means of herbivory, predation and decomposition. ,
I \
 Environment - An Introduction 4) Is ther~ a common factor that influences stratification pattern of a terrestrial ecosystem,
say a forest, and an aquatic ecosystem, e.g., a lake? If yes, identify the factor.

5) In what manner stratification is related to diversity?

4.5 BIODIVERSITY

The word biodiversity sounds very fainiliar. Isn't it? But wait! Something is missingll Often
it is seen tied up with another word - conservation. That is, 'biodiversity-conservation' now
it appears all the more familiar. You may wonder as to what is the reason of so frequent
reference of these two terms? Biodiversity conservation, is in fact a major environmental
issue of present times. In the last Section of this unit, besides discussing the meaning of the
term biodiversity, we shall take up three important aspects of biodiversity - its importance;
the reasons for its loss; and its conservation. But first of all let us examine what the term
'biodiversity' refers to?

4.5.1 What is Biodiversity?

The general meaning of the term is self-explanatory. In precise, and scientific terms,
biodiversity is the totality of genes, species and ecosystems. The three elements ofbiodiversity
are elaborated in the following three paragraphs. .

The total genes, also known as genetic diversity refer to variation of genes within species. It
includes: (i) the various populations of the same species, such as the thousands of traditional
rice varieties in India; and (ii) the genetic variation within populations, for example, it is very
high among Indian rhinos, and is very low among cheetahs.

The total species, or the species diversity refers to the variety of species in a region. For
example, the total species of an island A is 115, having 10 species of birds, 100 species of
beetles,S species of lizards and so on. Besides being expressed in numerals it is also expressed
in qualitative terms, some examples, are given below: Island A has greater taxonomic
. diversity than island B. More species live on land than in the sea. The terrestrial species are
more closely related to each other as compared. to marine species.

Ecosystem diversity refers to the species or genetic diversity of communities. By using a set
of criteria, the community diversity estimations of megaecosystems are undertaken at the
national and subnationallevels. According to a recent classification by the Wildlife Institutes
of India, the country has been divided into following 10 biogeographic regions:

1. Trans- Himalayan 6. Deccan Peninsula

2. Himalayan 7. Gangetic plain
3. Indian Desert 8. North-east India
4. Semi-arid 9. Islands
64
5. Western Ghats 10. Coasts

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 Environment - An Introdu'ctio~ In addition to plants, microorganisms too have been widely used in the
manufacture of medicines. More than 3000 antibiotics have been extracted from
microorganisms. We all are familiar with the important antibiotics -:Penicillin and
Tetracycline. Another product of microorganisms, i.e., Cyclosporin, was
developed from a soil fungus. It revolutionised heart and kidney transplant
surgery by suppressing immune reactioris. Aspirin and many other drugs that are
all synthesized, were first discovered in wild.
.5'

A large number of wild plant and animal species that exist, could be potential food-
-'sources for the future. Most plant species have not been explored so far and their
utility remains to be tapped. A large number of human tribals inhabiting remote
areas or forests, look to wildlife for most of their proteins. It is estimated that .
about 30,000 species of plants have edible parts, but 90 percent of the world's food
. (a) presently comes f~omjust 20 plant species. A recently discovered tropical species
- the winged beans, is a potential source of food. Every part of this plant is edible.
Its leaves taste like spinach, young pods are like green beans, young seeds like peas,
• mature seeds like soybeans, and its underground stems are like potatoes and are
rich in proteins. Another positive attribute is that it is a fast growing
nodule-bearing plant that enriches soil with fixed nitrogen. Such plants and others
like them from the wild give hope to feed growing millions.

