PRESENTED BY : JIGNASHA PATEL

 It is a material which has a large number of free

electrons so the current can easily flow through it.
 All materials with resistivity less than 10-3
ohm.meter behave as conductor….
 For example: silver, copper, aluminium, carbon and
almost all metals.
 If the outer electrons of a material are very tightly
bound to nucleus it becomes very difficult to remove
them from their orbits. Hence, no current flow
through such materials and they known as
insulators……
 All material with resistivity above 105 ohm.meter
behave as a insulator.
 E.g., mica, porcelain, glass, rubber, paper, plastics,
etc..
Conductors Insulators
Conductors allow electricity flow through
them. Conductors are materials that can carry
electricity - they conduct electricity. Metal materials
such as copper, iron, steel and aluminum are all
good conductors of electricity.

Insulators do not allow electricity to flow through

them. Materials such as wood, plastic, rubber and
glass do not carry electricity and are called
insulators – they don’t conduct electricity.
 A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a
device that can store electronic charge and energy.
 All capacitors consists of a combination of two
conductors separated by an insulator.
 The insulator is called dielectric which could be oil,
air or paper and many more such materials are
there which can act as a dielectric medium
between conducting plates of a capacitor.
 Figure 1 below shows the symbol used to
represent a capacitor.

Fig.1
 Now plates of the capacitor are connected to
the terminals of a battery, shown below in
figure 2, in order to charge it's conducting
plates.

Fig. 2
 Plate connected to positive terminal of
the battery becomes positively charged with
charge +Q in it and plate connected to negative
terminal of the battery becomes negatively
charged with charge -Q on it i.e. both plates
have equal amount of opposite charge .
 Once the capacitor is fully charged potential
difference between the conductors due to their
equal and opposite charges becomes equal to
the potential difference between
the battery terminals.
 For a given capacitor Q∝V and the ratio Q/V is
constant for a capacitor.
 Thus,
Q=CV (1)
where the proportionality constant C is called the
capacitance of the capacitor.
 Capacitance of any capacitor depends on shape ,
size and geometrical arrangement of the
conductors.
 When Q is in coulomb (C) and V is in volts(V) then
the S.I. unit of capacitance is in farads(F) where
1F=1 coulomb/volt
 Capacitance increases with
◦ increasing surface area of the plates,
◦ decreasing spacing between plates, and
◦ increasing the relative dielectric constant of the
insulator between the two plates.
1)PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR :A parallel plate
capacitor consists of two large plane parallel
conducting plates separated by a small distance
‘d’ shown below in the figure 3.

fig. 3
 Suppose two plates of the capacitor has equal and
opposite charge Q on them. If A is the area of each
plate then surface charge density on each plate is
σ=Q/A .......(1)
 The electric field generated between two
oppositely charged plates using gauss's law is given
by
E=σ/ε0=Q/ε0A .......(2)
 Since electric field between the plates is uniform
the potential difference between the plates is
V=Ed=Qd/ε0A ........(3)
where , d is the separation between the plates.
 Thus, capacitance of parallel plate capacitor in
vacuum is
C=Q/V=ε0A/d ...........(4)
 From equation 4 we see that quantities on
which capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
depends i.e.,ε0 , A and d are all constants for a
capacitor.
 Thus we see that in this case capacitance is
independent of charge on the capacitor but
depends on area of it's plates and separation
distance between the plates.
2) SPHERICAL CAPACITOR :A spherical capacitor
consists of a solid or hollow spherical conductor
of radius a , surrounded by another hollow
concentric spherical of radius b shown below in
figure 4.

