DEPARTMENT OF School of Materials Science & Nanotechnology

Jadavpur University
1.INTRODUCTION 2-8

2. MoS2 BASED 2-D FET AND TRANSISTOR 9-15

3.MOS2 FET AS A FLASH MEMORY 16-17

4. MOS2 FET AS AN OPTOELECTRONICS DEVICES 17-18

5.MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MOS2 FET 18-20

6.SCALABLE SYNTHESIS TECHNIQUE FOR 20-21

MOS2 FET

7.MOS2 TRANSISTOR TECHNIQUE AND CIRCUIT 21-23

APPLICATION

8.WS2 BASED 2-D FET 24-27

9.MOS2 TRANSISTOR OPERATING AT GIGAHERTZ 28-29

FREQUENCY

10.HIGH PERFORMANCE PHOTOCURRENT 30

GENERATION FROM 2-S WS2 FET

11.CONCLUSION 31-32
 The most important basic building block of modern electronic
circuits is the field-effect transistor (FET), mostly used as a switch in
digital circuits. A typical FET is composed of source and drain regions
that serve as contacts for the thin area connecting them to the channel. It
is covered with a thin dielectric material, the gate dielectric, and capped
with a metal electrode, the top gate. This electrode is used to
electrostatically control the conductivity of the channel by changing the
charge carrier concentration[1]. If the transistor is to be used as a switch,
the conductivity should be changed using the gate electrode from a value
with high resistance, corresponding to the open position of the switch
and called the off state, to a highly conductive on state, corresponding to
the closed position of the switch. An ideal switch should also be able to
instantly switch between the on and off states. A good transistor channel
material should satisfy several criteria. A material with high charge
carrier mobility will allow fast operation and high on state current. Even
though important, the mobility is not the only essential material property
for transistors, as can be seen in the case of grapheme with a high
intrinsic mobility but no bandgap, resulting in transistors that cannot be
turned off. In order to achieve high on/off ratios, a material with a
bandgap is needed, with higher bandgaps resulting in lower off state
currents. This is however limited by the fact that materials with higher
bandgaps show lower conductivity because of smaller chargen carrier
concentration. The mobility and bandgap in general also follow an
empiric relationship with the mobility decreasing as the bandgap is
increased.In order to achieve a sharp switching characteristic
(subthreshold swing), a material that allows a high degree of
electrostatic control is needed.As the size of transistors is decreased, the
subthreshold swing increases, causing an increase in the off state
current[2]. The natural length can be decreased by decreasing the gate
oxide thickness, increasing the gate oxide dielectric constant, and also
modifying the channel material and replacing it with a thinner layer that
also has a lower dielectric constant.Two-dimensional materials that
represent the ultimate limit of miniaturization in the vertical dimension
are therefore very interesting in this context because they would allow a
very high degree of electrostatic control. One such example is transition
metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), with single-layer MoS2 being the
typical representative of semiconducting TMDs.