The value of biodiversity is particularly apparent in agriculture. For generations

people have raised a wide range of crops and livestock to stabilize and increase,
production. These traditional practices have evolved genetically different strains
'of crop plants which are now being abandoned in favour of newer high-yield
strains. Unfortunately these high yielding strains are genetically homogeneous
and have a narrow genetic base, and are highly vulnerable to insect pests and
various diseases. The predominant strain of rice grown in Asia, for instance was
devastated by a virus, but one wild strain from India had genes for resistance.
Through intensive breeding a resistant hybrid was created which is now widely
grown. This example clearly shows the importance of genetic diversity or the
genepools for promoting and ensuring high agricultural yield.

Industries also use a wide variety of plant and animal products and thus benefit
from a rich diversity of species. As many as 2,000.plant species throughout the
world are known for their economic importance. The building, furniture, and
paper making industries use more than. one hundred different species of trees.
Cotton, flax, hemp, jute and agave provide fibre for manufacture of textile, ropes
and other articles (Fig.14). Natural substances from a wide variety of plant species,
are used in the manufacture of rubber, dyes, tanning agents, -perfumes, resins,
gums, oils, insecticides and other products. Thus no. sphere of life remains
untouched by biodiversity. Even the diverse human cultures are linked to
biodiversity.

Fig.14: (a-d) The important sourctis oi
- fibres. a) C-otton - from Jeed
coat; b-d) Flax, Hemp and jute
respectively, fibres are extracted
from their stems. I
, A. high level of diversity is believed to confer a high degree of stability to an
66
The living environment has been an important factor in the development and
shaping of human cultures. We all know that humans too influence their
environment. Thus, diverse environmental conditions 'created' have been.
significantly important in the development of diverse cultures. Cowing back to
the point or linkage between culture and biodiversity, though the cultures differ
from one another in diverse ways, but all revolve around biodiversity. That
'biodiversity' is very important for human survival and sustenance was known to
man since he descended on this earth and started practising agriculture and
domesticating animals to fulfill his needs. Thus emerged certain strictures for the
use, sharing and conservation of these biological resources. With the passage of
time and further development of human society, these strictures gradually became
deeply 'ingrained values' of human cultures. The importance of biodiversity is
reflected in various ways in different cultures: in religious beliefs,
land-management practices, crop- selection and diet, art, music, social structure
and even language. Indeed the variety of life is the backdrop against which many
cultures have flourished or vanished!
4.5.3 Biodiversity and the Ecological Balance
ecosystem, e.g., the extremely complex ecosystems, such as tropical rain forests

/
 remain unchanged indefinitely if undisturbed. On the other ~and simple ecosystems like the Communities in Nature
tundra are highly fragile and experience sudden andlmmense shifts in population size. Other
simplified ecosystems like a wheat field shows extreme' vulnerability to change, and may
collapse if abiotic and biotic factors shift too much. The situation is as comparable to the one
shown in Fig. 15. The ecosystem balance is a precarious entity. In the eventuality of any
disturbance, the resultant effect on the ecosystem is almost nil, as the large diversity of
organisms reorganize and adjust according to the changedsconditions. Imagine what would
happen if the ecosystem had a.low diversity? The effect of the slightest disturbance would
disturb the balance, and larger disturbance may lead to total collapse of the ecosystem.

Fig.lS: A variety of life forms of an ecosystem are linked to each other. These
relationships are delicately balanced and are governed by a numberof factors.

Let us analyse the above situations in terms of ecosystem functions. In an ecosystem, a variety
of species participate in the numerous ecological processes. Each one performs one or more
functions such as production, regulating water and nutrient cycling, decomposition,
regulation of climate and other ambient conditions in addition to soil formation and
conservation. These functions collectively create conditions that are salubrious for the
existence of life. An ecosystem having higher diversity means the number of species and
interactions between them which constitute the food web is large (Fig.16a). In such a
situation, the elimination of one species would have little effect on ecosystem balance. In
sharp contrast, the number of species in the food web of a simple ecosystem is small (Fig.16b)
so loss of anyone species has far more serious repercussions for the integrity of the ecosystem
itself.