fig. 4

 Let +Q be the charge given to the inner sphere

and -Q be the charge given to the outer sphere.
 The area of spherical surface is given by 4πr2 .
 Now from eq.(2) electric field between
conductors is E =Q/4πε0r2
 Potential difference between two conductors is
V = ∫E.dr
where limits of integration goes from a to b.
 b
V   E.dr
a
b
1 Q
 
a
. 2 dr
4  0 r
b
Q 1

4  0 
a
r 2
dr

b
Q  1
   
4  0  r  a
Q  1 1 
    
4  0 
 b a 
Q 1 1
 
4  0 
a b

Q b  a 

 ab 
4  0  
 C  4  0 ab
ba
3) CYLINDRICAL CAPACITOR : A cylinderical
capacitor is made up of a conducting cylinder
or wire of radius a surrounded by another
concentric cylinderical shel of radius b (b>a).
 Let L be the length of both the cylinders and
charge on inner cylender is +Q and charge on
outer cylinder is -Q.
Fig.5
 For calculate electric field between the
conductors using Gauss's law consider a
gaussian surface of radius r and length L as
shown in figure 5.
 Now from eq.(2),
Q   0 EA
  0 E (2 rL )
where 2 rL is the area of the cylindar
Q
E 
2  0 Lr
now, V   E.dr
b
Q
 
a
2  0 Lr
dr

Q
  ln r a
b

2  0 L
Q
  ln b  ln a 
2  0 L


Q
2  0 L
ln ba 
Q L
C   2  0 .
V ln b  a 
 From this equation it can easily be concluded that
capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor depends on
length of cylinders.
 More is the length of cylinders , more charge could
be stored on the capacitor for a given potential
difference.
CAPACITOR is made from two sheets of electrical
conductor, separated by a thin layer of insulator.

MITOCHONDRIA:--
Mitochondria are membrane-enclosed organelles distributed through
the cytosol of most eukaryotic cells. Their main function is the
conversion of the potential energy of food molecules into ATP.
THE WORK OF CELL ORGANELLE PRESENT IN OUR
BODY CALLED MITOCHONDRIA HAS SAME WORK AS
THAT OF CAPACITOR THUS MITOCHONDRIA IS
TERMED AS BIOLOGICAL CELL AS A CAPACITOR.
 A particular feature of cell is that,they are
electrically neutral,the outside of the cell is
positively charged while the inside is equally
negatively charged.
 This is because of two features:
1.The concentration of K+ inside the cell is high.
2.The membrane is relatively permeable to K+,all
human cell have a higher concentration of K+
inside.
 For Na+, the situation is reversed. The
concentration of Na+ inside the cell is low and
outside much higher.
 The “Na+-K+ pump” in the cell membrane uses
energy to move Na+ out and K+ in to maintain the
imbalance.
 The outside is positievly charged and the potential
difference or voltage across the membrane is
typically 70mv or so.The inner surface of all the
membrane remains negative but not in all
circumstances.Similarly charge difference exsists
across the membrane.
 Surrounding the intracellular organelles higher
concentration is outside than the inner
mitochondrial membrane in order for the
mitochondrion to be able to synthesis ATP.
 In short mitochondria is product and storehouse of
the energy. So the mitochondria is called the
“POWER PLANT” or “POWER HOUSE” of the cell,
because it produce the energy required for the
cellular function like capacitor.
 The energy is produced during the oxidation of
digested food particles like proteins,
carbohydrates and lipids by the oxidative enzymes
in cristae of mitochondria.
 During oxidative process water and Co2 are
produced which release the energy.
 The released energy is stored in mitochondria and
used later for synthesis of ATP by utilizing the
energy by oxidative phosphorylation
.[ATP=ADP+iP]
 The ATP molecules defuse through out the cell from
mitochondria. Molecules are broken down.
 Wherever the energy is needed for cellular activity
the ATP molecules are broken down.
 Same way, capacitor is the device that is the product
of the energy and store it as same as mitochondria is
also a product of the energy and store by the same
activities.
 So “MITOCHONDRIA” works as “BIOLOGICAL CELL
AS A CAPACITOR”.
REVISION:---
 German physicist who
experimentally
determined that the if
the voltage across a
resistor is increased,
the current through
the resistor will
increase.
 Ideas were published in 1827, but they were
rejected by his peers. He lived in poverty for
several years before taking a teaching position.
 “The ratio of the potential difference (V)
between the two ends of the conductor, kept in
a fixed physical condition and the electric
current (I) flowing through it is constant.”
 This statement is called Ohm’s law.
 This ratio is called Resistance (R) of the
conductor.
 Ohm's Law is given by:
V=IR
 where I is the current through the conductor in
units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units
of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.
 The symbol of ohm is Ω.
 Ohm’s Law explains the relationship between
voltage (V or E), current (I) and resistance (R).
 1. Assuming the resistance does not
change:
 As voltage increases, current increases.
 as voltage decreases, current decreases.

