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UNESCO Marine World Heritage

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United Nations World

Educational, Scientific and Heritage
Cultural Organization Convention

Custodians of
the globe’s blue
carbon assets

1
Published in 2021 by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place
de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris 07 SP, France
© UNESCO 2021
CLT-2021/WS/1
This publication is available in Open Access under the
Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO (CC-BY-SA 3.0 IGO)
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
sa/3.0/igo/). By using the content of this publication,
the users accept to be bound by the terms of use of
the UNESCO Open Access Repository (http://www.
unesco.org/open-access/terms-use-ccbysa-en).
The designations employed and the presentation of
material throughout this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of
UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country,
territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning
the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The ideas and opinions expressed in this publication
are those of the authors; they are not necessarily those
of UNESCO and do not commit the Organization.
Suggested citation:
UNESCO. 2020. UNESCO Marine World Heritage: Custodians
of the globe’s blue carbon assets. Paris, France
The idea for this assessment originated during the 4th
Marine World Heritage Managers Conference (Glacier Bay
National Park and Preserve, 2019). This assessment is
made in response to World Heritage Committee Decision
41 COM7 (Krakow/UNESCO, 2017), requesting the World
Heritage Centre to further study the current and potential
impacts of Climate Change on the OUV of World Heritage
properties. The assessment is also responding to the 2017
“UNESCO Strategy for Action on Climate Change”, adopted
by the 39th session of the UNESCO General Conference, in
particular by raising awareness on the impacts of climate
change on the world’s natural and cultural heritage (art.
76). UNESCO (2017). Available at:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0025/002592/259255e.pdf
Images marked with an asterisk (*) do not fall under the
CC-BY-SA license and may not be used or reproduced
without the prior permission of the copyright holders.
Editor: Jove
Cover photo: Oxygen bubbles on seagrass
leaves in Ibiza (Spain). © Shane Gross
Graphic design: Aurelia Mazoyer
Lead Authors:
Carlos M. Duarte1,2, Trisha B. Atwood3, James G.
Kairo4, Hilary Kennedy5, Dorte Krause-Jensen2,6,
Catherine E. Lovelock7, and Oscar Serrano8
Lead Author Affiliations:
1
Red Sea Research Center (RSRC) and Computational
Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology (KAUST),
Thuwal 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
2
Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Ole
Worms Allé 1, DK-8000 Åarhus C, Denmark
3
Department of Watershed Sciences and the
Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan,
UT 84322, United States of America
4
Blue Carbon Unit, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research
Institute, P.O. Box 81651 Mombasa-80100, Kenya
5
School of Ocean Sciences, Bangor University,
Menai Bridge, Anglesey, Wales LL59 5AB
6
Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University,
Vejlsøvej 25, DK-8600 Silkeborg, Denmark
7
School of Biological Sciences, The University of
Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
8
School of Science, Centre for Marine Ecosystems
Research, Edith Cowan University, 7 Joondalup
Drive, Joondalup WA 6027, Australia.
Contributing Authors:
SE Bukhosini, iSimangaliso Wetland Park – World
Heritage Site and the iSimangaliso Wetland Park Authority;
Frauke Fleischer-Dogley, Seychelles Islands Foundation;
Stephanie Martin, Government of Tristan da Cunha; Anette
Bäck, Parks and Wildlife Finland; Myriam Marcon, World
Heritage Unit Coordinator – Conservatoire d’espaces
naturels; Alexandr Gruzdev, Wrangel Island Nature
Reserve; Kirsten L Rodgers, Department of Conservation,
New Zealand; Daníel Freyr Jónsson, The Environment
Agency of Iceland; Franziska Eller, Aarhus University,
Department of Biology, Aarhus, Denmark; Peter Mueller,
Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability,
Universität Hamburg, Allende-Platz 2, 20146 Hamburg,
Germany and Smithsonian Environmental Research Center,
647 Contees Wharf Rd, MD 21037, United States; Kelly
Elschot, Wageningen University and Research; Common
Wadden Sea Secretariat; Vivian Belisle-Ramnarace/
Belize Fisheries Department; Comision Nacional de
Áreas Naturales Protegidas - SEMARNAT, Reserva de
la Biosfera Sian Ka’an; Luke Skinner – Department
of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions.
Coordinating Authors:
Fanny Douvere, Robbert Casier, UNESCO World Heritage
Centre, Natural Heritage Unit, Marine Programme
Review
Elisabetta Bonotto, Ocean Science Section, IOC-UNESCO
Kirsten Isensee, Ocean Science Section, IOC-UNESCO
Acknowledgements
CMD acknowledges financial support from King Abdullah
University of Science and Technology under the Circular
Carbon Economy initiative. DKJ acknowledges financial
support from EU (FutureMARES, contract #869300). TBA
acknowledges support from an Early Career Research
Fellowship from the Gulf Research Program of the
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and
Medicine. OS acknowledges financial support from Edith
Cowan University. We thank J.P. Draper for assistance
with the mangrove spatial data set. The contents in
this document are solely the opinions of the authors
and do not constitute a statement of policy, decision
or position on behalf of the Gulf Research Program
of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,
and Medicine or of the institutions of other authors.