Now I will overview fundamental properties, preparation techniques,

and potential device applications of single and few-monolayer-thick
molybdenum disulphide MoS2 belonging to a new emerging class of
materials: 2-dimensional semiconductors. To a large extent, the interest
in the 2-D materials is fueled by the quest for alternatives to graphene,
which is hardly suitable for electronic devices because of the lack of a
band gap. A unique combination of physical properties, including
exibility, high electron mobility, and optical transparency combined with
a large band gap tunable from indirect 1.2 eV for bulk to direct 1.9 eV
for a monolayer, make MoS2 attractive for a variety of electronic
and optoelectronic devices. The first device demonstrations are very
encouraging: FET transistors with high current ON/OFF ratios, high-
sensitivity phototransistors, logic circuits, and amplifiers based on
monolayer-MoS2 have been demonstrated[3]. The layered structure of
MoS2 with other transition-metal dichalcogenides (WS2,WSe2 ,MoSe2 ,
etc.) makes it possible to grow ultrathin, so-called van der Waals
heterostructures with very abrupt interfaces and low defect density and
paves the way for fabricating multilayered materials for novel electronic
and optical devices.However, further progress towards potential
commercialization of monolayer-MoS2 -based devices requires serious
e_orts in the development of scalable fabrication techniques capable of
producing large-area electronic-quality material.
MoS2 belongs to the group of TMDs with the common formula
MX2 wherein M represents a transition metal(M = Mo, W, Nb, Ta, Ti,
Re,etc.) and X represents a chalcogen (X = Se, S or Te). The metal and
chalcogen atoms have the oxidation states of +4 and 2, respectively. The
crystal structure of bulk MoS2 is formed by vertically stacked 2D layers
with strong covalent bonding between atoms within a given layer and
very weak van der Waals bonding between the adjacent layers.
Along with the other group-VI layered compounds, 2H-MoS2 exhibits
semiconducting behavior. Measured fundamental indirect band gap of
bulk MoS2 is 1.22 to 1.23 eV, while the direct band gap ranges from
1.74 to 1.77 eV.
The interest in 2-dimensional (2D) semiconductors is to a large extent
fuelled by the highly successful miniaturization of Si-based electronic
devices for higher packing density, faster circuit speed, and lower power
dissipation. However, this long miniaturization drive extending existing
material systems is approaching the physical limit for their operation.
The new awareness of graphene with its unique properties has aroused
considerable interest in 2D semiconductors and their potential use in
electronics and mechanical systems. Unfortunately, graphene appears to
be hardly suitable for device applications because of the lack of band
gap and, consequently, inability to switch off field-effect transistors
(FETs) based on this material. Therefore, other 2D materials,
particularly the monolayer varieties, are emerging as a new class of
materials with a wide range of electrical properties and potential
practical applications. Among them are insulating BN and
semiconducting MoS2 and WSe2 which are gaining increasing attention
as promising channel materials and gate insulators for
FETs.Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) and related materials, such as
tungsten disulphide, as well as Mo and W diselenides, are important
members of the layered transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) and
have attracted a good deal of attention recently because, as alluded to
above, of their useful electronic and mechanical properties.These
materials have band gaps in the visible or near-infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum and reportedly have potential applications as
building blocks in even solar cells. Furthermore, the layered crystal
structure of these materials allows tuning of their electronic properties
by either doping between weakly bonded layers or fabricating thin
nanostructured materials.
Among TMDs, 2D MoS2 has a great promise for device applications.
Excellent gate control, saturation, scalability, high current capability,
and very low noise are among the expected salient features. Single-layer
MoS2 is a semiconductor with wide direct band gap, exhibits good
electrical and transport properties, and is chemically and thermally
stable, transparent, exible, and relatively inexpensive, which all together
make this material an excellent candidate for a variety of electronic and
optoelectronic applications. The electronic structure of the MoS2 single
layers di_ers drastically from that of the bulk material. Bulk MoS2 has
an indirect band gap of 1.2 eV , a conduction band minimum (CBM) and
a valence band maximum (VBM).On the other hand, MoS2 in the
single-layer form exhibits a direct band gap of 1.8-1.9 eV with CBM and
VBM at the point as a result of quantum confinement and change in the
symmetry. The band gap of MoS2 can be tuned from 1.2 eV (bulk and
indirect) up to 1.9 eV (monolayer and direct) by varying the number of
monolayers, alloying or forming heterojunctions such as MoS2/WS2.
Because the monolayer MoS2 has a sizeable band gap, MoS2 –based
FETs can be turned off. These transistors demonstrate a current ON/OFF
ratio of ~1ˣ10^8 , low subthreshold swing (74 mV dec¯¹) , and
negligible OFF current (25 fA _μmˉ¹).Logic circuits and amplifiers
based on monolayer MoS2 have also been demonstrated, as well as good
output current saturation and high currents.
Two-dimensional (2D) layered materials, such as graphene,
boron nitride (BN) and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), have
attracted tremendous interest in extensive research fields due to their
general excellent electronic, optical and mechanical properties. It is
widely accepted that 2D materials will play an important role in the
applications of next-generation nanoelectronics optoelectronics
emerging (flexible, organic, printed and stretchable) electronics energy
conversion and storage sensing and medicine and biology. As for the
application in the upcoming high-end nanoelectronics, 2D materials
possess unique electronic performance as compared with their bulk form
(three-dimensional-3D materials) and easy manipulation for complex
structures as compared with the one-dimensional(1D) materials.At
present, the majority of 2D semiconducting crystals lie in the family of
Transition metal dichalcogenides(TMDC)[4] with the formula MX2,
where M is a transition metal element from Group IV (e.g., Ti, Zr or Hf),
Group V (e.g., V, Nb or Ta) or Group VI (e.g., Mo or W), and X is a
chalcogen (S, Se or Te). With a simple monolayer (sub-nm thick) MoS2
has been fabricated and used to demonstrate high-performance field-
effect transistors (FETs) with room-temperature mobility ~200 cm2/Vs
and a current on/off ratio >10^6 , verifying the promise of 2D materials
for nanoelectronics. However, in order to realize the transfer from lab-
scale fabrication to industrial-scale manufacturing for future electronics,
scalable synthesis techniques of 2D semiconducting crystals are
indispensable.Now I will discussed more about MoS2 based 2-D FET
and transistor. Twodimensional (2D) crystal semiconductors, such as the
wellknown molybdenum disulfide (MoS ),are witnessing an explosion in
research activities due to their apparent potential for various electronic
and optoelectronic applications. In this paper, dissipative quantum
transport simulations using nonequilibrium Green's function formalism
are performed to rigorously evaluate the scalability and performance of
monolayer/multilayer 2D semiconductorbased FETs for sub10 nm gate
length very largescale integration (VLSI) technologies. Device design
considerations in terms of the choice of prospective 2D
material/structure/technology to fulfill sub10 nm International
Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) requirements are
analyzed. First, it is found that MoS FETs can meet highperformance
(HP) requirement up to 6.6 nm gate length using bilayer MoS as the
channel material, while lowstandbypower(LSTP) requirements present
significant challenges for all sub10nm gate lengths. Second, by studying
the effects of underlap (UL) structures, scattering strength, and carrier
effective mass, it is found that the high mobility and suitably low
effective mass of tungsten diselenide (WSe ), aided by the UL, enable
2D FETs for both HP and LSTP applications at the smallest foreseeable
(5.9 nm) gate length.Finally, possible solutions for sub5 nm gatelengths,
specifically anisotropic 2D semiconductor materials for HP and sub kT/q
switch (2D tunnel FET) for LSTP, are also proposed based on the effects
of critical material parameters on the device performance.
We will discuss on
the first mono,bi,and trilayer(1L, 2L, and 3L) molybdenum disulfide
(MoS2)nano-electro-mechanical resonators with allelectrical excitation
and detection. These atomicallythin MoS2 membranes, suspended on
circular microtrenches, make vibratingchannel transistors (VCTs).The
devices are measured using downmixing techniques with frequency
modulation (FM) and/or amplitude modulation (AM), showing
resonance frequency(f ) in the very high frequency (VHF) band, up to
88MHz (for a 1L MoS2 VCT), higher than all other MoS2
nanomechanical resonators measured by optical interferometry reported
to date, and quality (Q) factor up to ~127 (for a 2L device).
DCperformance of these fieldeffect transistors (FETs) is also measured
to provide guidance for the electrical readout of resonances. As a first
demonstration of applications of these MoS2 VCTs, we use 2L and 3L
devices for resonant detection of photons at different wavelengths.
When further integrated with MoS2 FETs and optoelectronic devices,
these VCTs can not only facilitate development of novel nanoscale
sensors and actuators, but may also create a unique platform for enabling
new types of atomicallythin, transparent devices with multiple
functionalities, such as ultralowpower resonant signal processing and
sensing, all based on 2D-Semiconductors.
Conventional and emerging field effect transistor (FET) technologies are
approaching its fundamental physical and material limits imposed by the
thermionic constraints or “Boltzmann tyranny” that is dependent on the
thermal potential. There has been a surge of interest to introduce new
devices, and replace silicon by emerging twodimensional (2D)
nanomaterials that can push the scaling and performance limits beyond
the capabilities of MOSFET and silicon technologies. Here, we
introduce the concept of a quantum mechanical bandtoband tunneling
(BTBT) mechanism based devices with multilayer molybdenum
disulfide (MoS ) as the channel material. BTBT mechanism has been
investigated as a promising current injection mechanism in
semiconductor device that can potentially overcome the adverse impacts
of the short channel effects and the thermionic limits in MOSFETs.MoS
is being considered as the new supermaterialfor the postsilicon era. This
paper also presents the analytical model of the tunneling current in the
proposed device.Singlelayer 2D semiconducting nanomaterials of MoS ,
WS , TiS , TaS , ZrS , and graphene were fabricated through an
electrochemical lithiation process (see picture). The production of
singlelayerMoS was achieved in 92 % yield. A singlelayerMoS
basedthinfilmtransistor was fabricated, which was used for sensing NO
at a detection limit of 190 ppt.
Recent studies on the transistor characteristics of MoS2 FETs reveal that
the MoS2 transistors are essentially Schottky barrier transistors whose
switching is controlled by the tuning of the Schottky barrier at the
contacts. The model of Schottky barrier transistor also holds true in
other TMD materials such as MoSe2,WS2.For Schottky barrier
transistors, the intrinsic properties of the TMDs channel are masked by
the Schottky contacts and no merits are gained from aggressive scaling.