 2. Assuming the voltage does not change:

 As resistance increases, current decreases.
 As resistance decreases, current increases.
 Here we consider that the temperature of
conductor is remaining constant.

 The graph between V and I will be a straight

line for a conductor obeying ohm’s law at a
constant temperature.
 A potentiometer is an
instrument for measuring
the potential (voltage) in a
circuit. Before the
introduction of the moving
coil and digital volt
meters, potentiometers
were used in
measuring voltage, hence
the '-meter' part of their
name.
 When there is no potential difference between
two points there no electric current will flow,
this is the basic potentiometer principle.
 Potentiometer is a mainly used to measure emf
of a given cell, internal resistance of a cell and
also to compare emf's of cells.
 Potentiometer consists of a long resistive wire l
having uniform cross sectional area and a
battery of known voltage V.
 Connection of these two forms the primary
circuit.
 One terminal of another cell (whose emf is to
be measured) is connected at one end of the
main circuit and the other terminal at any
point on the resistive wire through a
galvanometer G. This forms the secondary
circuit.

A B
 Now the potentiometer wire AB has high
resistivity ρ with uniform cross section area.
Thus this wire has a uniform resistance
throughout.
 Now this potentiometer end terminals are
connected to a cell of high emf V (neglecting its
internal resistance).
 Let a current I flow through the potentiometer
wire.
 Let R = total resistance of the potentiometer
wire.
 Then by Ohm’s law V = IR.
We know
R = ρ l /A
 Thus,
V = I ρ l /A
 As ρ, A are constant and I is kept constant
so Iρ/A = k ( constant )
 V=kl
 Now suppose a cell of lower emf than the
auxiliary is put in the circuit as shown above.
Say it has a emf E. Now in the potentiometer
wire say at a length = x the potential difference
is E.
 Thus
E = I ρx/A = kx
 When this cell be put in the circuit as shown in
the fig with a jockey connected to the
corresponding length = x , there will be no flow
of current through the galvanometer because
when pot. difference is equal no current flows.
So galvanometer G would show no deflection.
Then the length x is called the length of the null
point.
 Now by knowing the constant k and noting
down the x, we may find the emf of the
unknown cell.
 Secondly emf of two cells may also be
compared, Let the first cell of emf E 1 give a
null point at a length = l 1
And the second cell show a null point at length
=l2
 Then,
E 1 /E 2 = l 1 /l 2
 A rheostat is a variable
resistor which is used to
control current.
 They are able to vary the
resistance in a
circuit without interruptio
n.
 The construction is very
similar to the construction
of a potentiometer.
 It uses only two connections, even when 3
terminals (as in a potentiometer) are present.
The first connection is made to one end of the
resistive element and the other connection to
the wiper (sliding contact).
 Resistive wire is wound around an insulating
ceramic core and the wiper slides over the
windings.
 Rheostats were often used as power control
devices, for example to control light intensity
(dimmer), speed of motors, heaters and ovens.
 Nowadays they are not used for this function
anymore. This is because of their relatively low
efficiency.