,Ca) (b)

Fig.l6: The two illustrations give comparative picture of ecosystems with

high (a) and low (b) species diversity. The circles represent
organisms. Note the complex linkage in a, and only a few links
in b. The increased numbers -of links are believed to confer
stability to the ecosystems.

67

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 Environment - An Introduction
4.5.4 Causes of Biodiversity Loss
A variety of factors are responsible for the loss of biodiversity. In this section, we shall take
up the major factors leading to loss of species of various kinds.

(i) Loss and Fragmentation of Habitat

~
.Undisturbed habitats have become rare commodities in modern times. These have shrunk
"

dramatically over the past decades as the human population and resource consumption have
grown. The growing human heeds requiring electricity, housing and food have impinged on
the natural habitats in several ways. Dams have destroyed large sections of rivers and stream
habitat. In the marine ecosystem, coastal development has wiped out coral-reef and other
near-shore communities. Forests too have to bear the brunt, as huge areas have been cleared
for marginal agriculture and for obtaining timber. All these activities result in fragmentation
of habitat (Fig.17) of innumerable species which in due course of time completely vanish, with
the loss of which the other dependent species too are wiped away, ensuing a chain of
• destruction.

.
,

l<'ig.17: A series of pictures (a-d) represent the gradual rragmentanon and reduction in the habitat. (a) A picture of an undisturbed woontann
habitat in Wisconsin in the year 1831; (b) Situation after about 50 years of a, showing piecemeal destruction of habitat; (c) Situation
after 70 years from a, mark further loss in habitat; and (d) Situation after 120 years of a, note tremendous reduction in habitat. The
loss of habitat was accompanied by extinction of many species (Mter J: Curtis, 1955). '

(ii) Species Introduction

Species introduction, accidental or intentional, is an important factor in the loss of

/ native biodiversity of an area. The introduced species occasionally being superior
I competitors, establish and flourish at the expense of the original species.
Notwithstanding the sudden changed pressures the original biodiversity is wiped from
that area. Examples are many. We take up the example of the bird" Dodo (Fig.18).
Dodo lived onlyin Mauritius - a small island in the Indian Ocean. The Dodo possessed
two characteristics that were its eventual undoing; it had no fear of people and,
therefore, could be easily clubbed to death; and it was flightless, so it had to lay its eggs
on the ground. The Dodo became extinct by 1681, after the introduction of pigs to the .
island, who devoured its eggs. The extinction of Dodo may also be analysed in terms'
of changed habitat conditions due to the introduction of a new species ~ pigs, to the
_ Fig.18: Dodo, endemic species of' island. In an ecosystem like an island, both the variety of habitats, and the area that
Mauritius. This flightless
comprises each habitat are physically limited. As a result of such constraints, the, native,
bird laid eggs the on ground.
The introduction of pigs on animal's, Dodo in this case, ability to adapt to new predators and competitors is often
this island proved reduced. For example, the habitat may not be large enough or diverse for the prey
detrimental for this species species (the Dodo) to avoid new predators (the pigs). And the diversity of resources
and it became extinct by the
may not be' adequate to allow an existing species to coexist with a new competitive
year 1681.
species. Hence, the superior competitor survived and the native species perished.

(iii) Overexploitation of Plant and Animal Species

Forest, fisheries and wildlife resources have been over-exploited, even to the point of
extinction. The Passenger Pigeon aptly exemplifies this situation (Fig.19). Once these were
the most abundant birds in North America. They were in such immense numbers that their
flocks darkened the sky during migration. Their one such flock alone was 400 km long and
had no less than two billion birds]. Arid there used to be as many as 90 nests per tree
throughout a forest of about 5 km width and about 67 km length.An immense tonnage of
their droppings fertilised the forests where passenger pigeons roosted. This bird, particularly
their young ones were a delicacy. Since these were available in plenty, their price too was
less. They were selectively hunted, in very large numbers to cover the wastage during
transportation. The young ones and adult birds were killed indescriminately. Their rate of
reproduction could not cope with the high rate of elimination as a passenger pigeon laid just
68 . '. .

