Electronic Materials Group Presentation

(Group - 8)
Report

Electronic Devices
(MOSFETs and pin DIODES)

Modern electronic circuits are made up of essential building blocks like MOSFETs and PIN diodes. They are used in
many different things, from computer processors to telecommunications equipment. They control the flow of
electricity by using the properties of semiconducting materials.

MOSFETs, which stand for Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors, are a type of transistor that can be
used as a switch or an amplifier. They have a metal gate, an insulating layer, and a channel made of a semiconductor.
The gate voltage controls how much current flows through the channel by creating an electric field that either pulls
charge carriers towards it or pushes them away from it. MOSFETs are usually made of silicon, but researchers are
looking into how to improve their performance by using 2D materials like graphene and transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs).

PIN diodes, also called p-type/intrinsic/n-type diodes, are used in microwave and radio frequency circuits as RF
switches, attenuators, and detectors. They have an n-type region, a p-type region, and an intrinsic region. When a
voltage is put across the diode, charge carriers are injected into the intrinsic region, making a path for current to flow
with low resistance. Most PIN diodes are made of silicon, but scientists are also looking into using 2D materials like
graphene and boron nitride to improve their properties, such as making them switch faster and work at higher
frequencies.

2D materials are good candidates for use in electronic devices like MOSFETs and PIN diodes because they have
unique properties like high carrier mobility and electronic properties that can be changed. But there are still problems
with scaling up production and adding 2D materials to existing ways of making things. Still, research is still being
done in this area, and the potential benefits of using 2D materials in electronic devices continue to drive innovation in
the field.

TMDs

Graphene

hBN (Hexa Boron Nitride)

 MOSFETs

Introduction

Metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs) are widely used in electronic circuits due to their low
power consumption, high speed, and scalability. Recently, researchers have explored the use of 2D materials, such as
graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), as channel materials in MOSFETs. These materials offer
unique electronic and mechanical properties, including high carrier mobility, a large bandgap, and mechanical
flexibility, making them appealing for electronic device applications. MOSFETs based on 2D materials have shown
promising results in terms of their performance, including high-speed operation and high on/off current ratios.

MOSFET and its symbol

However, challenges still exist in improving the quality of insulating layers and reducing contact resistance. Ongoing
research on MOSFETs and 2D materials is focused on developing new materials and device architectures to improve
their performance, with significant interest from the research community. The potential of 2D materials for electronic
devices is expected to lead to the development of new, high-performance electronic devices.

Material Synthesis
MOSFETs are a type of transistor with a thin layer of insulation between the metal gate electrode and the
semiconductor channel. In order for a MOSFET to work, a voltage must be applied to the gate electrode. This changes
how the channel between the source and drain contacts conducts electricity.
Recent advances in materials science have led to the creation of 2D materials like graphene, transition metal
dichalcogenides (TMDs), and black phosphorus (BP). These materials have unique properties that make them good
candidates for use in MOSFETs.

The synthesis of MOSFETs typically involves several steps, including:

● Preparing the substrate
The substrate is usually made of silicon, and it is cleaned and polished to make sure that the next layers will
stick well to it.

● Deposition of the insulating layer

The insulating layer is usually made of SiO2 and is put on the substrate using chemical vapour deposition
(CVD) or physical vapour deposition (PVD) techniques.

● Deposition of the semiconductor layer

The semiconductor layer is usually made of silicon and is put on top of the insulating layer using CVD or
PVD techniques. You can also use 2D materials like graphene, TMDs, or BP as the semiconductor layer and
deposit them in the same way.

● Deposition of the metal gate electrode

The metal gate electrode is usually made of aluminium, titanium, or tungsten, and it is put on the
semiconductor layer using PVD or evaporation.
 ● Annealing
The MOSFET structure is heated to high temperatures to activate the dopants and improve the quality of the
connections between the different layers.

● Patterning and etching

The MOSFET structure is shaped with photolithography, and the source and drain contacts and the gate
electrode are made by removing material.

Working Principles

In a MOSFET, the flow of charge carriers (electrons or holes) in a channel between the source and drain electrodes is
controlled by an electric field created by the gate electrode, which is separated from the channel by a thin insulating
layer. When a voltage is applied to the gate, an electric field is created that modulates the conductivity of the channel,
allowing the flow of charge carriers to be turned on and off.

Basic Structure of MOSFET

The use of 2D materials in MOSFETs offers several advantages over conventional silicon-based MOSFETs. For
example, 2D materials such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) have high carrier mobility,
which can lead to faster switching speeds and improved device performance. In addition, the ultrathin nature of 2D
materials allows for better electrostatic control, which can lead to lower power consumption and improved efficiency.