Marine World Heritage comprises
at least 21% of the global area of
blue carbon ecosystems and 15% of
global blue carbon assets - carbon
stores that are equivalent to about
10% of global greenhouse gas
emissions in 2018.
Moindou, Lagoons of New
Caledonia: Reef Diversity and
Associated Ecosystems (France).
© Martial Dosdane
Executive
Summary
Over the last decades scientists have discovered
that seagrass meadows, tidal marshes, and
mangroves – “blue carbon” ecosystems – are
among the most intensive carbon sinks in the
biosphere. By sequestering and storing significant
amounts of carbon from the atmosphere and ocean,
blue carbon ecosystems help mitigate climate
change. But conversion and degradation of these
ecosystems can also release billions of tons of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases into the ocean and
atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
UNESCO’s World Heritage List includes the world’s
most iconic marine protected areas, recognized by
the international community for their outstanding
biodiversity, beauty, geology and natural habitats.
This report is a first assessment of blue carbon
assets across the UNESCO marine World Heritage
sites, revealing their outsized role as custodians of
globally relevant blue carbon resources, including
the largest areas of seagrass and mangroves in the
ocean. Despite representing less than 1% of the global
ocean area, marine World Heritage sites and their
immediate surrounding areas for which data was
available comprise at least 21% of the global area of
blue carbon ecosystems and 15% of global blue carbon
assets. These carbon stores are equivalent to about
10% of global greenhouse gas emissions in 2018.
Investing in the conservation and restoration of
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites offers significant
opportunities to mitigate climate change, meet the
goals of the Paris Agreement under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change by including
these assets in Nationally Determined Contributions,
and finance conservation, at least in part, through the
resulting carbon credits. The United Nations Decade of
Ocean Science for Sustainable Development and United
Nations Decade of Ecosystem Restoration offer a
unique opportunity to promote the restoration of these
crucial habitats and accelerate reaching the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals by 2030.
3
 Marine World Heritage
sites contain some of
the world’s largest intact
mangroves, the world’s
largest tidal flats, and
major seagrass beds,
including seagrass
meadows that are the
oldest and largest living
organism on the planet
Sian Ka’an (Mexico). © Inspired By Maps/Shutterstock.com*

1. UNESCO Marine World Heritage

Since its creation in 1972, the World Heritage Convention has
been an exemplar for sustainable protection of the globe’s
most treasured places. The UNESCO World Heritage List
(“the List”) currently includes 1,121 globally outstanding
places – cultural and natural – in 167 countries.1 The
sites reflect our common heritage of humankind and are
a legacy to pass on to future generations. In its day-to-
day-work, World Heritage unites 194 nations behind the
shared responsibility to preserve the world’s outstanding
places for the benefit of present and future generations.
Since the listing of Everglades National Park (USA) in 1979
and the Great Barrier Reef (Australia) in 1981, marine sites
on the List have grown into a global network of 50 unique
ocean places across 37 nations.2 Sites are recognized as
World Heritage if they demonstrate Outstanding Universal
Value (OUV) – and for marine sites, this means possessing
exceptional marine biodiversity, singular ecosystems,
unique geological processes or incomparable beauty.
Out of the 50 marine sites on the UNESCO World Heritage
List, 21 were specifically recognized for their blue carbon
ecosystems.3 Mangrove ecosystems were among the first
marine habitats to be recognized for their outstanding
value. Everglades National Park (USA) was listed in part
for containing one of the world’s largest unbroken area of
mangroves, followed by Sundarbans National Park (India) and
The Sundarbans (Bangladesh) in 1987 and 1997 respectively,
and Sian Ka’an (Mexico) for its extensive mangroves. World
Heritage recognition for major seagrass beds followed with the
addition to the List of Banc d’Arguin National Park (Mauritania)
in 1989 and Shark Bay, Western Australia (Australia) in
1991. In 1999, Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Spain), whose
meadows of the unique Posidonia oceanica are the oldest and
largest living organism on the planet, was listed. The Wadden
Sea (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands) was included
in 2009 and extended in 2014, adding some of the world’s
largest tidal flats, including seagrass and tidal marshes.
Collectively, these ecosystems encompass a marine
area of 207 million ha, representing 10% of all protected
marine area globally as of January 2021.4 Yet they
represent a disproportionately large conservation
value. And this value often has a spillover effect
extending well beyond site boundaries. For instance:
$ Increased awareness of the conservation value of the Ibiza
(Spain) site’s seagrass meadows – a key reason for listing
– led to legislation in 2018 specifying the conservation of
seagrass across the entire Balearic Islands.
$ Listing of Sundarbans National Park (India) introduced
management and conservation tools that have helped
stabilize the wider region’s mangroves.5
Despite its great value, this unique collection of marine
World Heritage sites faces a wide range of conservation
challenges, from local pressures to global impacts
such as marine plastic litter and climate change.6, 7

1 http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/, as of January 2021

2 A full list of the 50 marine sites, as of January 2021 is available in Figure 4.
3 Based on analysis of the Statements of OUV.
4 2,051,176,500 ha, https://mpatlas.org accessed 4 January, 2021
5 Ghosh et al., 2015; Sievers et al. 2020
6 The Information System on the UNESCO World Heritage Centre’s website offers a repertoire of science-based assessment and decision-making on the state of conservation of World
Heritage properties and the threats they face. Thousands of reports and decisions adopted by the World Heritage Committee are accessible, as part of one of the most comprehensive
monitoring systems of any international convention. For marine sites: http://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/?action=list&themes=7
7 https://worldheritageoutlook.iucn.org/results