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 one egg. The last pigeon - 'Martha' died in Cincinnati Zoo in 1914, and its body is kept in Communities in Nature
V.S. Natural Museum in Washington. Like the story of Passenger Pigeon, each extinct
species carried along its tale of destruction. The human need for food; search for precious
commodities (e.g., ivory) and pets; curiosities, and collector's items have also impinged on
some species.

(iv) Pollution

Various kinds of pollutants strain ecosystem that affect and reduce the sensitive species.
The pollutants not only affect one species, but build up along food chains. The barn
owl populations of-U'K, have suffered on this account. Not only the larger organisms,
but the soil microbes also suffer from the pollutants added to the soil. The heavy metals
from industrial wastes, and salinisation due to irrigated agriculture create adverse
~onditioll's for their survival an~ growth. ~ci~ rain ~as d~stroyed ~ast expans~,of fore_sts
ID ,Europe. The effect of manne pollution 10 decimating fishenes resources are too
familiar to most of us. /'
•
(v) Change in Global Climate

A number of intensive investigations present convincing data that predicts a change in

global climate in the coming few decades. Human-caused increases in 'greenhouse
gases' in the atmosphere are likely to bring about a global temperature rise of some 1°
to 3°C during the next century. It is believed that the each 1°C rise in temperature will
displace the limit of tolerance of land species some 125 km towards the poles, or 150 m .
vertically on the mountain. These abrupt changes may be beyond the tolerance range
of many species, and it is likely that we may loose them forever. In addition, the
projections also' point towards a sea level rise - that would submerge vast expanses of
coastal areas endangering characteristic flora and fauna of coastal zones.
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I
4.5.5 Conserving Biodiversity
In the previous Sub-section, we have seen the main reasons for the loss of biodiversity.
The conservation of biodiversity should involve not only correcting the above fronts but
also designing a forceful campaign to educate and involve all sections of the society.

.
The campaign should include three basic elements namely, saving biodiversity for
_. -~ -----
Fig.19: Passenger Pigeon - a victim of.
thoughtless destruction, a
lesson learnt but too late!

I' . ", :,' VL---.r

. '. ,./tr,,.
- .•~
..... ~...'"
,
~
-~. •..,. . .-.0£:::-:-:-

SAVE STUDY

Fig.20: The thr;eelements of biodiversity conservation: saving, studying, using sustainably and
equitably. Note the interrelationship of these three elements represented here by arrows
in opposite directions. .
AI) To slow down the loss of biodiversity, it is essential to have greater understanding of
its role in ecosystem and its importance for human well being.
Az) In order to increase the understanding of biodiverslty, representative and viable
samples of ecosystem, species and populations have to be maintained .
. 81) Greater incentives will exist to slow the loss of biodiversity, if its immediate or
potential value to humanity is enhanced .
. 82) The current and potential benefits ofbiodiversity to humans cannot be known unless
the biological resource base is saved and maintained.
Cl) For making sustainable use ofbiodiversity, an innovative synthesis oftraditional and
modern knowledge about biodiversity is required. 69
Cz) ,The needs of users should set priorities in the biodiversity research.

/ I

Environment - An Introduction
\
posterity; in-depth study ofbiodiversity to explore its potentials; and using it sustainably and
equitably (Fig.20). All this requires a clear understanding of the role played by biodiversity
in ecosystems and its importance to human life. The sensitization and participation of people
from every walk of life is vital for the success of conserving biodiversity.

In the three elements mentioned above, where do you place yourself in terms of making your
contribution? In the first one? OR the second one? Why not in all the three fleldsll!

Check Your Progress-4

1) What is meant by Biodiversity?

,
2) List five ways in which a plant or animal species may contribute to the well-being of
humankind.

3) What is gene pool? Why is it important to preserve as many genepools as possible?

4) How is biodiversity related to the balance in an ecosystem?