To fabricate MOSFETs based on 2D materials, a layer of 2D material is typically grown or transferred onto a
substrate, followed by the deposition of a thin insulating layer and a metal gate electrode. The thickness and quality of
the insulating layer are critical factors that can affect the device's electrical properties. The channel is formed by the
2D material, which can be either n-type or p-type doped to control the polarity of the charge carriers.

The performance of 2D MOSFETs is characterized by several electronic parameters, such as the threshold voltage,
on-resistance, maximum voltage, current, transconductance, and gate capacitance. These parameters depend on the 2D
material used, the thickness and quality of the insulating layer, and the device geometry. For example, graphene-based
MOSFETs have been shown to exhibit high carrier mobility but suffer from a low on/off current ratio due to the
absence of a bandgap. TMD-based MOSFETs, on the other hand, have a larger bandgap than graphene, which can lead
to lower leakage current and improved device efficiency.

Overall, the use of 2D materials in MOSFETs holds great promise for the development of high-performance and
low-power electronic devices.
Electronic parameters important for the application

Various electronic parameters are crucial for the successful application of MOSFETs based on 2D materials. These
parameters play a critical role in determining the performance of the devices and optimizing their operation.

● Carrier Mobility
It measures how easily charge carriers move through a material in response to an electric field. For 2D
materials, high carrier mobility is critical for achieving faster switching speeds and improved device
performance.

● Threshold Voltage
This is the minimum voltage required to turn on the MOSFET. The threshold voltage depends on factors such
as the material used for the channel, the thickness of the insulating layer, and the doping level of the channel.
The electronic properties of the 2D material and the quality of the insulating layer also affect the threshold
voltage of 2D MOSFETs.

● On-resistance
It measures the resistance of the channel when the MOSFET is turned on. Lower on-resistance leads to higher
device efficiency and less power dissipation. The on-resistance of 2D MOSFETs is influenced by the carrier
mobility of the 2D material and the thickness of the insulating layer.

● Maximum Voltage
It refers to the maximum voltage that can be applied to the MOSFET without causing permanent damage. The
maximum voltage depends on factors such as the material used for the channel, the thickness of the insulating
layer, and the doping level of the channel. For 2D MOSFETs, the maximum voltage is affected by the quality
of the insulating layer and the mechanical stability of the 2D material.

● Transconductance
It measures the device's ability to amplify an input signal and is crucial for determining the MOSFET's gain.
The transconductance of 2D MOSFETs is dependent on the carrier mobility of the 2D material and the gate
capacitance.

● Gate Capacitance
It measures the capacitance of the insulating layer between the gate and the channel and is important for
controlling the MOSFET's operation. The gate capacitance of 2D MOSFETs is influenced by the thickness
and quality of the insulating layer and the dielectric constant of the material.

Overall, the electronic parameters of 2D MOSFETs are critical for determining their performance and optimizing their
operation. By understanding and controlling these parameters, it is possible to develop high-performance and
low-power electronic devices based on 2D materials.
 pin DIODEs

Introduction

A pin diode is a type of semiconductor device used in applications for power regulation and signal detection. It has a
p-i-n structure, with a substantially doped p-type region sandwiched by two mildly doped n-type sections. When a
voltage is put across the intrinsic I area, which functions as a high-resistance layer, the device can function as a
variable resistor. Due to their distinctive electrical characteristics, two-dimensional (2D) materials have been studied
for application in pin diodes. A monolayer of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)-based pin diodes was first demonstrated
by researchers in 2016. In the visible and near-infrared spectra, the gadget showed excellent photoresponsivity and
sensitivity. Black phosphorus and graphene are two more 2D materials that have been researched for usage in pin
diodes. High photoresponsivity and low dark current have been demonstrated in graphene-based Pin Diodes, making
them desirable for high-speed optical communications. It has been demonstrated that black phosphorus-based pin
diodes exhibit high on/off current ratios and low contact resistance. Pin Diodes' usage of 2D materials offers options to
enhance device performance and minimize device footprint. The necessity for dependable doping techniques and
issues with the unpredictability of the electrical characteristics of 2D materials must yet be resolved.

pin DIODE

Device Fabrication

Pin Diode device manufacture typically entails a number of processes, including material synthesis, device patterning,
and electrical characterization. This is a general description of the manufacturing procedure:

● Techniques like chemical vapour deposition (CVD), or mechanical exfoliation are used to create 2D materials
like graphene or MoS2.

● Preparation of the substrate

The substrate, such as silicon dioxide (SiO2), is cleaned and ready for the construction of devices.

● Device patterning
Using methods like photolithography or electron beam lithography, the 2D material is patterned into the
desired shape and size. Finally, the lightly doped n-type regions are deposited onto the 2D material after the
severely doped p-type region.