4

2. An Introduction to Blue Carbon Ecosystems
“Blue carbon” is organic carbon – mainly from decaying plant
leaves, wood, roots and animals – that is captured and stored
by ocean and coastal ecosystems.8 Blue carbon ecosystems
include seagrass meadows,9 tidal marshes and mangroves.
Forming a narrow strip that fringes the world’s coastlines,
blue carbon ecosystems are highly productive, playing
important ecological roles in nutrient and carbon cycling,
as nurseries and habitat for a broad range of marine and
terrestrial species, in shoreline protection and in sustaining
the livelihoods and well-being of local communities.
Despite their critical ecological role, blue carbon ecosystems
have received far less attention than more charismatic
ecosystems such as coral reefs, with which they are often
associated, and are underrepresented in marine protected
areas.10 As a consequence, and given their proximity to
the land-ocean boundary, they have suffered extensive
losses. About half the historical extent of vegetated soft-
sediment habitats has been lost, partly from conversion
to other uses, which directly affects mangroves and tidal
marshes and indirectly affects seagrass meadows through
deteriorated water quality. Other pressures including
eutrophication, overfishing and climate change have also
led to major losses of seagrass meadows worldwide.
While blue carbon ecosystems are among the most
threatened habitats in the world, they play a critical role
in climate mitigation and adaptation. Research in the
1990s revealed the important role that coastal vegetated
habitats, also known as blue carbon ecosystems, play
in global carbon sequestration, by transforming carbon
dioxide into biomass through photosynthesis and by
accumulating vast stocks of carbon in their sediments.11
8 http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/ioc-oceans/sections-and-programmes/ocean-sciences/ocean-carbon/coastal-blue-carbon/
9 Extending from the coast to 50 m in depth
10 Duarte et al. 2009; Zhao et al. 2020.
11 Donato et al. 2011; Duarte et al. 2005; Fourqurean et al. 2012; Mcleod et al. 2011; Duarte et al. 2013; Pendleton et al. 2012
12 https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/7772
Seagrass meadows, tidal marshes,
and mangroves – “blue carbon”
ecosystems – are among the
most intensive carbon sinks in the
biosphere.
Sundarbans (India). © niladrilovesphotography / Shutterstock.com*
Organic carbon in sediment comes from detritus released
by plants and detritus produced elsewhere, which is
trapped and locked in the soils where the plants grow.
Because they store so much carbon, blue carbon
ecosystems become sources of CO2 emissions when they
are degraded or destroyed. Protection and restoration of
these ecosystems presents a unique opportunity to mitigate
climate change. By conserving blue carbon ecosystems,
the large carbon stocks that have accumulated over
millennia can be protected. As they are restored, they
can regain their function as carbon sinks. Both strategies
were formulated in the United Nations report “Blue Carbon.
The role of healthy oceans in binding carbon12,” in which
the term “blue carbon” was defined and first used.
Well before their ecological importance was reported
and blue carbon strategies were first proposed, UNESCO
marine World Heritage sites protected these blue carbon
ecosystems and their associated biodiversity. These include:
$ The Sundarbans mangroves (India; 1987 and Bangladesh;
1997), remarkable for their population of resident Royal
Bengal Tigers and for protecting part of the largest
unbroken mangrove areas in the world;
$ The world’s largest documented seagrass meadows,
including the extensive meadows in Everglades National
Park (USA; 1979) and in Shark Bay, Western Australia
(Australia; 1991);
$ The vast shallow- and deep-water seagrass meadows
in the Great Barrier Reef (Australia; 1981) - the largest
seagrass ecosystem in the world, discovered after its
inclusion on the List.
5
 3. Blue Carbon Ecosystems and Global Carbon Assets
in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites13

This first assessment of the extent of seagrass meadows, World Heritage site boundaries, which are substantial in some
tidal marshes and mangroves and their associated carbon cases (e.g., mangrove areas in the Sundarbans). Immediately
assets in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites was based on adjacent ecosystems were included in the assessment for
information reported in scientific, peer-reviewed literature and reasons of integrity and ecosystem functioning and because
information provided by local teams at marine World Heritage of the observed spillover effect of conservation efforts next
sites. These estimates were then coupled with reported to declared World Heritage sites. The data used in this
estimates of carbon stocks in the soils of the World Heritage report is likely to underestimate the total blue carbon
sites or, where these were not available, from reports of carbon assets within the UNESCO marine World Heritage sites,
stocks of other examples of these ecosystems in the same as the extent of some blue carbon ecosystems remains
country or bioregion. The assessment includes the contiguous largely unknown even where their existence is confirmed.
ecosystems in the immediate vicinity of the respective marine

3.1 SEAGRASS MEADOWS

3.1.1 Areal Extent of Seagrass in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites

Areal extent of all seagrass

within UNESCO marine World Heritage sites* 7,733,850 ha
% of documented global
seagrass area (26,656,200 ha)14 29%
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites
where seagrass has been documented 40 of 50 total sites
Largest seagrass areas → Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 4,570,000 ha
(Fig. 1) → Everglades National Park (USA): 1,800,000 ha
→ Banc d’Arguin National Park (Mauritania): 781,000 ha
* Including meadows extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.
Figure 1. Ranked abundance of seagrass area in hectares (ha) and total organic carbon in megagrams (Mg C)15 stored in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites
(2020) using a logarithmic scale. For the 19 sites where seagrass is present but whose extent is unknown, the total C stock was calculated for a conservative area
of 1 ha using C stock data for that country or region. For a list of full marine site names and respective countries see Figure 4.
1 000 000 000

● Seagrass areal extent (ha) ● Seagrass carbon assets (Mg)

1 000 000

1 000

1
Shark Bay, Western Australia
Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino
Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture
Lagoons of New Caledonia …
Ningaloo Coast
Wadden Sea
Sian Ka’an
Aldabra Atoll

Sanganeb Marine National Park …

Gulf of Porto …
Rock Islands Southern Lagoon

West Norwegian Fjords …

The Sundarbans
Ha Long Bay
Puerto-Princesa Subterranean …
Brazilian Atlantic Islands …
Archipiélago de Revillagigedo
Area de Conservación Guanacaste
Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System

East Rennell
French Austral Lands and Seas
Galápagos Islands
Heard and McDonald Islands
Islands and Protected Areas of the …
Kluane/Wrangell-St Elias/Glacier …
Lord Howe Island Group
Papahānaumokuākea
Peninsula Valdès
Shiretoko
Socotra Archipelago