In order to deal with the Schottky contact issue in

TMDs, intensive research efforts have been made in recent years. A lot
of attention has been paid to various contact metals including Sc,In,Mo.
Unfortunately, most of these M-S contacts showed non-negligible
Schottky barriers regardless of the contact metals.Among them, some
studies showed interesting results by engineering the contact metal. For
instance, the Sc-MoS2 contact shows a very low M-S interface
resistance (0.65 kΩ·μm). However, the overall Rc is still considered to
be large (~5 kΩ·μm) due to the semiconductor internal resistance.
MoS2 BASED 2-D FET AND TRANSISTOR

Figure 1. Encapsulated single-layer MoS2 transistor. (a) AFM image of single-layer MoS2.7 (b)
Corresponding height profile. (c) Schematic view of the transistor demonstrated by
Radisavljevic et al.The MoS2 layer is connected by Au leads and encapsulated in 30 nm thick
high-κ dielectric HfO2 acting as top-gate dielectric. (d) Transfer curves acquired at room
temperature. For Vds = 500 mV, the on/off ratio is >108 and the subthreshold swing S = 74
mV/dec. Inset: Cross-sectional view of MoS2 FET. (e) Output curves recorded for different top-
gate voltages Vtg. Panels a, b, d, and e adapted from ref 5 with permission. Copyright 2011
NPG.
The first implementation of a switchable single-layer MoS2 transistor
was demonstrated by Radisavljevic et al. (Figure 1).In this device, 6.5Å
thick (Figure 1b) MoS2 serves as the semiconducting channel. It is
deposited on SiO2 and covered by a 30 nm thick layer of HfO2, which
serves as the top-gate dielectric (Figure 1c). The transfer curves of the
device are shown in Figure 1d. The transistor exhibits a current on/off
ratio exceeding 108 at room temperature (Figure 1d). Besides this very
high on/off ratio, the device exhibits off-state currents smaller than 100
fA (25 fA/μm). The high degree of electrostatic control is also reflected
by the subthreshold slope S = (d(log Ids)/dVtg)−1 [6], which is as low as
74 mV/dec. The pioneering work of Radisavljevic et al. showed that
devices based on 2D semiconductors could reach competitive
performance levels and was an important step toward the realization of
electronics and low stand-by power integrated circuits based on two-
dimensional materials, with the additional potential for applications in
flexible, transparent electronics.
In a subsequent study, Radisavljevic and
Kis studied the intrinsic mobility and conductivity of single-layer MoS2
sandwiched in the dual-gated geometry (Figure 2). These material
properties could not be deduced with the two-terminal geometry of the
initial study8 and require careful investigation with four-terminal and
Hall-effect measurements (inset, Figure 2a).Figure 2a depicts the
observed four-terminal conductivity σ as a function of top-gate potential.
At charge carrier densities n2D below ∼1 × 1013 cm−2, the MoS2
single-layer exhibits decreasing conductance as the temperature is
decreased. For n2D larger than ∼1 × 1013 cm−2, the conductance
increases with decreasing temperature. This is the hallmark of a
metal−insulator transition (MIT).Figure 2b depicts the temperature
dependence of the extracted field-effect mobility for a single layer of
MoS2.In the range of 100 and 300 K, the mobility is phonon-limited
and can be fitted to the power law μ ∝ T−γ, with γ in the range of
0.55−0.78. This result is much smaller than the theoretical prediction for
a single-layer (γ ≈ 1.52, ref 10) or bulk crystals (γ ≈ 2.6, ref 5). The latter
indicates that in addition to the quenching of the homopolar phonon
mode, other mechanisms might influence the mobility of single-layer
MoS2 encapsulated in the dual-gated geometry.