“A rheostat is a variable resistor which is

used to control the current flowing in a circuit.”
 How Rheostats Work.
 The basic fundamentals that apply to the effect
that rheostats have within a circuit is Ohm's
law, which explains that, current is inversely
proportional to resistance for a given voltage.
This means the current decreases as the
resistance increases or current increases as the
resistance decreases.
 Current enters a rheostats terminal, flows
through the wire coil and contact, and exits
through the rheostats other terminal.
Rheostats do not have polarity and behave the
same when the terminals are reverted.
 Rheostats and their Applications.
 Some light dimmers use rheostats to limit the
current going through a light bulb so as to vary
the illumination. The higher amount of a
rheostats resistance, the dimmer the light bulb
will glow.
 Motor controllers also use rheostats to control
a motor's velocity by limiting the flow of
current. Rheostats are used in many small
devices such as blenders, mixers, fans, and
power tools.
 Ammeter is an electrical measuring device, which
is used to measure electric current through the
circuit.
 CONNECTION OF AMMETER IN CIRCUIT
 An ammeter is always connected in series to a
circuit.
 SYMBOL
 Ammeter is a low resistance galvanometer.
 It is used to measure the current in a circuit in
amperes.
 Galvanometer can be converted into an
ammeter by using a low resistance wire in
parallel with the galvanometer.
 The resistance of the wire depends upon the
range of the ammeter.
 As shunt resistance is small the combined
resistance of the galvanometer & the shunt is
very low hence the ammeter has much lower
resistance than galvanometer.
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance
 Let Ig be a current
flowing through the
galvanometer having
resistance to G.
 Let S be the necessary
value of the shunt and
Is is the amount of
current through the
shunt.
 Applying Kirchoff’s first law at junction A,
I  Ig  Is  0
..........(1)
 Is  I  I g
 Now applying Kirchoff’s second law,

 I s .S  I g .G  0
I g .G
S 
Is
I g .G (from (1))
S 
I  Ig

 This is the necessary equation for shunt.

 Voltmeter is an electrical measuring device, which is
used to measure potential difference between two
points in a circuit.
 CONNECTION OF VOLTMETER IN CIRCUIT.
 Voltmeter is always connected in parallel to a circuit.
 SYMBOL
 Volt meter is a high resistance galvanometer.
 It is used to measure the potential difference
between two points of a circuit in volts.
 A galvanometer can be converted into a volt meter
by using a high resistance in series with the
galvanometer.
 The value of resistance depends upon the range of
the volt meter.
 For voltmeter a high resistance, R is connected in
series with the galvanometer therefore resistance of
voltmeter is very large as compared to that of
galvanometer.
 The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinity.
 Let Rx be the
necessary resistance to
be connected with the
galvanometer as
shown in figure. If the A B
p.d. between point A &
B is V then,

V  I g .G  I g .Rx
V  I gG
 Rx 
Ig
V G
 Rx 
Ig
 The above value of resistance has to be
connected with the galvanometer in series.
 By proper calibration of the above arrangement
one can prepare a voltmeter.
 Ammeter Voltmeter

Connection It is to be connected in It is to be connected in

series mode parallel mode

Resistance It has comparatively low It has high resistance

resistance

Uses It is used to find the amount It is used to find the

of current flowing in the potential difference in
circuit the circuit

Circuit Circuit must be Circuit does not need to

disconnected in order to be disconnected
attach the ammeter

Accuracy Considered as less accurate Considered as more

accurate compared to
ammeter
 The power can not be transmitted directly to the
household, since it is very high voltage. The voltage
is brought down to proper small value before
transmitting to the customer.
 The above requirement is met by the
TRANSFORMER, which can both increase or
decrease the value of the voltage.
 The transformer, which increase the voltage are
called STEP-UP transformer, while the transformer,
which decrease the voltage are called STEP-DOWN
transformer.
 A transformer is an electrical device that
transfers energy between two or more
circuits through electromagnetic
induction.