Surtsey
Everglades National Park
Banc d’Arguin National Park

Komodo National Park

iSimangaliso Wetland Park

Sundarbans National Park

Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park

Ujung Kulon National Park
Great Barrier Reef

Coiba National Park and its Special …

13 Sources of data, assumptions and calculations, references and other materials are available as only appendices at: http://whc.unesco.org/document/185856.
14 McKenzie et al. 2020.
15 1 Megagram = 106 grams = 1 million grams = 1000 kilograms = 1 ton.
6
 Seagrass close-up in Shark Bay, Western Australia (Australia).
© Western Australian Government – Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (DBCA)
Marine World Heritage sites contain at least 29% of
the world’s documented seagrass area. However, vast
global seagrass areas are as yet undocumented. Hence,
the 7,733,850 ha of confirmed seagrass in marine World
Heritage sites when mapped adequately will likely be a
significant fraction of the 164,678,800 ha of the global
seafloor that may potentially support seagrass.16
One quarter of the 40 marine World Heritage sites with
documented seagrass area have coverage exceeding 10,000
ha. Sites without seagrasses are typically too low in salinity to
3.1.2 Seagrass Carbon Assets in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites
Total organic carbon stored in seagrass at
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites*
% of global seagrass carbon stores
(3,724 million Mg of C)***
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites where
seagrass carbon stocks are unknown
Largest seagrass carbon stocks (% total seagrass
carbon stocks within all marine World Heritage sites)
(Fig. 1)
* Including meadows extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.
** Contained in top meter of soil under meadows.
*** Calculated from median soil C storage in top meter of soil under meadows Fourqurean et al. 2012 of 139.7 Mg C ha-1 and global seagrass extent in McKenzie et al. 2020.
With the world’s largest seagrass meadows, marine World
Heritage sites are also custodians of the world’s largest
seagrass carbon stocks. Marine World Heritage sites
hold 25% of the world’s documented seagrass carbon
assets. Five sites contain 97% of seagrass carbon stocks
in all marine sites. The seagrass meadows surrounding
the coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef alone host an
estimated 11% of the world’s seagrass blue carbon.
The estimate that seagrass soils in marine sites hold 25% of
the global seagrass carbon stores is probably understated,
for two reasons. First, the global median value of soil C
stocks in seagrass meadows (140 Mg C ha-1) and thereby
16 Jayathilake et al. 2018.
support them (e.g., High Coast/Kvarken Archipelago (Finland
and Sweden)), are outside the latitudinal distribution range
for seagrasses (e.g., New Zealand Sub-Antarctic Islands
(New Zealand)), or are on other offshore, exposed islands
(e.g., Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary (Colombia), Gough
and Inaccessible Islands (UK)) with rocky shores unsuited
to seagrass meadows. This assessment may be further
underestimated by a lack of accurate information in sites
with seagrass, which were assigned a coverage of 1 ha,
but could support a much larger extent in some cases.
919 million megagrams (Mg) C**
(equivalent to 3,373 million Mg CO2)
25%
19 of 50 total sites
→ Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 404 million Mg C (44%)
→ Everglades National Park (USA): 295 million Mg C (32%)
→ Banc d’Arguin National Park (Mauritania): 109 million Mg C (12%)
→ Shark Bay, Western Australia (Australia): 44 million Mg C (5%)
→ Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture (Spain): 41 million Mg C (5%)
the global seagrass carbon stores (3,724 million Mg of C)
estimated here are largely biased by data from Posidonia
oceanica meadows in the Mediterranean Sea, which form
peat-like organic soil deposits not common in other seagrass
meadows. For example, Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture
(Spain) holds six times more soil carbon stocks per unit area
than the mean across all marine World Heritage sites.
Second, for 19 of the 50 marine sites where seagrass is
present but its extent unknown, carbon stocks cannot
be correctly estimated, highlighting the need for further
research on seagrass areal extent and carbon storage
within and beyond marine World Heritage sites.
7
 Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands). © Franziska Eller, Aarhus University, Department of Biology, Aarhus, Denmark

3.2 TIDAL MARSHES

3.2.1 Areal Extent of Tidal Marshes in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites

Areal extent of all tidal marshes within

UNESCO marine World Heritage sites* 411,682 ha
% of documented global tidal marsh area (5,495,100 ha) 7.5%

UNESCO marine World Heritage sites with tidal marshes 21 of 50 total sites
Largest tidal marsh areas → Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 186,700 ha
(Fig. 2) → Sian Ka’an (Mexico): 112,640 ha
→ Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands): 40,000 ha
* Including tidal marshes extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.

Figure 2. Ranked abundance of tidal marsh area in hectares (ha) and total organic carbon in megagrams (Mg C) in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites (2020)
using a logarithmic scale. For the seven sites where tidal marshes are present but whose extent is unknown, the total C stock was calculated for a conservative
area of 1 ha using C stock data for that country or region. For a list of full marine site names and respective countries see Figure 4.

1 000 000 000

● Tidal marsh areal extent (ha) ● Tidal marsh carbon assets (Mg)

1 000 000

10 000

100

1
Great Barrier Reef

Sian Ka’an

Wadden Sea

Islands and Protected Areas of the …

Banc d’Arguin National Park

Shark Bay, Western Australia

Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino

iSimangaliso Wetland Park

Everglades National Park

Peninsula Valdès

Sanganeb Marine National Park …

Komodo National Park

Socotra Archipelago

Ningaloo Coast

Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System

Galápagos Islands

Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture

Lagoons of New Caledonia …

Sundarbans National Park

The Sundarbans

West Norwegian Fjords …

8
Marine World Heritage sites contain 7.5% of the world’s
tidal marshes. Tidal marshes are present across many
marine sites, but their extent has not been fully assessed.
Areal extent was available for 14 of the 21 sites where tidal
marsh was noted. For the seven other sites, tidal marshes are
known to be present but area estimates were unavailable.
Tidal marsh has been reported by local managers or
in the scientific literature at Banc d’Arguin National
Park (Mauritania), Komodo National Park (Indonesia),
Sanganeb Marine National Park and Dungonab Bay –
Mukkawar Island Marine National Park (Sudan) and
Socotra Archipelago (Yemen) but is not currently recorded
in the global distribution map for this ecosystem.17
Sites lacking tidal marsh are located in island sites or
areas characterized by rocky shores or coral atolls.
The tidal marshes of the top three marine sites in Australia
(Great Barrier Reef) and Mexico (Sian Ka’an) and the
transnational site in Germany, Denmark and the Netherlands
(Wadden Sea) represent 13%, 42% and 58%, respectively, of
those countries’ (or combined countries’) overall tidal marsh
extent. Although iSimangaliso Wetland Park (South Africa) is
just 0.33% of the marine World Heritage sites’ total tidal marsh
area, it represents 22% of its host country’s tidal marsh area.