Figure 2. Mobility in single-layer MoS2 encapsulated in HfO2. (a) Conductivity σ and

conductance G of MoS2 as a function of topgate voltage. For low values of Vtg, the conductivity
decreases with temperature. Above Vtg ≈ 1−2 V, single-layer MoS2 enters a metallic
state, with increasing conductivity as the temperature decreases. Inset: Optical image of the
device (scale bar 5 μm). (b) Field-effect mobility μ as a function of temperature. Above ∼100 K,
μ decreases due to phonon scattering. Adapted from ref 7 Copyright 2013 Nature Publishing
Group.
In a later study, Lembke and Kis demonstrated highperformance
single-layer MoS2 transistors (Figure 3) with improved performance due
to full-channel gating (Figure 3b).The resulting transconductance is
shown in Figure 3c with the maximum of 34 μS/μm, while the output
curves are shown in Figure 3d. Above Vds = 1 V, the current carrying
capacity of the MoS2 charge-carrying channel is saturating, making this
the first observation of drain current saturation in single-layer MoS2
FETs, with the drain−source conductance close to zero (gds < 2 μS/μm).

Figure 3. High-performance
single-layer MoS2 transistor.
(a) Optical image of single-layer
MoS2 on SiO2 (scale bar 5 μm).
(b) SEM image of the device12
(scale bar 2 μm).
(c) Transconductance, gm =
dIds/dVtg.
(d) Ids−Vds characteristics. For
Vds > 2 V, the drain current shows
saturation with the drain−source
conductivity, gds = dIds/dVds
close to zero (gds < 2 μS/μm).
Reproduced from ref 8. Copyright
2012
These results show that MoS2 could be interesting not only for
applications in digital electronics13 but also for analogue applications
where it could offer gain >10.Lembke and Kis also studied the
breakdown current density in MoS2, which is close to 5 × 107 A/cm2.
Considering that MoS2 is a semiconductor, its extracted maximum
current density is extremely high and 50 times larger than the limit set
for metals by electromigration. This is due to strong intralayer Mo−S
covalent bonds, which are much stronger than metallic bonds. The study
of Lembke and Kis demonstrates that single-layer MoS2 could be used
in analogue circuit applications where it could provide power gain and
support large current densities. High-frequency operation of MoS2
FETs was also recently demonstrated by Krasnozhon et al.(Figure 4),
who demonstrated current, voltage, and power gains in the gigahertz
range in transistors based on 1−3 layer thick MoS2 with a channel length
of 240 nm.This shows that the mobility of MoS2 is large enough to
allow device operation in the technologically relevant gigahertz
frequency range. These performance figures are currently limited rather
by the contact resistance and relatively large gate lengths, and scaling
is expected to result in further improvements of the operating speed.
Figure 4. RF performance of MoS2 transistors. (a) (b) Voltage gain |Z21/Z11| as a
Small-signal current gain h21 as a function of frequency function of frequency showing gain higher than 1 up to 5
for devices based on single-layer MoS2 with the cutoff GHz.Adapted with permission from ref 16. Copyright
frequency f T = 2 GHz. 2014
MoS2 FET as a FLASH MEMORY:->

Combining the high conductivity of graphene with the

semiconducting properties of single-layer MoS2 represents a unique
Opportunity for creating high-performing devices with advanced
functionalities, such as all-2D memory devices The device architecture,
which resembles that of a floating gate FET, its electrical connections,
and its fabrication procedure are reported in Figure 5a−c. Singlelayer
MoS2 acts as the transistor channel, and grapheme electrodes are used to
inject and collect the charge carriers.A piece of multilayer graphene, ∼4
nm thick, is employed as the charge trapping layer (floating gate) and is
separated from the semiconducting channel by a 6 nm thick HfO2 layer,
serving as the tunnel oxide. The device is completed with the deposition
of the control oxide and the control gate electrode.
For the first time, it was also shown that graphene can be used as a
contact material to single-layer MoS2, resulting in ohmic-like Ids vs Vds
output characteristics at roomtemperature (Figure 5d). This result
suggests the possibility to exploit the tunability of the graphene work
function, e.g. by means of chemical functionalization or electrostatic
doping, to develop efficient contacts and highly conducting graphene
interconnects in advanced electronic circuits.Due to the atomic scale
thickness of single-layer MoS2 and its large bandgap, the transistor
operation was found to be very sensitive to the presence of charges in
the floating gate. The proof-of-concept device by Bertolazzi et al.
showed a program/erase current ratio as high as 10^4 (Figure 5e), which
is considerably higher than what has been reported for memory devices
employing graphene as the active material.The observed large memory
window (>8 V) revealed the possibility for engineering 2D memory cells
with multilevel data storage capability.
Figure 5. Flash memory device based on MoS2/graphene heterostructures.
(a)Three dimensional representation of the MoS2/graphene floating gate
transistor.
(b) Schematic of the device comprising a single-layer MoS2 semiconducting
channel, graphene contacts, and multilayer grapheme floating gate.
(c) Optical micrographs of two floating gate transistors at different stages of the
fabrication process.
(d) Output curves of the floating gate transistor showing room-temperature
ohmic-like behavior for graphene contacts to single-layer MoS2.
(e) Time-dependent behavior of the drain−source current for Program and Erase
states. The magnitude of the Erase current at low bias (Vds = 50 mV) is more than
3 orders of magnitude higher than the Program current, due to the high
electrostatic sensitivity of the 2D channel to the charges trapped in the floating
gate.Reproduced from ref 9.. Copyright 2013 American Chemical Society.
MoS2 fet as an OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
The direct bandgap of single-layer MoS2 makes it suitable for
optoelectronic applications. First single-layer MoS2 phototransistors
exhibited a photoresponsivity of 7.5 mA/W.Multilayer MoS2 devices
show higher photoresponsivity of ∼100 mA/W, comparable to Si-based
photodetectors. However relatively low mobility (0.1 cm2/(V s)) and
high contact resistance in these devices offset the inherent advantage of
using a material with direct bandgap.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES of mos2 fet