“A transformer is a device of low voltage

alternating current into a high voltage
alternating current or vice-versa.”
 A transformer is a device that changes and alternating
potential difference(voltage)from one value to another
value be its smaller or greater using the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
 A transformer consists of a soft iron core with two coils
wound around it which are not connected to one another.
These coils can be wound either on separate limbs of the
iron core or be arranged on top of each other.
 The coil to which the alternating voltage is supplied
is called primary coil.
 when an alternating potential difference is supplied
the resulting alternating current in the primary coil
produces a changing magnetic field around it.
 This changing field induces an alternating current in
the secondary coil.
 The magnitude of the induced voltage resulting from
the induced current in the secondary coil depends
on the number of turns in the secondary coil.
 The relationship between the voltage and the
number of turns in each coil is given by

voltage in secondary coil turns on secondary coil


voltage in primary coil turns on primary coil
OR
Vs N s

Vp N p
 Types of
transformer

Step-
Step-up
down
 In a step up tranformer there are more turns on
the secondary coil than the primary coil.The
induce voltage across the secondary coil is greater
than the applied voltage across the primary coil or
in other words the voltage has been “stepped-up”
 A step down transformer has less turns on the
secondary coil that the primary coil.The induce
voltage across the secondary coil is less the
applied voltage across the primary coil or in other
words the voltage is “stepped –down”.
 If it is assumed that a transformer is 100% efficient
(IDEAL TRANSFORMER) (and this is a safe assumption as
transformer may be upto 99% efficient.) then the power
in the primary has to be equal to the power in the
secondary coil, as per the law of conversation of the
energy.
 Power in the primary coil =power in the secondary coil
Remember
POWER = POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE X CURRENT
Thus,
primary coil P.d x primary coil current = secondary
coil p.d x secondary coil current
 Ideal transformation equation
 By Faraday’s law of induction
d
 2   N2 .....(1)
dt
d
1   N1 .....(2)
dt
combining ratio of (1) & (2)
2 N
 2  r.......(3)
1 N1
 Where r is known as transformer ratio.
 For step up transformer, r>1 &
For step down transformer, r<1.
 Electromagnetic
induction was first
discovered in 1830 by
Michael Faraday.
 Faraday first noticed that
when he moved a
permanent magnet in and
out of a coil or a single
loop of wire it induced an
electromotive force.
 In other words a voltage, and therefore a current
were produced.
 So what Michael Faraday discovered was a way of
producing an electric current in a circuit by using
only the force of a magnetic field and not batteries.
 This then lead to a very important law linking
electricity with magnetism, Faraday’s law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
 In 1831, Micheal Faraday formulated two laws on
the bases of experiments. These laws are called
Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction.
 First Law of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction state
that whenever a conductor are placed in a varying
magnetic field emf are induced which is called induced
emf, and if the conductor is a closed circuit then induced
current flows through it.
Magnetic field can be varied by various methods -
1. By moving magnet
2. By moving the coil
3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field