3.2.2 Tidal Marsh Carbon Assets in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites

Total tidal marsh carbon stored in UNESCO 64 million Mg C**

marine World Heritage sites* (equivalent to 235 million Mg CO2)

% of global tidal marsh carbon stores

(estimated 889 million Mg C)
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites where
tidal marsh carbon stocks are unknown
Largest tidal marsh carbon stocks, Mg C
(% total tidal marsh carbon stocks within
all marine World Heritage sites)
(Fig. 2)
* Including tidal marshes extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.
** Contained in upper 1 meter of soil.
7.2%
7 of 50 total sites
→ Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 29 million Mg C (45%)
→ Sian Ka’an (Mexico): 20 million Mg C (31%)
→ Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, the
Netherlands): 6.7 million Mg C (11%)

Marine World Heritage sites host 7.2% of global tidal marsh

carbon assets. Overall, the percentage of total organic
carbon stored in each marine site was commensurate with
its areal extent. Almost 87% of total tidal marsh carbon
stocks in marine sites were stored in the three sites with
the greatest areal extent (table above and Fig. 2).

Because tidal marsh extent has not yet been adequately

mapped in many of the sites, the estimate that tidal
marshes in marine World Heritage sites store 64 million
Mg C in the upper 1 m of soil, representing 7.2 % of
the global stock, is most likely underestimated.

The average carbon stocks for sites with tidal marsh habitat
was 136 megagrams C per hectare (Mg C ha-1), with the highest
average carbon stocks found in Península Valdés (Argentina;
300 Mg C ha-1).

The tidal marshes of sites in Australia (Great Barrier Reef),

Mexico (Sian Ka’an) and the transnational site in Denmark,
Germany and the Netherlands (Wadden Sea) represent
14%, 54% and 55%, respectively, of those countries’ (or
combined countries’) overall tidal marsh carbon stores.

Although not included in this assessment, it is worthwhile

mentioning that several coastal cultural World Heritage
sites also protect tidal marshes. For example, the buffer
Shorebirds in the Wadden Sea (Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands)
zone of the Mont-Saint-Michel and its Bay (France) © Jort van Gils/Shutterstock.com*
includes almost 50,000 ha of tidal marshes.

17 Mcowen et al. 2017.

9
 Royal Bengal Tiger in the Sundarbans (Bangladesh/India) © Soumyajit Nandy

3.3 MANGROVES

3.3.1 Areal Extent of Mangroves in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites

Areal extent of all mangroves within

UNESCO marine World Heritage sites* 1,536,800 ha
% of documented global mangroves area (13,776,000 ha): 11%

UNESCO marine World Heritage sites with mangroves 28 of 50 total sites

Largest mangrove areas → The Sundarbans (Bangladesh): 601,700 ha
(Fig. 3) → Sundarbans National Park (India): 426,000 ha
→ Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 207,000 ha
→ Everglades National Park (USA): 192,200 ha
*Including mangroves extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.

Figure 3. Ranked abundance of total mangrove area in hectares (ha) and total organic carbon in megagrams (Mg C) in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites
(2020) using a logarithmic scale. For one site (East Rennell) the mangrove extent is unknown and its total C stock was calculated for an estimated 1 ha using
C stock data available for the region. Total C stock includes C stored both in the soil and biomass. For a list of full marine site names and respective countries
see Figure 4.

1 000 000 000

● Mangrove areal extent (ha) ● Mangrove carbon assets (Mg)
100 000 000

10 000 000

1 000 000

100 000

10 000

1 000

100

10

1
The Sundarbans

Sundarbans National Park

Great Barrier Reef

Everglades National Park

Sian Ka’an

Islands and Protected Areas of the …

Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino

Galápagos Islands

Lagoons of New Caledonia …

Ujung Kulon National Park

Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System

Aldabra Atoll

Shark Bay, Western Australia

Komodo National Park

iSimangaliso Wetland Park

Area de Conservación Guanacaste

Socotra Archipelago

Rock Islands Southern Lagoon

Ha Long Bay

Puerto-Princesa Subterranean …

Banc d’Arguin National Park

Ningaloo Coast

Sanganeb Marine National Park …

Archipiélago de Revillagigedo

Brazilian Atlantic Islands …

East Rennell

Lord Howe Island Group

Coiba National Park and its Special …

10
Marine World Heritage sites cover 11% of the world’s
documented mangrove area.18 Six sites comprise 98% of
the mangrove area in marine World Heritage sites, including
the Great Barrier Reef (Australia), Everglades National
Park (USA), The Sundarbans (Bangladesh) and Sundarbans
National Park (India), Sian Ka’an (Mexico), and Islands
and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California (Mexico). The
Sundarbans (Bangladesh), Sundarbans National Park
(India) and their adjoining mangrove areas represent the
largest continuous mangrove area in the world, with a
staggering combined total of over 1,000,000 ha (Fig. 3).
Unlike seagrass and tidal marsh habitats, the extent of
global mangroves has been thoroughly examined at fine
spatial resolutions using remote sensing. While not part of
this assessment, this allows, for example, an estimation
of additional mangrove habitat in non-marine natural
World Heritage sites, 10 of which contain a combined
additional 230,306 ha of mangroves (Appendix 3). The
largest of these is Lorentz National Park (Indonesia), with
189,129 ha of mangroves – the third-largest mangrove
holding of all natural World Heritage sites (excluding
adjoining areas). The addition of mangroves in these
non-marine sites brings total World Heritage holdings
to an estimated 13% of the world’s global mangroves.

3.3.2 Mangrove Carbon Assets in UNESCO Marine World Heritage Sites

Total mangrove carbon stored in UNESCO 386 million Mg C **

marine World Heritage sites* (equivalent to 1,415 million Mg CO2)

% of global mangrove carbon stores

(estimated 4,190 – 5,030 million Mg C) 8% - 9%
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites where
mangrove carbon stocks are unknown 1 of 50 total sites
Largest carbon stocks within marine → The Sundarbans (Bangladesh): 108 million Mg C (28%)
World Heritage sites* → Everglades National Park (USA): 105 million Mg C (27%)
(% total mangrove carbon stocks within → Great Barrier Reef (Australia): 70 million Mg C (18%)
all marine World Heritage sites) → Sundarbans National Park (India): 60 million Mg C (15%)
→ Sian Ka’an (Mexico): 27 million Mg C (7%)
* Including mangroves extending into immediate surrounding areas for which data was available.
** Includes carbon in mangrove biomass and top meter of soil.