Measurements of mechanical properties of MoS2 showed that these
materials also have a strong potential in high-end flexible and
transparent electronics. Bertolazzi et al. reported the first measurements
of the in-plane stiffness and breaking strength of single and bilayer
sheets of MoS2 by means of nanoindentation experiments performed
with the tip of an atomic-force microscope (AFM) on free-standing
MoS2 membranes (Figure 6).Such measurements provide simultaneous
access to different material properties, such as the 2D Young’s modulus
(E2D),the pre-tension (σ0 2D) of the membrane, and its breaking
strength (σmax 2D ), which in the case of defect-free material is directly
related to the intrinsic strength of the interatomic bonds.Free-standing
MoS2 membranes were fabricated on SiO2/Si substrates by transferring
atomically thin sheets of MoS2 over an array of microfabricated circular
holes, as shown in Figure 6a,b. During the indentation experiment, the
AFM tip was pushed against the center of the membrane, and the
cantilever deflection Δzc was monitored, resulting in force F versus
membrane-deflection δ curves such as those shown in Figure 6c.A
semiempirical model was used to describe the curves, which assumes
that the suspended MoS2 sheets behave as a clamped circular
membrane, made of a linear isotropic elastic material.
Fitting the experimental curves with this model allows the extraction of
the 2D membrane pre-tension σ0 2D (in the 0.02-0.2 N/m range) and of
the Young’s modulus E = ((E2D)/t) of the ultrathin MoS2 sheets. The
membranes were further deformed up to the breaking point and the
forces at which the rupture occurred were recorded (black and blue
crosses in Figure 6c). After the occurrence of the breaking event, a hole
was produced in the center of the membrane, at the location where the
AFM tip punctured the MoS2 sheet. Figure 6d,e shows intermittent-
contact AFM topography images of the same free-standing MoS2
membrane before and after performing the stretching and breaking
experiments.It was found that the Young’s modulus of single-layer
MoS2 is ∼270 GPa, higher than that of steel (∼205 GPa). The Young’s
modulus of singe-layer MoS2 was found to be higher than that of bulk
MoS2 (∼240 GPa), most likely due to defects, interlayer sliding, or the
absence of stacking faults in singlelayers.Castellanos-Gomez et al.
performed similar experiments on multilayer MoS2 with thickness
ranging from 5 to 25 layers and obtained a Young’s modulus of 330 ±
70 GPa.Recent quantum-chemical molecular dynamics simulations
performed by Lorenz et al. show excellent agreement with the
experimental observations of Bertolazzi et al. Firstprinciples calculations
by Li also predicted that ultrathin sheets of MoS2 are characterized by a
biaxial elastic modulus of ∼250 GPa.The breaking strength of single-
and bilayer MoS2 was between 6% and 11% of their Young’s modulus,
which represents the upper theoretical limit of a material’s breaking
strength and reflects the intrinsic properties of its interatomic bonds.
This suggests that MoS2 can be suitable for integration with flexible
plastic substrates, such as polyimide, whose maximum strain before
failure is ∼7%.All these results indicate that single-layer MoS2 is at
present the strongest and thinnest semiconducting material ever
measured. Its ultimate thickness, low mass, and semiconducting energy
gap could be exploited for building nanoelectromechanical systems
(NEMS) with new functionalities.One first example was given by
Castellanos-Gomez et al.,who demonstrated mechanical resonators
based on singlelayer MoS2 membranes operating in the tension-
dominated regime with resonance frequencies up to 30 MHz and a
quality factor ∼55.Further research is needed in order to explore the
mechanical properties of other TMDs characterized by different
electronic/optical properties that may be complementary to those of
MoS2.Single-layer MoS2, combined with conducting graphene and
insulating BN, could be employed as semiconducting channel in all-2D
FETs integrated on flexible substrates. Lee et al.recently demonstrated
MoS2 FETs on flexible polymer substrates, which incorporate
heterostructures of graphene and BN and show unaffected electronic
mobility at strain levels of up to 1.5%. These results are a consequence
of the excellent mechanical properties of 2D materials, which stem from
their strong in-plane interatomic bonds.

Figure 6. Nanoindentation of suspended MoS2 sheets.

(a) Optical micrograph (left) of single-layer MoS2 deposited on a SiO2/Si substrate with
holes. AFM image (right) showing the MoS2 flake forming a series of free-standing membranes.
(b) Schematics of the AFM nanoindentation
experiment.
(c) Force F versus membrane-deflection, δ, curves for single- and bilayer MoS2. The breaking
events occur at the points marked with
the black (single-layer) and blue (bilayer) crosses.
(d) AFM image of suspended single-layer MoS2 before the indentation process and
(e) after the occurrence of the breaking event.
Ref 10. Copyright 2011 American Chemical Society.
Scalable Synthesis Techniques for MOS2 FET

►Vapor Phase Deposition:--->

The predominant and most promising scalable synthesis technique for

large-area atomically-thin TMDCs is vapor phase deposition (VPD).