Or
 Whenever a conductor is rotated in magnetic field emf is
induced which are induced emf.
 An ammeter is connected indicated by the ammeter.
in a circuit of a conducting
loop.
 When a bar magnet is
moved closer to, or farther
from, the loop, an
electromotive force (emf)
is induced the loop.
 The ammeter indicates
currents in different
directions depending on
the relative motion of
magnet and loop.
 When the magnet stops
moving, the current
returns to zero as
 Second Law of Faraday's Electromagnetic Induction
state that the induced emf is equal to the negative
rate of change of flux linked with it. (flux linkages is
the product of turns, n of the coil and the flux
associated with it).
 In this figure coil 1 is the coil 2.
connected to a
battery and coil 2 is
connected to a
sensitive
galvanometer G and
is held closed to coil
1.
 When we press key K
galvanometer in the
coil 2 shows a
sudden reflection.
 This indicate that
current is induced in
 This is because current in coil 1 increases from 0 to
a steady value increasing the magnetic field of coil 1
and hence the number of magnetic lines of force
entering coil 2.
 On releasing K the galvanometer shows a sudden
temporary deflection in opposite side. This is
because on releasing the key current in coil 1
decreasing from maximum to 0 value, decreasing
there by the magnetic field lines entering coil 2.
 Hence, we conclude that the cause of emf induced in
a coil is the change in magnetic flux linked with the
coil.
 Let
 Initial flux linkages with coil 1 = Nφ1
 Final flux linkages with coil 2 = Nφ2
 Change in flux linkages= Nφ2 – Nφ1 =N((φ2-φ1)
 If (φ2-φ1)= φ
 Then change in flux linkages=Nφ
 Rate of change of flux linkages with respect to time=
Ndφ/dt wb/sec
 But according to Faraday's laws of electromagnetic
induction, the rate of change of flux linkages equal to
the induced emf, hence we can write
Ɛ= Ndφ/dt volt
 Generally Faraday's laws is written as
 ε = -Ndφ/dt volt
 Where negative sign represents the direction of the
induced current in the conductor will be such that
the magnetic field produced by it will opposing it.
(LENZ LAW)
 Russian physicist
 (1804-1865)
 1834 Lenz’s Law
 There is an induced current
in a closed conducting loop
if and only if the magnetic
flux through the loop is
changing. The direction of
the induced current is such
that the induced magnetic
field always opposes the
change in the flux.
 The direction of induced middle finger shows the
current is given by Fleming’s direction of induced current .’
Right Hand Rule.
 It states that ‘ If the thumb,
fore finger and middle finger
of the right hand is held
perpendicular to each other
such that the thumb points in
the direction of motion of the
conductor, the fore finger
points in the direction of the
magnetic field, then the
 Bar magnet moves through coil S N
v
Current induced in coil
• Change pole that enters N S
v
Induced current changes sign

 Bar magnet stationary inside coil N S

No current induced in coil

v
 Coil moves past fixed bar magnet
S N
Current induced in coil
 Before defining inductance first of all, we will define
an inductor.
 Like capacitor, inductor is another component
commonly in electronic circuits.
 An inductor consists of a coil wound on a core or
former of a suitable material like solid or laminated
iron core which are highly ferromagnetic
substances.
 An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive
two-terminal electrical component which resists
changes in electric current passing through it.
 This property of inductor or coil due to which it
opposes change of current through it called the
inductance denoted by letter L.
 When a current flows through it, energy is stored
temporarily in a magnetic field in the coil.
 The inductance is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil. Inductance also depends
on the radius of the coil and on the type of material
around which the coil is wound.
 Unit of inductance is Henry (H).
 When we establish a
current through an
inductor or coil, it
generates a magnetic
field and this result in a
magnetic flux passing
through the coil as
shown in figure.
 If we vary the amount of current flowing in the
coil with time, the magnetic flux associated with
the coil also changes and an emf ξ is induced in the
coil.
 According to the Lenz’s law, the direction of
induced emf is such that it opposes its cause i.e. it
opposes the change in current or magnetic flux.
 This phenomenon of production of opposing
induced emf in inductor or coil itself due to time
varying current in the coil is known as self
induction and the emf is known as self induced
emf.
 If the number of turns in a coil is N and the flux
linked with each coil is φ then the total flux linked
with the coil is Φtot=NΦ.
 Now if this flux is produced due to the current I
passing through the coil, then the total flux per unit
current is L = Nφ/I .......(1)
 Where L is called self inductance of the coil.
 Now from equ. (1) Nφ=LI
 Differentiating this eq. with respect to time,
d dI
N L .....(2)
dt dt
 From Faraday’s law,
d ........(3)
  N
dt
 From eq.(2) &(3),
dI .......(4)
  L
dt
 If (-dI/dt)=1 then ε =L.
Hence the coefficient of self induction of a
inductor or coil is numerically equal to the emf
induced in the coil when rate of change of current
in the coil is unity.
 The SI unit of inductance is Henry.
 Consider two coils 1 and 2 placed near each other as
shown below in the figure
 Let coil 1 be the primary coil and coil 2 be
secondary coil.
 When current is primary coil changes w.r.t time
then the magnetic field produced in the coil also
changes with time which causes a change in
magnetic flux associated with secondary coil.
 Due to this change of flux linked with secondary
coil, an emf is induced in it and this phenomenon
is known as mutual induction.
 Exa. : In transformer the emf is induced in one coil
by changing current in the other.
 Figure shows two conducting coils near each other
sharing a common central axis.