● Contact Deposition
Metal contacts are placed onto the n-type regions to enable electrical connections, such as gold or titanium.

● Electrical characterization
The current-voltage (IV) characteristics and photoresponsivity of the pin diode are measured, along with other
electrical characteristics.
Several investigations have shown that 2D materials can be successfully used to fabricate pin diodes. Using a layer of
CVD-grown graphene on a SiO2 substrate, for instance, a graphene-based Pin Diode was created. After depositing a
layer of p-type organic semiconductor onto the graphene, a metal contact was added to form the heavily doped p-type
area. By depositing a layer of n-type organic semiconductor onto the graphene and then making another metal contact,
the lightly doped n-type areas were made. Both the device's photoresponsivity and dark current were high.

A MoS2 monolayer generated through CVD on a SiO2 substrate was used to fabricate a MoS2-based Pin Diode,
according to another work. The p-type region was produced by doping an organic molecule into MoS2, and the n-type
sections were produced by coating MoS2 with gold. In the visible and near-infrared spectra, the instrument displayed
high photoresponsivity and sensitivity.

Material Synthesis

Mechanical exfoliation techniques or chemical vapour deposition (CVD) are frequently used in the fabrication of 2D
materials for usage in pin diodes. These are some instances of 2D material synthesis for pin diodes:

● Graphene-based Pin Diodes

After being produced via CVD on copper or nickel substrates, graphene can then be transferred to a SiO2
substrate. A different method of getting graphene is by mechanically peeling apart graphite flakes. With the
use of photolithography or electron beam lithography, the graphene layer can then be shaped and sized as
needed.

● MoS2-based Pin Diodes

MoS2 can be produced by CVD on a substrate like sapphire or SiO2. MoO3 and S powders are subjected to a
high-temperature reaction in a hydrogen environment during the synthesis. A polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)
stamp can then be used to transfer the MoS2 layer to a SiO2 substrate.

● Pin diodes made of black phosphorus are produced via a liquid-phase exfoliation method that entails
sonicating bulk black phosphorous in a solvent. After that, using a transfer method, the resulting few-layer
black phosphorus flakes can be put onto a substrate, like SiO2.

The qualities and performance of the resulting 2D material-based Pin Diode can vary depending on the substrate and
synthesis method chosen. For instance, during CVD, the growth conditions may have an impact on the quality and
regularity of the MoS2 or graphene layer, and during the transfer procedure, the 2D material may sustain damage or
flaws.

Working Principles

The adjustment of the intrinsic region's (i-region) width between the strongly doped p-type and n-type regions forms
the basis of a Pin Diode's operation employing 2D materials. The gadget can function as a variable resistor, making it
useful for applications like signal detection and power regulation.

Upon applying a voltage across a pin diode, a depletion area forms close to the p-n junction. When there is no external
stimulus, the intrinsic region functions as a high-resistance layer, resulting in a low current flow through the device.
When a photon or other stimulus strikes the device, it forms electron-hole pairs in the intrinsic region, which reduces
the device's resistance and increases the amount of current that can flow through it.
 Basic structure of a pin DIODE

The intrinsic area in a pin diode made of 2D materials, like graphene or MoS2, is generated by the 2D material itself,
which has a high carrier mobility and can serve as a high-resistance layer. Usually, organic semiconductors or metals
are deposited onto the 2D material to produce the strongly doped p-type and n-type areas.

There are many benefits to using 2D materials in pin diodes, including their distinctive electrical characteristics
including high carrier mobility, and robust light-matter interaction. As a result, there can be quick responses, low dark
current, and strong photoresponsivity.

Using 2D materials, several studies have looked into how Pin Diodes function. Due to the high mobility of graphene,
it has been demonstrated, for instance, that a graphene-based Pin Diode has a high on/off ratio and quick response
time. With strong photoresponsivity and sensitivity in the visible and near-infrared spectrum, another study
demonstrated the use of MoS2 as the intrinsic layer in a Pin Diode.

Electronic parameters important for the application

In order to effectively use pin diodes with 2D materials, the following electronic factors are crucial:
● Carrier mobility
The 2D material's carrier mobility governs how quickly electrons and holes can move through it, which has an
impact on the device's speed and efficiency. For instance, graphene is appealing for use in high-speed
applications because of its great carrier mobility.

● Bandgap
The 2D material's bandgap controls how much light it can absorb and how sensitive it is to various
wavelengths. Black phosphorus is an example of a material with a small bandgap that is sensitive to longer
wavelengths, while MoS2 has a larger bandgap that is sensitive to shorter wavelengths.

● Schottky barrier height

The device's electrical characteristics, such as its contact resistance and leakage current, are influenced by the
Schottky barrier height at the metal/2D material interface.