70

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 , .
< t,

5) List and briefly explain five major factors posing threat to biodiversity in modern times. Communities in Natu~~
, ,.,,. I

6) Which of the factors listed above is the primary cause of biodiversity loss today?

..

7) Explain why an introduced species is likely to cause ecological disruption to the native . I
species?

'..,I

.,.,
',.
i

i
I

8)' Explain how can the each stratum of tourism industry contribute in the conservation
I
ofbiodiversity? .
••

·1

'.

4.6 LET US SUM U

In this unit you have studied that:

• All the biotic and abiotic fact rs within a certain area constitute an ecosystem. Within
the ecosystem each organism has a habitat, an area where it lives; In addition, each
organism occupies a specific niche, i.e., the specific role it plays within an ecosystem.
• In an ecosystem, the groups. of organisms of .same species constitute a population.
Various populations of organisms make up a community. The community along with the
abiotic factors with which it interacts constitutes the ecosystem.
71

/ I
 .Environment - An Introduction • A community has three basic characteristics: productivity, diversity and resilience .
Productivity is measured in terms of biomass produced. The number and abundance of
species present, determine the species diversity. Resilience is the ability of the ecosystem
to respond to disturbance.
• The dominating plant species define the conditions for the existence of various kinds of
.~:llf~ forms. -s, .

• t. The interactiorts amongst living organisms of a community can be divided into three
categories: competition, predation and symbiosis. The latter is further subdivided into
.I three subcategories, i.e., commensalism, mutualism and parasitism. Competition
involves organisms of different species that strive to obtain the same needed resource.
During predation one species (the prey) becomes a resource, this on being killed is eaten
by another species (the predator). During a symbiotic relationship, two or more
organisms of differ.ent species live together in close association over a prolonged period
of time deriving mutual benefit. Commensalism is a one- sided relationship. One species
benefits, whereas the other species neither benefits nor is harmed. In mutualism both
• species benefit. In a parasitic relationship, one species (the parasite) benefits but the
other (the host) is harmed.
• . Resource partitioning and stratification are the mechanisms by which all the organisms
secure the required resources by avoiding competition and mutual conflict.
'. Biodiversity is the totality of genes, species and ecosystems. Biodiversity contributes.to
the well being of humans in a variety of ways. Almost any sphere of life be it food, clothing,
medicines and drugs, industries, aesthetics and even sports a d recreation are linked to
biodiversity, Above all this, biodiversity also plays important role in maintaining the
ecological balance. A large number of factors have led to the loss of biodiversity. Of
these factors, loss of habitat, species introduction, overexploitation, pollution of all kinds,
and the change in global climate are among the major causes for the loss of biodiversity.
A forceful, long-term and sustained campaign ofbiodiversity conservation can minimise'
further damage, to biodiversity. his campaign should contain the following three
elements: saving biodiversity for posterity; in-depth study of biodiversity to' explore its
. potential; using it sustainably and equitably. The sensitization of people of all walks of
life is cl key element for the successful implementation of the biodiversity campaign.

4.7 KEYWORDS

Biomass The total mass of all the organisms of an area.

Community Also called a biotic community, the population of plants, animals

and microorganisms living and interacting in a given area.

Diversity Represents the number of different species in a biotic community.

Ecosystem A unit of the environment consisting of living and non-living-com-

ponents that interact with exchanges of energy and nutrients.

Fauna A collective term for all the animal types that occur in a region.

Flora A collective term for all the plant types that occur in a region.

Genepool The genes of all the individual members in a given population ..

Habitat A specific site r place where a plant or animal naturally or

normally lives or gro vs.

Homeostasis The capacity of an CL .syste~ to return to a state of balance after

any disturbance.' ~----.c.

Intraspecific Within.a species.

Interspecfflc : Between diff lent species,

!