►Solid-Precursor VPD

►Gas-Precursor VPD

►Thermal Decomposition

►Magnetron Sputtering

►Molecular Beam Epitaxy

MoS2 Transistor Technology and Circuit Applications

The work in developing graphene as a two dimensional material

targeting analog electronics application at high frequency. However,
graphene suffers from the fundamental limit of zero-bandgap, low on/off
ratio and the lack of current saturation, which makes graphene
unsuitable for digital logic applications. In developing nano-electronic
systems based on 2D materials, it is also highly desirable to have
transistors suitable for logic operations because most of today’s
electronic systems are digital systems or at least have digital
components. There have been many approaches in developing graphene
for this purpose, such as inducing bandgap in graphene by patterning the
material into very narrow ribbons (~5 nm), which relies on the edge
states and lateral quantum confinement for opening up bandgap, or by
using bi-layer graphene where a strong external electric field can lead to
asymmetry in the bandstructure and the creation of bandgaps. All these
studies have enabled very interesting new physics, but due to the
fabrication challenges, reliability issues, controllability of the process,
sample uniformity and the intrinsic limit of requiring a strong external
field for the case of bi-layer graphene, it will be very challenging for
these approaches to make it to industrial level applications in the near
future. In this chapter, we take a different approach. Instead of trying to
use graphene for logic application, we look for a new 2D material that
can naturally provide the bandgap that is needed for building transistors
suitable for digital electronics. It turns out that many members of the
layered transition metal dichalcogenides (LTMD) family are
semiconductors with the right bandgap, such as MoS2, WS2, MoSe2 and
WSe2. The measured or calculated bandgap from the literature for
single-layer material is shown in red. There is an important difference
between the optically measured direct bandgap in single layer materials
and its real electronic bandgap, primarily due to the existence of large
exciton energy in these materials. However, there are variations in the
calculated exciton energy and electronic bandgap reported in the
literature and the exact values are still yet to be verified through
experiments. Two-dimensional (2D) materials, such as molybdenum
disulfide (MoS2), have been shown to exhibit excellent electrical and
optical properties. The semiconducting nature of MoS2 allows it to
overcome the shortcomings of zero-bandgap graphene, while still
sharing many of graphene’s advantages for electronic and optoelectronic
applications.
Discrete electronic and optoelectronic
components, such as field-effect transistors, sensors and photodetectors
made from few-layer MoS2 show promising performance as potential
substitute of Si in conventional electronics and of organic and
amorphous Si semiconductors in ubiquitous systems and display
applications. In this section of the thesis, we address a few issues that are
critical for the future applications of LTMD 2D materials: from device
technology based on both exfoliated flakes and CVD grown materials to
some circuit-level demonstration of the basic building blocks of both
digital and analog electronics. We benchmark the device and circuits
performance against other materials that have been proposed for large-
area low cost electronics, such as organic semiconductors, ZnO and
large-area carbon nanotube arrays. The fabrication of integrated circuits
on large-area CVD grown samples demonstrate the scalability of the
technology. The characterization of the basic properties, such as
mobility of the material and the contact resistance of the devices, will
also be presented.
Ws2 BASED 2-D FET

WS2 is an indirect gap semiconductor (DWS2 ~1.35 eV) formed by

two-dimensional (2D) covalently bonded S-W-S layers separated by a
van der Waals gap (Fig. 7 (a)) . This semiconductor has been extensively
characterized in the past and bulk crystals have been widely used to
realize unipolar FETs working in accumulation of either electrons (n-
type) or holes (p-type), depending on the crystal doping and on the
preparation technique .However, the potential of WS2 thin flakes is only
now starting to be appreciated. We found that, by coupling thin
exfoliated flakes of WS2 with an ionic liquid dielectric, stable and
hysteresis-free ambipolar transistors with balanced electron and hole
conductivities can be realized. The devices characteristics show very
steep subthreshold slopes for both electrons and holes –corresponding to
threshold voltage swings close to the ultimate room-temperature value of
66 mV/decade– which is indicative of virtually perfect capacitive
coupling between the ionic liquid and the WS2 surface, as well as of the
high quality of the material. The high material quality is also indicated
by the low OFF-state current, which confirm that the density of
unintentional dopants and in-gap states in the WS2 thin flake is
negligible. Thanks to these ideal transistor characteristics, we show that
it is possible to determine with high precision (~10 %) the size of the
band-gap of WS2 directly from the gate-voltage dependence of the
source-drain current. Next to demonstrating ambipolar transistor
operation of unprecedented quality, these results show that a careful use
of ionic liquid-gated transistors provides a powerful tool to investigate
quantitatively the electronic properties of thin exfoliated crystals.Thin
crystalline flakes of WS2 were obtained by mechanical exfoliation of a
bulk single crystal grown by chemical vapor transport and then
transferred on a highly doped Si/SiO2 substrate (see Supplementary
Information for details on the crystal growth). Flakes suitable for
electrical characterization were identified under an optical microscope
and their thickness was measured by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM).
Electrical contacts were fabricated by electron-beam lithography,
followed by metal (Ti/Au) evaporation and lift-off (the surface of WS2
was Arbombarded in situ prior to the metal deposition).

Figure 7. (a) Crystal structure of layered WS2; the purple balls correspond to W atoms, the
yellow balls to S atoms.
(b) Optical microscope image of a six-terminal Hall-bar fabricated on a
crystalline WS2 thin flake (the scale bar is 10 μm long).
(c) Molecular structure of the ionic
liquid employed as electrolyte-gate dielectric. Both cation [P14]+ and anion [FAP]- are
shown.
(d) Cross section of a WS2 ionic liquid-gated FET. A large area gold mesh and an oxidized
Ag/AgO wire are used as gate electrode and quasi-reference electrode, respectively. When
the
gate electrode is biased, two electrical double layers are formed at the gate/electrolyte and
semiconductor/electrolyte interfaces, enabling charge accumulation at the semiconductor
surface.ref [12]