 Suppose We passed current Ι1 from the coil 1. In this

case there is some magnetic field lines which is
associated with the coil 2.
 If the flux ф2 which is pass to the coil 2 is
propotional to the current Ι1 which is pass through
the coil 1.
ф2 α Ι1
ф2 = M21Ι1
Where the constant of proportionality M21 is
known as mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect
to coil 1.
“The magnetic flux linked with one of the coils of a
system of two coils, per unit current flowing
through the other coil is called mutual inductance
of the system.”
 If we change the current then the flux is change
than according to Faraday’s law emf ε2 is produced
in coil 2.
ε2 = -dф2/dt
= -d(M21Ι1)/dt
ε2 = -M21 dΙ1/dt
 The SI unit of mutual induction L is Henry H.
 It depends upon their shape and size, their
number of turns, distance between two coils, their
relative orientation and magnetic property of the
medium on which they are wound.
 Instead of coil 1, if we set up a current Ι2 in coil 2 by
means of battery, this produces a magnetic flux ф1
that links with coil 1.
 If we change current Ι2 flowing through coil 2, the
emf induced in coil 1 by the argument given above
is,
ε1 = -M12 dΙ2/dt
 The mutual inductance will be same in both the
cases discussed above.
i.e. M21 = M12 = M
This result is called the reciprocity theorem.
 Figure shows N turns of
a conducting wire PQRS ω
in a uniform magnetic P Q

field.
S R
 This coil rotate with a
uniform angular speed ω
with respect to the X-
axis. The magnetic field
is along the Y-direction.
 Let the angle between the direction of the area
vector of the coil & the magnetic field direction be
θ=0 at instant t=0.
 The magnetic flux associated with the coil can be
given as,