● Carrier concentration
The pin Diode's current-voltage (IV) properties and its capacity to detect or modulate signals are both
influenced by the carrier concentration in the doped regions of the device.

The impact of these electronic characteristics on the performance of Pin Diodes made of 2D materials has been the
subject of several investigations. According to a study on MoS2-based Pin Diodes, for instance, the performance of
the device was found to be substantially influenced by the doping concentration, with higher doping concentrations
leading to lower on/off ratios. The photoresponsivity of the device was discovered to be highly influenced by the
metal employed for the connections in another study on graphene-based Pin Diodes, with gold contacts producing
stronger responsivity than titanium contacts.
Conclusion

In conclusion, electronic devices like MOSFETs and PIN diodes are important parts of modern electronic systems, and
they are becoming more and more important in new technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT), self-driving cars,
and renewable energy systems. The development of 2D materials like graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides
(TMDs) has opened up new ways to design electronic devices, giving them benefits like higher carrier mobility, better
transparency, and lower power consumption.

Even though working with 2D materials is hard, researchers are making a lot of progress in coming up with new ways
to make things and learning about how these materials work. Adding 2D materials to electronic devices could make
them work better and open the door to new uses. This is an exciting area of research that shows promise for the future
of electronics.

Using 2D materials in MOSFETs has shown especially promising results. Research shows that these devices can
achieve high carrier mobility and improved switching speed, which leads to more efficient and high-performance
electronics. In the same way, PIN diodes made from 2D materials have better optical and electrical properties that
make them attractive for use in photodetectors and other optoelectronic devices.

In short, the development of 2D materials is an important trend in the design of electronic devices that is likely to keep
pushing the field forward. Researchers are opening up new ways to make high-performance, low-power electronics
that can meet the needs of new technologies and power the next generation of electronic devices by taking advantage
of the unique properties of these materials.
References

Principles of Electronic Materials & Devices (by S.O. Kasap)

● 6.13 METAL-OXIDE-SEMICONDUCTOR FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR (MOSFET)
● 6.14 pin DIODES, PHOTODIODES, AND SOLAR CELLS

Wikipedia
● MOSFET - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOSFET#Structure_and_channel_formation
● pin DIODE - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PIN_diode

https://instrumentationtools.com/pin-diode-working-principle/

https://www.nature.com/articles/nchem.1589

https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat1849

https://www.nature.com/articles/nnano.2010.279

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925963522002254#!

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/314138780_Black_Phosphorus_Properties_Synthesis_and_Applications_in_
Energy_Conversion_and_Storage

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335257892_Highly_Sensitive_Fast_Graphene_Photodetector_with_Respons
ivity_106_AW_Using_Floating_Quantum_Well_Gate

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/329080857_High_performance_photodetector_based_on_grapheneMoS2gra
phene_lateral_heterostrurcture_with_Schottky_junctions

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/354763924_Two-Dimensional_Materials_for_Advanced_Solar_Cells

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356542980_2D_material_based_field_effect_transistors_and_nanoelectrome
chanical_systems_for_sensing_applications

https://www.nature.com/articles/nature04235

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356542980_2D_material_based_field_effect_transistors_and_nanoelectrome
chanical_systems_for_sensing_applications

https://www.nature.com/articles/nchem.1589

https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat2629

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abu_Kowsar/post/what_type_of_band_gaps_direct_or_indirect_for_ZnS_CdS/at
tachment/5b3d8cd34cde265cb64cdf06/AS%3A644614813921281%401530699556311/download/%2B+S.+M.+Sze+
+Physics+of+Semiconductor+Devices+Wiley.pdf
Contribution of Team Members
Saloni Garg (B21AI036)
Researched and added content about pin diodes: particularly device fabrication and material synthesis
Contributed in the making of the presentation slides
Contributed in the report making
Involved in the video making for the presentation

Samaksh Verma (B21AI037)

Researched about material synthesis of mosfets using 2D materials and various other processes
and the working principle of MOSFETs.
Involved in the selection of content to be presented in slides
Also contributed to making of video
Also contributed to the presentation of slides

Sindhav Khushal (B21AI039)

Added content and researched about pin diode and MOSFETs
Contributed to the making of video for the project
Also contributed in making of the slides for the presentation

Tanish Pagaria (B21AI040)

Researched about MOSFETs: particularly the electronic parameters important for application
Contributed in making the slides for the presentation
Contributed in making the report for the presentation
Added diagrams from the book
Edited the final presentation video

Uddanti Moksha Akshaya (B21AI041)

Researched about pin diodes: focussing on the working principle
Electronic parameters necessary for application
Conclusion about the topic
Added diagrams related to pin diode
Contributed in making the slides for the presentation