Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching (H.H.

Stern 1983)
L1/L2 (Catford 1959):
 L1: primary language: usually, but not always, the language first acquired in
childhood; i tis the language its speaker’s intimate everyday life; it is also to a large
extent the language of counting and other forms of self-stimulation, or “thinking in
words” (p.22)
 L2: second(ary) language
o any language acquired after L1 (chronology of learning) – childhood/adult life

o or language whose level of command is (frequently) lower than L1 (p.12/13)

Bilingualism: knowledge of two languages, regardless of the level of proficiency??

Learning vs. Acquisition: language learning or language acquisition mean the same (HH
Stern)
 acquisition: some privilege this term when talking about first language (connected to
ideas about biological process of growth and maturation rather than social learning)
o weakness of “language acquisition”: associated with the notion of permanent
possession – but language development is subject to modifications
 learning: some connect it with processes arising from deliberate teaching
Krashen (1978,1981): uses the term “acquisition” to describe second language learning
which is analogous to the way in which a child acquires a first language, that is “naturally”,
without focus on linguistic form, and “learning” as conscious language development
especially in school settings
 disadvantage: learning is dependent on school

Theories of language teaching:

 1940-1960: application of linguistics and psychology as best bases

 1960-1970: applied linguistics as mediating discipline between theoretical

developments in the language sciences and the practice of language teaching -
but limited because not taken into consideration social, political, and economic
realities
Language sciences and language teaching practice (p.36): relation between theory and
practice
Campbell’s model (1980) - Theory: linguistics, psychology, sociology, anthropology -----»
Mediator: applied linguistics/psychology/sociology/anthropology ----------» Practitioner:
pedagogy
Spolski’s educational linguistics model (also applied linguistics): p.37
 Three sources:
o Language description (founded on theory of language)

o Theory of language learning (derives from the other two)

o Theory of language use

 Disciplines that provide theoretical foundations and data

o Psychology for theory of learning

o Psycholinguistics for the theory of language learning

o General linguistics for a theory of language and language description

o Sociolinguistics for a theory of language use in society

 Limitations of model:
o It “leaves out the practicalities and pressures of the world in which language
education takes place”
o Methodology of language teaching and other matters constituting the
substance of pedagogy are also outside the purview of the model
Igram’s model of the development of language teaching practice (1980) – p.39
 Role of theoretician, applied linguist, and practitioner (Campbell)
 Greater detail on the functions of applied linguist and relative distribution of tasks
among applied linguistic and teacher - complements Spolski
 Feedback from practice is acknowledged

 Disadvantages:
o Limited role allocated to the practitioner in comparison to the applied linguist

o Notion that methodology and practice are ultimately and exclusively derived
from theoretical sciences

Mackey’s ‘interaction model’ (1970)

Language learning into its sociopolitical context: five major variables
 M: methods and materials
 T: what the teacher does

 I: instruction (what the learner gets)

  S: sociolinguistic and sociocultural influences of the environment
 L: what the learner does
Role of underlying disciplines if implied.

Strevens’ teaching-learning process (1976, 1977)

 It is not concerned about the connection between linguistic sciences and language
teaching
 It includes policy and governmental action (Mackey)
 Details teaching process (Mackey, Strevens

STERN’S MODEL: a general model for second language teaching (p.44)

 Intends to represent all second language teaching and learning (school/academic
settings and less formal contexts, e.g., migrants)
 Principle of interaction: interrelationships between the various components of the
model; there are no passive roles
 Multifactor view of language
 Multidisciplinary approach
Four key concepts: language, learning, teaching, and context.
 Language: language teaching requires a concept of the nature of language (theories
of language) – main disciplines: linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, study of
particular languages
 Learner and the nature of language learning – main disciplines: educational
psychology, psycholinguistics for language learning and language use
 Teacher and language teaching: theories that interpret teaching and what is to be a
teacher – main discipline: study of education
 Context:
o (1) language context: languages manifest themselves in certain social, cultural,
and political contexts – main disciplines: social sciences
o (2) educational setting – main disciplines: sociology and sociolinguistics

o (3) language teaching background – main disciplines: history of language

teaching
Broad areas of language teaching research
 The language learner and language learning processes
 The language teacher and teaching

 The environmental contexts of language teaching and learning

 The methodology and organization of language teaching

 Language in general and the languages and related cultures and societies
 Historical studies of language teaching

An enquiry is a systematic process if:

- It has an explicit rationale: reasons for a study
- It has a theoretical basis: research should be placed in a conceptual framework (e.g.
Mackey’s, Stern’s…)
- It is carried out with a deliberately chosen methodology
- Its findings and interpretation of the findings are kept apart: research findings vs.
interpretation vs. policy implications

Language teaching and learning history: should take into account synchronic and diachronic
aspect (p.78ss)
- Synchronic: focus on a given stage in history in its social and educational context (e.g.
Mackey 1965, Titone 1968 – chronological approach)
- Diachronic: description of the development of different features and aspects (e.g.
Kelly’s thematic survey 1969)

Diachronic studies tend to be more fruitful than synchronic – selection of a restricted field
and manageable body of data

Communicative language teaching (p.111)

 - “communicative competence” (Hymes 1972): social view of language (since mid-
1960s) – see chart “Change and Innovation in language teaching: 1880 -1980”
(p.113)
- “linguistic competence” (Chomsky)

Linguistics: theoretical and descriptive – “From the linguist’s point of view ‘a language is what
the speakers do and not what someone thinks they ought to do’” (p.123)
- But: it is prescriptive in the sense that the native speaker’s right (grammatical) or
wrong (ungrammatical) usage is the yardstick by which linguists must be guided
- Second language teachers and learners deal with the normative/prescriptive side of
language
- Saussure: first to formulate the idea that a language should be studied in a particular
point in time with an emphasis on how the different parts of the language hang
together and interact (p.123) – 20th century: predominance of the synchronic
treatment, especially contemporary forms of language (second language teaching,
especially)

Language as system or structure (relational):

- Syntagmatic vs. paradigmatic:
o Syntagmatic relationship: combination of morphemes, words, and clauses (re-
lire, contre tous, la vie humaine) – audible in the utterance – emphasized
approach in language teaching since the 40s
o Paradigmatic relationship: associative and evoked in the mind of the language
user (e.g. enseignement – enseigner, renseigner, changement,
apprentissage…)