Marine World Heritage sites host 9% of global mangrove

carbon assets. Mangroves contain two primary carbon
pools: carbon stored in soils and carbon stored in living
tree biomass. Most of the carbon stored in mangroves
in marine sites and their adjoining areas is in their soils
(~322 million Mg C in the top meter), constituting ~83% of
the total mangrove carbon stock. The remaining 17% (~64
million Mg) of stored carbon is in their tree biomass.
Aldabra Atoll (Seychelles) © Janske van de Crommenacker
Within their designated boundaries, marine sites contribute
floodplains contribute yet another 133 million Mg of carbon
240 million Mg C (Fig. 3). Mangroves adjoining the sites
(Appendix 3), for a grand total of ~519 million Mg C stored in
– specifically, national parks, reserves and sanctuaries in
mangroves in natural World Heritage sites and their adjoining
the Sundarbans mangroves and the El Vizcaino Biosphere
properties (equivalent to 1,903 million Mg of CO2), or about
Reserve (Mexico) – contribute an additional 146 million Mg C
12% of the total organic carbon stored in mangroves globally.
to total organic carbon stores. These large adjacent carbon
stocks highlight the importance of a broader network of Almost all the mangrove carbon stored in marine World
protection for mangroves and their rich carbon stocks. Heritage sites and their adjoining areas is located in just four
critical sites (Fig. 3). Everglades National Park (USA), which
The amount of carbon stored in marine sites and immediate
hosts the second-largest mangrove carbon stocks of all
surrounding areas was slightly lower than expected based on
marine sites, is especially important. The site was inscribed
area (11% of total global area but only 9% of the global carbon
on the UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger in 2010. Its
stored). This difference primarily stems from the relatively
mangroves face several pressures including sea-level rise,
low soil carbon density in the Sundarbans deltaic sediments.
altered hydrologic regimes, adjacent urban and agricultural
In addition to these marine sites, 10 non-marine natural World growth, and oil and gas exploration upstream of the site.19
Heritage sites containing mangroves that grow along tidal

18 This assessment refers to ‘mangroves’ and not ‘mangrove forests’. The term ‘forest’ is defined differently across countries and is based in part on height and crown cover. For example, the
scrub mangroves in Sian Ka’an would not be classified as forest in Mexico, where forests are defined as comprising trees over 4 m tall.
19 World Heritage Committee decisions: https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/76/documents/

11
 3.4 TOTAL BLUE CARBON
ECOSYSTEMS IN UNESCO MARINE 33
WORLD HERITAGE SITES
UNESCO marine World Heritage sites contain a much larger
percentage of the world’s blue carbon ecosystems than their
size would suggest. Despite covering just 0.57% of global 42
24
28
ocean area and only 10% of global marine protected area, the 35 14
5
50 marine sites on UNESCO’s World Heritage List and their 25
immediate surrounding areas for which data was available 47
contain at least 21% of the world’s blue carbon ecosystems. In 26 27
19
some marine sites, blue carbon ecosystems are known to be 29
2
present but remain uncharted and their area unknown. This
is mostly the case for seagrass, which is difficult to identify
from remote sensing. Seagrass habitats constitute 80% of
the blue carbon ecosystems in marine World Heritage sites.

12

Figure 4. Presence/absence and extent of blue carbon ecosystems in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites, 2020
●  (over 100,000 ha)   ●  (1,000-99,999 ha)   ●  (1-999 ha)
  Ecosystems extending beyond marine World Heritage site boundaries included for this assessment    ●  (area unknown)
●  
Tidal marsh

Tidal marsh
Mangrove

Mangrove
Seagrass

Seagrass
Map ID

Map ID

UNESCO marine World Heritage site, country UNESCO marine World Heritage site, country
1 Banc d’Arguin National Park, Mauritania ● ● ● 27 Coiba National Park and its Special ● ●
Zone of Marine Protection, Panama
2 Brazilian Atlantic Islands: Fernando de ● ●
Noronha and Atol das Rocas Reserves, Brazil 28 Everglades National Park, ● ● ●
United States of America
3 Ogasawara Islands, Japan
29 Galápagos Islands, Ecuador ● ● ●
4 Aldabra Atoll, Seychelles ● ●
30 Great Barrier Reef, Australia ● ● ●
5 Archipiélago de Revillagigedo, Mexico ● ●
31 Gulf of Porto: Calanche of Piana, Gulf of ●
6 French Austral Lands and Seas, France ● Girolata, Scandola Reserve, France
7 Gough and Inaccessible Islands, United 32 iSimangaliso Wetland Park, South Africa ● ● ●
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
33 Kluane/Wrangell-St Elias/ ●
8 Ha Long Bay, Viet Nam ● ● Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek,
9 High Coast/Kvarken Archipelago, United States of America / Canada
Finland / Sweden 34 New Zealand Sub-Antarctic
10 Komodo National Park, Indonesia ● ● ● Islands, New Zealand