We realized approximately 10 different devices on flakes with lateral

dimensions ~ 10 μm (depending on the lateral dimensions two- or
sixterminal devices were realized; see Fig. 7 (b)), and with thickness
ranging from 20 to 60 nm (in the range investigated the device
characteristics were found to be thickness independent). The ionic liquid
1-butyl-1-methyl pyrrolidinium tris-(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate
[P14]+[FAP]- (Fig. 7 (c)) was chosen as electrolyte-dielectric, because
of the wide electrochemical stability window (± 4 V) and of the
hydrophobicity of the [FAP]- anion (minimizing the water content in the
ionic liquid is essential for the device stability; for the same reason the
ionic liquid was placed onto the device in an inert atmosphere and the
as-prepared device was rapidly introduced in the vacuum measurement
chamber avoiding long-term air exposure). The ionic liquid was retained
between the substrate, a gold wire acting as the gate electrode (Fig.7 (d))
and a rubber well manually deposited onto the substrate. A silver wire
treated with piranha solution (H2SO4 /H2O2, ratio 3:1) was also
inserted in the electrolyte and used as Ag/AgO quasi-reference electrode
to measure directly the electrochemical potential across the
semiconductor/electrolyte interface. The reference electrode allows us to
account for the possible potential drop at the gate/electrolyte interface
(Fig. 7 (d); see Supplementary Information for details). All
measurements were performed with an Agilent Technology E5270B
parameter analyzer at room temperature and in high vacuum (< 10-6
mbar), after overnight pumping to minimize the moisture content in the
ionic liquid.Fig. 8 shows the dependence of the source-drain current (ID)
of a two-terminal WS2- transistor (measured at source-drain voltage VD
= 0.1 V) on the gate voltage VG. The data show ideal, virtually
hysteresis-free ambipolar transistor behavior: a large source-drain
current ID is measured at high negative and positive gate voltage - when
the Fermi level is deep in the valence and conduction band - and
vanishes in between. In the transistor OFF-state - when the Fermi level
is in the WS2 band-gap - the current is ~10 pA, corresponding to the
experimental sensitivity, indicating a very low density of unintentional
dopants in the material, as well as of intra-gap states that could mediate
hopping conductivity. Finally, note that this low OFF-state current
originates from the high-quality of the WS2 crystals, slowly grown by
chemical vapour transport; such a low current is not observed in the
characteristics of natural mineral MoS2 crystals that have been used in
recent charge transport experiments (22). The ambipolar transistor
behaviour is very well-balanced, i.e. at sufficiently high carrier density
the same conductance is measured for electron and holes.

Figure 8. Transfer characteristic of a WS2 ionic liquid-gated FET measured at VD = 0.1 V,

as a function of gate voltage VG (sweep rate 10 mV/s).
MoS2 Transistors Operating at Gigahertz
Frequencies

The operating frequency of semiconductor devices has increased

remarkably since the invention of the first transistor. By reducing the
transistor’s critical dimensions, we can at the same time reduce the
electron transit time and the gate capacitance which boosts the
performance of transistors in the high-frequency range. The next
challenging step is to reduce the device dimensions in the vertical
direction to their ultimate limit. For this purpose, nanoscale materials
such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and grapheme have been suggested.
Theory predicts that CNTs operating in the ballistic regime could
provide a gain in the THz range. However, their small size carries
disadvantages, such as the large contact resistance resulting in high
device impedance, making it difficult to measure and integrate CNT-
based devices with a standard radio-frequency (RF) setup.
Another candidate for future high-frequency devices is graphene.
Graphene shows large carrier mobility and saturation velocity. Graphene
field-effect transistors (GFETs) have lower impedance compared to
CNT-FETs, making impedance matching a less sensitive issue in GFETs
than in CNT-FETs. The other important advantage of graphene
compared to CNTs lies in its 2D nature and high mobility which results
in large transconductance gm and intrinsic cutoff frequency fT, the
frequency at which current gain becomes unity. Power and voltage
amplification are also important transistor applications in electronic
circuits. The maximum frequency of oscillation fmax is the frequency at
which the power gain equals unity. In high-performance voltage and
power amplifiers, fmax should be as high as possible. In the case of RF-
GFETs, fmax still remains lower than the current gain cutoff frequency
Ft because it is relatively difficult to achieve saturation in graphene
FETs due to the lack of band gap. In devices that lack saturation in drain
current, this results in high values of drain conductance gds and limited
voltage gain Av = gm/gds. Other two-dimensional materials such as for
example molybdenum disulphide (MoS2) could be interesting for
applications in RF electronics, especially in highfrequency digital
electronics where voltage gain higher than 1 is desired. MoS2 is a
semiconductor from the family of transition-metal dichalcogenide
(TMD) materials with the common formula MX2, where M represents a
transition metal (M = Mo,W,Nb, Ta, Ti, Re) and X stands for either Se,
S or Te. MoS2 has a bandgap and unique valley and spin properties as
well as remarkable properties for new electronic and optoelectronic
applications.In contrast to graphene which is a semimetal, MoS2 is a
two-dimensional semiconductor with an electronic structure dependent
on its thickness.First locally gated FETs based on monolayers of MoS2
were shown to have room-temperature current on/off ratio higher than
108. Monolayer MoS2 also shows voltage gain larger than 10, due to its
natural band gap, high intrinsic transconductance and drain-source
current saturation.The combination of all these properties makes MoS2
attractive for high-frequency applications. Self-consistent ballistic
quantum transport simulations, independent of mobility values, show
that cutoff frequencies well above 100 GHz could be possible for MoS2
transistors with channel lengths of Lg ~ 15 nm, operating in the ballistic
limit.In addition, large-area MoS2 can be prepared using either liquid-
phase exfoliation27 or CVD growth. Here, we characterize top-gated
MoS2 FETs in the high-frequency range. The current gain of MoS2
FETs decreases with increasing frequency and shows the typical 1/f
dependence for different thicknesses of 2D MoS2 crystals. We realized
MoS2 FETs with a maximum transconductance gm = 54 μS/μm, the
highest transconductance in MoS2 transistors reported up to date10, and
showing current saturation. The highest intrinsic cut-off frequency fT
derived from the measured scattering parameters is 6 GHz and presents a
strong dependence on the bias voltage, gate voltage and material
thickness. MoS2 RF transistors also show a voltage gain higher than 1
and a maximum frequency of oscillation comparable to the cut-off
frequency, reaching fmax = 8.2 GHz which makes MoS2 interesting for
high-frequency logic circuits and amplifiers.
High performance photocurrent generation from 2-D
WS2 fet