Niche Functional rote )f a "P":... 'i:n the community including all its
72 act" v'.•.l '- C' n ..•rt..::a'-t(,\ '11.~

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 Pollution An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological Communities in Nature
characteristics of air, land and water which affects life adversely,
either directly or indirectly. .

Population An aggregate of individuals of one species.

Resilience Ability of a system to absorb changes and return to its original

condition. -s, .

Species A population of morphologically similar organisms that can

reproduce sexually among themsleves but cannot produce fertile
offsprings when mated with other organisms.

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

•
. Check Your Progress-l

1) Refer to Unit 2, Section 2.2; and this Unit, Section 4.1. Population, community,
ecosystem, biosphere.

2) Hint: Compare the living space, and their surroundings, closeness to nature, family
structtlre,generallife style etc.

3) a ec 0 y s t e m a b o t c s
.., i comun t yacaci aob
forestepi phytesm
P I a n t s a b cra b id t m 0 r
r o(p r 0 d u c t i v iY red t
e 9 d e s e r t u v Y P P t ani
Y Y I s x s t 0 n e s' 0 r e t s v
(h a b i. t a t) y d r 8 p a)!. i a e
b I
p e I ,m a x r s n u d c f r
I i c h e)
r (n z a i d I u 0 i s
0 e e e I f 0 0 d t x a c m c s
t d s n m(e e 0 s y s t e mn a m t
i a t c s y m b i 0 s i r u f Y
c t 0 e t s I a n d x 0 e n I b
b i 0 s P h e r e z y-!'...8 i o s e
c 0 n s e r v a t i 0 n t t n h e
i n c 0 m p e t e t i 0 n~ a n

i) habitat, ii) .population, iii) ecosystem, iv) productivity, v) niche, vi) community,
vii) diversity, viii) resilience.

Check Your Progress-2

1) False. Competition is often greatest between organisms that obtain the food in similar
~~ .
2) These are all the types of symbiotic relationship. In commensalism, one species
benefits and the other is neither harmed nor helped (eg., epiphyte). In mutualism, both
the participating species are benefited (e.g., Acacia and ants). In parasitism, one
species benefits and the other is harmed (e.g., dodder plant) .
... .."

73

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 Environment - An Introduction
Check Your Progress-J

1) See Subsection 4.4.1.

2) Hint: partitioning of the finite ecological resource(s) amongst the organisms of the
ecosystem. For details refer to Subsection 4.4.1.
~
3) Tundra, grassland, desert and tropical rain forest.

4) Yes, Light. In both the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, the availability of light is the
prime factor that determines the type and distribution of the plants which in turn govern
the diversity of animal life. .

5) A strong correlation exists between stratification and diversity. Increased vertical

stratification increases the availability of resources and living space, which favours a
• higher diversity, having various degrees of specializations .

Check Your Progress-4

1) See Subsection 4.5.1.

2) Hint: In medicine and drug Industry, as sources of food, in agriculture and crop
improvement, various kinds of industrial uses, as a source of beauty and joy. For details
refer to Subsection 4.5.2.

3) Refer to Subsection 4.5.2.

4) A direct correlation exists between the high diversity and the ecological balance.
Ecosystem with high diversity tend to be more stable than the ones with low diversity ..
You may also refer to Subsection 4.5.3.

5) Hint: loss and fragmentation of habitats; species introduction; overexploitation of plant

and animal species; pollution; and change in global climate. Also see Subsection 4.5.4.

6) Loss and fragmentation of habitats is the primary cause of biodiversity loss today;

7) See Subsection 4.5.4(ii).

8) Write your own point of view.

ACTIVITIES FOR THIS UNIT

Devise a strategy for incorporating biodiversity- friendly ways in various tourism operations. :
Your plan should include the following elements: personnel from all the levels of the tourism
industry, including tourists as well. .