11 Natural System of Wrangel Island 35 Papahānaumokuākea, United ●

Reserve, Russian Federation States of America

12 Peninsula Valdès, Argentina ● ● 36 Rock Islands Southern Lagoon, Palau ● ●

13 Shark Bay, Western Australia, Australia ● ● ● 37 Sanganeb Marine National Park and ● ● ●
Dungonab Bay – Mukkawar Island
14 Sian Ka’an, Mexico ● ● ● Marine National Park, Sudan
15 The Sundarbans, Bangladesh ● ● ● 38 Socotra Archipelago, Yemen ● ● ●
16 Wadden Sea, Germany / ● ● 39 Ujung Kulon National Park, Indonesia ● ●
Netherlands / Denmark
40 West Norwegian Fjords – Geirangerfjord ● ●
17 Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park, Philippines ● and Nærøyfjord, Norway
18 Lagoons of New Caledonia: Reef Diversity ● ● ● 41 Heard and McDonald Islands, Australia ●
and Associated Ecosystems, France
42 Islands and Protected Areas of ● ● ●
19 Malpelo Fauna and Flora Sanctuary, Colombia the Gulf of California, Mexico
20 Ningaloo Coast, Australia ● ● ● 43 East Rennell, Solomon Islands ● ●
21 Puerto-Princesa Subterranean ● ● 44 Macquarie Island, Australia
River National Park, Philippines
45 Phoenix Islands Protected Area, Kiribati
22 Shiretoko, Japan ●
46 St Kilda, United Kingdom of Great
23 Surtsey, Iceland ● Britain and Northern Ireland
24 Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino, Mexico ● ● ● 47 Area de Conservación Guanacaste, Costa Rica ● ●
25 Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System, Belize ● ● ● 48 Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture, Spain ● ●
26 Cocos Island National Park, Costa Rica 49 Lord Howe Island Group, Australia ● ●
50 Sundarbans National Park, India ● ● ●

12
 23

1
10
100
46

1 000
10 000
100 000
1 000 000
10 000 000
100 000 000
1 000 000 000
48
16
Great Barrier Reef
40

31
Everglades National Park
Banc d’Arguin National Park
9

The Sundarbans
Sundarbans National Park

32
Sian Ka’an
Shark Bay, Western Australia
Ibiza, Biodiversity and Culture 37

4
Whale Sanctuary of El Vizcaino 38
Wadden Sea
Islands and Protected Areas of the …
Lagoons of New Caledonia …

6
Galápagos Islands

41
Ujung Kulon National Park
Ningaloo Coast
Komodo National Park
15 50

Aldabra Atoll
Coiba National Park and its Special …

scale. For a list of full marine site names and respective countries see Figure 4.
39

Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System

8

iSimangaliso Wetland Park

13
20

Gulf of Porto …
21

10
17

Rock Islands Southern Lagoon

Area de Conservación Guanacaste
Peninsula Valdès
36
3

Socotra Archipelago

Heritage Sites to Blue Carbon Assets

Sanganeb Marine National Park …
22

30

Puerto-Princesa Subterranean …
Ha Long Bay
44
43

49

West Norwegian Fjords …

18

Brazilian Atlantic Islands …

carbon assets therefore closely matches their ranking by blue carbon ecosystem area (Appendix 2).
Archipiélago de Revillagigedo
34

East Rennell

carbon ecosystems in each site and in adjoining waters (Fig. 4). A ranking of marine sites by total organic
45
11

Total organic carbon assets in each of the sites (Fig. 5, Appendix 2) is determined largely by the area of blue
Lord Howe Island Group
Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park
Papahānaumokuākea
4. Global Contribution of UNESCO Marine World

Heard and McDonald Islands

Shiretoko
Surtsey
Kluane/Wrangell-St Elias/Glacier…
Figure 5. Ranked carbon assets in megagrams of carbon (Mg C) of blue carbon ecosystems in UNESCO marine World Heritage sites (2020) using a logarithmic

● Carbon assets in blue carbon ecosystems (Mg)