The generation of a photocurrent from

twodimensional tungsten disulfide (WS2) fieldeffect transistors is
examined here, and its dependence on the photon energy is
characterized. We found from the WS2 devices that a significant
enhancement in the ratio of illuminated current against dark current (I
illum/I dark) of ∼102–103 is attained, even with the application of
electric fields of ED= 0.02 and E G = −22 mV/nm, which are much
smaller than that of the bulk MoS2 phototransistor. Most importantly,
we demonstrate that our multilayer WS2 shows an extremely high
external quantum efficiency of ∼7000%, even with the smallest
electrical field applied. We also found that photons with an energy near
the direct band gap of the bulk WS2, in the range of 1.9–2.34 eV, give
rise to a photoresponsivity of ∼0.27 A/W, which exceeds the
photoresponsivity of the bulk MoS2 phototransistor. The superior
photosensing properties of WS2 demonstrated in this work are expected
to be utilized in the development of future high performance
twodimensional optoelectronic devices.
Conclusion:

In summary, a novel chloride molecular doping technique is

demonstrated on WS2 and MoS2. The Rc of Ni-WS2 and Ni-MoS2
contacts have been reduced to 0.7 kΩ·μm and 0.5 kΩ·μm with the
presented technique. The significant improvement in Rc is due to the n-
type doping thus the reduction of the Schottky barrier width. The doping
mechanism could be the occupation of sulfur vacancies by chlorine
atoms rather than the surface adhesion of chloride molecules. High
performance few-layer WS2 FETs have been successfully demonstrated
using Cl doping. The 100 nm WS2 FET has a high drain current of 380
μA/μm, a high on/off ratio of 4×10^6, and a fieldeffect mobility around
60cm2/V·s. In addition, no degeneration of Ion/Ioff ratio is observed
after the Cl doping. The scaling down characteristics of the Cl-doped
WS2 FETs have also been investigated. Compared with Cl-doped MoS2
FETs, Cl-doped WS2 FETs show comparable electrical performance and
better on/off ratio. This doping technique can also be widely applied to
other TMD materials to achieve low Rc and provide a route to realize
high-performance electronic devices with 2D materials. In this thesis, we
have addressed several key issues that are critical for the future
application of two-dimensional materials in electronic and
optoelectronic systems. First, we have studied the basic transport
properties of graphene by characterizing its carrier mobility using
various electrical and optical measurement techniques. We have
developed the process for fabricating a wide range of electronic device
structures based on graphene and analyzed its device level performance.
A virtual source injection velocity model was also developed to describe
the behavior of graphene transistors. Issues, such as current saturation in
graphene transistors, are discussed. Second, a significant part of this
thesis work focuses on the design, fabrication, characterization, and
simulation of the graphene transistors targeting application at microwave
frequency range. Here, we focus on improving the fT, one of the most
important figures of merit in high frequency performance and
investigated them analytically and experimentally. Based on improved
physical understanding and advanced process technologies, we have
demonstrated state-of-the-art fT above 60 GHz in graphene transistors.
hBN/Graphene/hBN sandwich structures and T-gate self-aligned device
structure are proposed to reduce the scattering and minimize the
parasitics, leading to significant improvement in RF performance in the
devices. A new method for analyzing the carrier transit delay in
graphene RF FETs are proposed to understand the individual
contributions from the parasitic, external and intrinsic part of the device
to the total carrier transit delay, which provides valuable information for
optimizing the device structure and understanding the intrinsic carrier
dynamics in the GFETs. Third, during the course of this thesis, we have
proposed for the first time an entirely new concept of Ambipolar
Electronics. The novel concept allows many basic building blocks of
analog systems, such as frequency multipliers, mixers and phase shift
keying circuits, to be realized with much simpler circuitry than the
conventional design using unipolar Si MOSFET devices. Finally, we
also explored the electronic applications of new two-dimensional
materials beyond graphene. In particular, the performance of electronic
devices and basic circuits for logic and mixed-signal electronics based
on MoS2 are accessed. The MoS2 monolayers are created both from
exfoliation and chemical vapor deposition techniques. The later method
also addressed the scalability issue of this new material. This new class
of transition metal dichalcogenides offers many exciting opportunities
for constructing high performance flexible electronic systems with
potential applications in wireless sensor networks and ubiquitous
electronics. On the experimental front, researchers have focused on
several promising directions towards practical applications of 2D MoS2
in particular the development of field effect transistors. Thanks to a large
band gap of 1.9 eV, field effect transistors based on monolayer MoS2
demonstrate high current ON/OFF ratios exceeding 10^8 , a low
subthreshold swing (74 mV dec-1) , and negligible OFF current (25 fA
_m-1) . Ultrasensitive phototransistors, logic circuits, and ampli_ers
based on monolayer MoS2 have also been demonstrated, as well as good
output current saturation and high currents.
Reference
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2. IEEE Xplore Abstract 2DSemiconductor, IEEE.org IEEE Xplore | Digital
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4. ht tp://journa l s . tubi t ak.gov. t r/phys i c s/.
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13.Extra information is collected from google and Wikipedia.