Activity-2

This activity involves preparing a list of the endangered" or threatenedf plant and animal
species of a~""area of your choice. For obtaining data, you can contact concerned
Departments of that state, in which your proposed study site is located. As you prepare
74 a lists of the endangered or threatened plant and animal species, also fmd 'out whether any

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 i I .1 .
conservati~n measures are being taken or planned by the concerned Departments. If yes, . Communities In Nature
describe the measures being employed for each species. Do you think you.too can make a
contribution in this direction? If yes, please specify!

* Endangered species - A wild species having so few individual survivors that it could soon
become extinct in all or most of its natural range.

** Threatened species - A wild species that is still abundant in its natural habitat, but is
likely to become endangered within the foreseeable future because of a decline in
number.

*** Ministry of Environment and Forests; Forest Department; Regional Botanical, and
Zoological Surveys of India; Fisheries Department; and University Departments of
Botany and Zoology. .

• •J Activity-3 I
. This activity requires inputs from ten people, from different cultural backgrounds. Talk to
them in detail about their life styles and their environment-related cultural values. Find out
how many of these' norms are actually been practised by them. Present your findings in a
comprehensive, tabular manner. .

,
!
(.

I Activity-4 I
·.Prepare two land use maps of your area, one being the current land use map, and the other
·. depicting land use for the same area 40-50 years ago. You may take the help of elders in your
· .family or some senior citizens residing in your area for about 50 years. Compare these two
maps and fmd out: (a) How much natural vegetation has been lost to various activities? (b)
Are there still some areas as original or undisturbed? (c) Are. they large enough to sustain
the native plant and animal communities? (d) Are there any state level policies to prevent
further loss of such areas? .

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75

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 , TOURIST ARRIVALS IN INDIA BYCOUNTRY OF NATIONALITY
DURING JANUARY TO DECEMBER 1996-1998
(INCLUDING NATIONALS OF PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH) ,

NATIONALITY 1996 1997 1998 PERCENTAGE CHANGE

(Janullry - December) 1997/96 1998/97
••
NORTH AMERICA

1 Canada 74031 78570 80111 ' 6.1 2.0

,U.S.A. 228829 244239 244687 6.7 0.2
Others 34 55 122 61.8 121.8

Total 302894 322864 '324920 6.6 0.6

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

Argentina 2839 3202 3776 12.8 17.9

Brazil 5194 4821 6498 -7.2 '34.8
Mexico 2400 2364 3462 -1.5 4604
Others 8913 . 6624 9965 -25.7 5004

"

Total 19346 17011 73701 -12.1 39.3 .1

WESTERN EUROPE

Austria . 17084 16369 18211 -4.2 11.3

Belgium 22160 21532 22658 -2.8 5.2
Denmark 13326 14203 16370 6.6 15.3
Finland 16057 12121' 9844 -24.5 -18.8
France 93325 91423 97898 -2.0 7.1
Germany 99853 105979 93993 6.1 -11.3
Greece 5567 4182 ' 5494 -24.9 3104
Ireland 5835 5257 7062 -9.9 34.3
Italy 49910 53854 54058 '7.9 004
Netherlands 40246 44843 54227 11.4 20.9
Norway . 8205 8046 8769 -1.9 9.0
Portugal 7020 6855 8004 -204 16.8
Spain 24419 22903 25309 -6.2 10.5
Sweden 21192 19772 19563 -6.7 -1.1
Switzerland 34989 31717 33364 -904 5.2
U.K. 360686 370567 376513 2.7 1.6
Others 1348 1700 2074 26.1 22.0

Total 821222 831329 853411 1.2 2.7

EASTERN EUR.OPE

Czechoslovakia 2800 2330 4244 -16.8 82.1

Poland 6241 5996 7873 -3.9 31.3
C.I.S. 41085 32190 29493 -2.1.7 ' -804
Others 5547 4581 6633 -1704 44.8

Total 55673 45097 48243 -19.0 7.0

/
 NATIONALITY 1996 1997 1998 PERCENTAGE CHANGE
\
(January - December) 1997/96 -1998/97
.,
AFRICA