French Austral Lands and Seas

13
 The blue carbon ecosystems hosted in marine World
Heritage sites regularly constitute a significant portion of
the carbon stocks in the country where they are located.
Hence, for many nations with marine World Heritage sites,
including these carbon stocks in Nationally Determined
Contributions (NDCs) and investing in restoration is an
effective strategy to mitigate carbon emissions and is key
to reaching their targets of the 2015 Paris Agreement.
5. Conservation Benefits of UNESCO Marine World
Heritage Sites for Blue Carbon Ecosystems
The conservation benefits of blue carbon ecosystems within
marine World Heritage sites extend well beyond their
carbon stocks and sequestration services. Blue carbon
ecosystems – particularly seagrasses - help improve
water quality by trapping sediments and by taking up and
processing nutrients. They also can improve conditions
for adjacent ecosystems, including coral reefs.
Blue carbon ecosystems are essential for marine and
terrestrial biodiversity. A wide range of terrestrial species
- almost five times more than originally thought - use
mangroves, including the Royal Bengal Tiger. All blue carbon
ecosystems support fisheries as fish nursery grounds
and as food providers, underpinning coastal food webs,
including those in coral reefs. Blue carbon ecosystems
contribute significantly to the livelihoods and cultural
practices and values of local and traditional communities
living within the UNESCO marine World Heritage sites.
6. Funding Conservation through Blue Carbon Markets
Conserving blue carbon ecosystems in marine World
Heritage sites can mitigate climate change and help nations
avoid additional emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse
gases. That conservation may be funded, at least in part,
by emerging opportunities in blue carbon markets.
Accessing these opportunities requires demonstrating
that any carbon benefits derived from conservation
and restoration are directly related to these actions,
and that in their absence the habitat would have
been degraded, leading to carbon emissions.
20 The blue carbon stocks within marine World Heritage sites (5.02 billion tons CO2 equivalents in the top 1 m of soil of tidal marsh, mangrove and seagrass, plus the stock in mangrove
biomass) were compared to: (1) total greenhouse gas emissions in 2018 including those from land-use changes (55.3 billion tons CO2 equivalent) as reported by the UNEP 2019 Emissions
Gap Report (https://wedocs.unep.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.11822/30798/EGR19ESEN.pdf); and (2) total greenhouse gas emissions in 2017 with forest and other land use (52.5 billion tons
CO2 equivalent) as reported by the UNFCCC 2019 Annual Report (https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/unfccc_annual_report_2019.pdf).
14
If these habitats are disturbed, billions of tons of CO2 and other
greenhouse gases such as methane are at risk of being emitted
to the atmosphere. Collectively, carbon stocks in UNESCO marine
World Heritage sites and their immediate surrounding areas for
which data was available (5.02 billion tons CO2) would result in
a one-off increase of annual greenhouse gas emissions from
land-use changes by about 10% if they were completely destroyed
and their carbon stocks were released into the atmosphere.20
Blue carbon ecosystems also play a significant global role in
protecting coasts and climate change adaptation and help
reduce coastal wave energy, reducing the impacts of storms
and other extreme events. Blue carbon ecosystems raise
the seafloor by trapping sediment and other particles with
their extensive and productive root systems. Accumulation of
sediment over time may enable these habitats to keep pace
with sea level rise while storing vast quantities of carbon. Over
long periods, these accretions of sediment have also provided
high-resolution records of past environmental conditions.
Blue carbon ecosystems within marine sites are also
important reservoirs of genetic diversity for rehabilitating
adjacent sites degraded by human activities or extreme
events. For example, the seagrasses of the Wadden Sea
(Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands) are providing vital
genetic resources for the recovery of seagrasses in adjacent
waters, where they have been lost due to poor water quality.
Investing in the conservation and
restoration of UNESCO marine World
Heritage sites offers significant
opportunities to mitigate climate change
and meet the goals of the Paris Agreement.
Conservation or restoration activities to generate
carbon credits may also be possible where conservation
actions for marine sites are not being pursued for lack
of financial resources, if sites were damaged before
World Heritage designation, or if sites have been
damaged by natural events. Wherever blue carbon
ecosystems have suffered losses, it may be possible to
use carbon financing to support their restoration.
The return on investment for marine World Heritage
sites is therefore high. And the investment is relatively
lower-risk. Funding from carbon projects requires that
carbon stocks are permanent, often for 100 years. Because
the World Heritage designation includes a commitment
to conserve in perpetuity, it provides greater confidence
in the permanence of carbon stocks. World Heritage
designation also enjoys a strong commitment of individual
nations and the international community as a whole to
safeguard these unique places for future generations.
Indeed, requests from the World Heritage Committee
already have led to active and planned programs to:21
$ Improve water quality (Great Barrier Reef (Australia); Ibiza,
Biodiversity and Culture (Spain));
$ Manage water and sediment fluxes in deltas (The Sundarbans
(Bangladesh); Sundarbans National Park (India);
$ Restore mangroves (Everglades National Park (USA); The
Sundarbans (Bangladesh); Sundarbans National Park
(India); Belize Barrier Reef Reserve System (Belize));
Islands and Protected Areas of the Gulf of California
(Mexico));
$ Rehabilitate other areas, engaging with indigenous
communities (Shark Bay, Western Australia (Australia)).
7. Additional Research
This assessment provides a first scientific analysis of
blue carbon ecosystems and assets across UNESCO
marine World Heritage sites and their contribution to
climate mitigation. Further work to strengthen this first
assessment and provide a more comprehensive analysis
that informs States Parties, the World Heritage Committee,
conservation groups and the global community as a
whole may involve additional efforts, supported by the
United Nations Decades of Ocean Science for Sustainable
Development and Ecosystem Restoration, including:
$ Systematically assessing and monitoring the extent and
health of blue carbon ecosystems in UNESCO marine
World Heritage sites, allowing for analysis of long-
term trends and roles in climate change mitigation and
adaptation. For shallow seagrass meadows, remote
21 Decisions from the World Heritage Committee: http://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/?action=list&themes=7
22 https://www.thebluecarboninitiative.org/
23 14.2: By 2020, sustainably manage and protect marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, including by strengthening their resilience, and take action for their
restoration in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans; 14.5: By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and
based on the best available scientific information.
To date, however, many countries have not incorporated
blue carbon strategies into their portfolio of climate
change mitigation policies. Together with IUCN and
Conservation International, UNESCO’s Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission has created the Blue Carbon
Initiative with the aim to foster financial incentives, policy
mechanisms, comprehensive methods for assessing blue
carbon stocks and emissions, feasibility studies of blue
carbon accounting, and more scientific research.22
Marine World Heritage sites could also serve as priority
sites for testing and applying blue carbon finance schemes.
Scientists, investors and green financial managers have
particularly important roles in supporting such an effort,
safeguarding these sites for future generations.
Blue carbon ecosystems within UNESCO marine World
Heritage sites not only provide vital ecosystem services
but also are a crucial strategy for nations to deliver on
their commitments under the Paris Agreement and
the SDGs, Targets 14.2 and 14.5 in particular.23
Yet climate change is affecting marine sites at an
unprecedented rate and blue carbon assets are particularly
vulnerable to extremes in weather related to climate change
and eutrophication. If not properly managed or protected,
blue carbon ecosystems can become carbon emitters.
Although marine World Heritage sites are protected and
managed to avoid deterioration, seagrass and mangrove
ecosystems in particular are suffering impacts, including
climate change, that threaten their survival and could trigger
the release of ancient soil carbon stores as atmospheric CO2.
sensing may reveal areal extent (with field confirmation).
For tidal marshes, site specific measurements of organic
carbon stocks are needed;
$ Referencing World Heritage sites under Nationally
Determined Contributions (NDCs)—not only marine sites
but also natural and coastal cultural sites;
$ Supporting the sites’ management authorities with both
financial resources and capacity building in closing the
blue carbon knowledge gap. Such conservation and
restoration actions may offer opportunities for carbon
financing through the United Nations carbon offset
platform (offset.climateneutralnow.org), thereby generating
additional resources for investing in conservation and
restoration of these globally outstanding World Heritage
sites to the benefit of present and future generations.
15
 NIO MUN
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NDIAL •
WORLD H

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•
PATRIM

United Nations World

Educational, Scientific and Heritage
Cultural Organization Convention

Contact
UNESCO
World Heritage Centre
Natural Heritage Unit
Marine Programme
7, Place de Fontenoy
75352 Paris 07 SP
France

For more information:

http://whc.unesco.org/en/marine-programme/

In the framework of the United Nations Decade of

Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030)

United Nations Intergovernmental United Nations Decade

Educational, Scientific and Oceanographic of Ocean Science
Cultural Organization Commission for Sustainable Development

This assessment received the financial support of the French Biodiversity Agency
(Office français de la biodiversité) and the Government of the Principality of Monaco

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