Egypt j485 3451 4663 -1.0 35.1

Ethiopia· 513~ 5273 5784 2.6 9.7
Kenya 19248 18993 21537 -1.3 13.4
Mali 4525 14626 13774 223.2 -5.8
Mauritius 9684 11518 13632 18.9 18.4
Nigeria 3721 3972 3710 6.7 • -6.6
South Africa 19328 22218 20397 15.0 -8.2
Sudan 2375 3071 2406 29.3 -21.7
Tanzania 11083 8794 8245 -20.7 -6.2
Zambia 1355 1480 1402 9.2 -5.3 .
• Others 9206. 8965 15158 -2.6 69.1

Total 89148 102361 110708 14.8 8.2

-. WEST ASIA

Behrain 10835 11547 10251 6,6 -11.2

Israel 18387 20162 21103 9.7 4.7
Jordan 2306 2616 2334 13.4 -10.8
Kuwait 2604 2302 1974 -11.6 -14.2
Oman 17020 16185 13695 -4.9 -15.4
Qatar 2416 3718 4552 53.9 22.4
Saudi Arabia 17688 15390 12256 -13.0 -20.4
Syria 1200 1731 1467 44.3 -15.3
Turkey 2139 2135 . 1778 -0.2 -16.7
V.A.E. 21404 19828 14992 -7.4 -24.4
Yamen Arab Republic 15103 13909 8310 -7.9 -40.3
.Others 3163 3084 ·2877 -2.5 -6.7
"
Total 114262 112607 95589 -1.4 -15.1

SOUTH ASIA

-Afghanistan 12943 3151 3605 -75.7 ·14.4

Iran 12171 11338 9828 -6.8 13.3
Maldives 1083 1217 2119 12.4 74.1
Nepal 43426 43155 38199 -0.6 -11.5
Pakistan 41810 45076 44057 7.8 -2.3
, Bangladesh 322355 355371 339757 10.2 -4.4
Sri Lanka 107351 122080 . 118292 13.7 -3.1
Bhutan 2828 2318 2915 -18.0 25.8

Total 543967 583706 558772 ,7.3 -4.3

/
 NA TJONALITY 1996 1997 1998 PERCENTAGE CHANGE
(January - December) 1997/96 1998/97 .
r
1.

SOUTH EAST ASIA

Indonesia 7701 ,. 7756 5728 0.7 -26.1

Malaysia 53370 60401 47496 13.2 -21.4
Myanmar 2306 2681 3022 16.3 12.7
Philippines 515.2 5756 5527 11.7 -4.0
Singapore 47136 520u4 54328 10.3 4.5
Thailand 16188 16494 16368 1.9 -0.8
Others 955 1113 1055. 16.5 -5.2

Total 132808 146205

• t
, . 133524 10.1 -8.7
•
EAST ASIA

China (Main) 5613 7369 4312 31.3 -41.5

China (Taiwan) 8066 5721 6754 -29.1 \8.1
Hong Kong 8560 10209 9562 19.3 -6.3
Japan 99018 99729 89565 0.7 - 10.2
Korea {South) 16173 15392 16321 -4.8 6.0
Korea (North) 6560 8259 2064 25.9 -75.0
Others 276 201 788 .-27 2 292.0

. Total 144266 146880 129366 i.8 -11.9

AUSTRALASIA I
Australia 48755 506[47 57807 3.9 14.1
Newzealand 11289 11~09 14720 t.r 29.0
Fiji 1584 1379 1917 -12.9 39.0
Others . 1435 19~2 5168 36.0 195.5

Total 63063 65387 80212 3.7 22.7

Stateless 1211 647 183 -46.6 -71.7

Grand Total 2287860 2374094 2358629 3.8 -0.7

L
Source: Department of Tourism, Govemm·ent of India

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 MPDD-IGNOUIP.O.1 K/February, 2018 (Reprint)

let us put the smile back

on the face of Our planet.

ISBN: 81-7263-890-6