0  NA.B  NAB cos  NAB cos 0  NAB ......(1)

 After some time t=t, let the area vector of the coil
which is rotating with uniform angular speed ω
make an angle θ with the magnetic field.
 Hence θ=ωt.
 The magnetic flux associated with the coil at time
t=t,
t  NA.B  NAB cos  NAB cos(t ) ......(2)
 Since the coil is continuously performing rotational
motion, the flux associated with the coil keeps on
changing with time.
 The emf induced in the coil, according to Faraday’s
law can be given as,
d d ( NAB cos t ) d (cos t )
     NAB
dt dt dt
  NAB( sin t ).
 NAB sin t ........(3)
 Where NABω is the maximum value of induced emf.
 The emf varies sinusodially with time. The emf
changes polarity as the coil rotates. And therefore in
a closed circuit an alternating current (AC) result.
 An induction coil is a device for converting low
voltage direct current (DC) into high voltage
alternating current (AC).
 An induction coil actually consists of two separate
coils. The inner "primary" coil consists of
insulated wire wrapped around a central iron
core. The outer "secondary" coil is wrapped
around the primary.
 when current is applied to the primary coil, a
magnetic field is created. The secondary coil is
exposed to this magnetic field.
 The first coil (primary wounding) is small, usually
made up of tens or hundreds of turns of wire. The
secondary coil, (known as secondary wounding) is
made up of thousands of turns of fine wire.
 A steady current in the primary does not induce a
voltage in the secondary. This will only happen
when there is a change in the magnetic flux
created by the primary.
 To induce a current in the secondary, the current
in the primary is rapidly turned on and off. This is
accomplished by a device known as an interrupter.
 In the simplest designs, like the one shown here,
the interrupter was an integral part of the coil.The
interrupter shown here works in the following
manner.
 When current is applied
to the primary coil, the
iron hammer (a) on the
end of the contact arm
is pulled to the ab
magnetized iron
c
contact (b) at the end of
the primary's iron core.
This breaks the
interrupter's contacts
(c) which stops the flow
of current to the
primary.
 Since the core is no longer magnetized, the contact
arm then returns to its normal resting position.
When this happens, the interrupter's contacts are
closed again and current flows to the primary. The
result is a rapid turning on and off of the current
to the primary.
 When the primary current is suddenly interrupted
the magnetic field rapidly collapse.
 This causes a high voltage pulse to be developed
across the secondary terminals through
electromagnetic induction.
 Because of large
number of turns in the
secondary coils, the
secondary voltage pulse
is many thousands of
volts.
 This voltage is often
sufficient to cause an
electric ‘spark’.
 Therefore induction coil
is also known as sparks
coils.
 Induction coils are used quite often in television
sets and other electronic devices where low
voltage needs to be converted to high voltage.
 A car’s ignition system uses an induction coil to
convert power from the battery.
 Solid metals and molten metals are good conductors
of electricity. When electric current flows through
metals, no chemical effects are observed i.e.,
chemical composition of metal does not change. But
only heating effect is observed.
 Most of the liquids do not possess free electrons and
hence they are nonconductors of electricity.
 For example, when two metal rods (electrodes) are
immersed partially in water filled in a container and
circuit is completed, the ammeter (A) does not shoe
any current.
 But when acid or base or an inorganic salt is added
in water, the ammeter shows deflection.
 Here conduction of electricity take place because of
a definite chemical reaction occurring in the
solution.
 The process of electric conduction in this case is
completely different from that in metals.
 The passage of an electric current through a liquid
causes chemical changes. This process is known as
electrolysis.
 The solutions which conduct electric current in this
manner are called electrolytes. The vessel containing
electrolyte along with electrodes is called an
electrolytic cell.
 When electric current passes through a
conducting solution, it causes chemical reactions.
This is called chemical effect of electric current.
 Chemical effect of electric current may cause :-
i) Formation of gas bubbles at the electrodes.
ii) Deposit of metal on the electrodes.
iii) Change in colour of the solution.
 When electric current is passed through water, it
splits up into hydrogen and oxygen. This is called
electrolysis of water.
 When electric current is passed through water
oxygen gas bubbles are produced at the electrode
connected to the positive terminal of the battery
and hydrogen gas bubbles are produce at the
electrode connected to the negative terminal of
the battery.
 Electroplating is one of the chemical effects of
electric current.
 Electroplating is a chemical process using which a
metal is coated with a layer of another desired
metal.
 Electroplating is done to make the metals shiny.
Electroplating is done over the articles made of iron
to make the iron shiny and to prevent iron from
getting rusted.
 Examples : wheel rims, handle of cycle, etc. are made
shiny by the method of electroplating.
 In the process of electroplating, metal salt solution
is taken in a container. Salt of metal is chosen which
is to be coated over another metal.
 Metal which is to be coated is dipped in the solution
and connected with negative pole. Metal for desired
coating is connected with positive pole.
 When electric current is passed through the
solution, metal from anode dissolved in the salt
solution and deposited over the negative pole
(cathode). Thus, coating of desired metal is obtain
on another metal.
 A current carrying conductor creates a magnetic field
around it, this is known as a magnetic effect of electric
current.
 Magnetic effect of electric current is one of the major
effects of electric current in use, without the application
of which we cannot have motors in existing world.
 A current carrying conductor creates a magnetic field
around it, which can be comprehended by using
magnetic lines of force or magnetic field lines.
 The nature of the magnetic field lines around a straight
current carrying conductor is concentric circles with
centre at the axis of the conductor.
 The space surrounding a magnet in which magnetic
force is exerted is called magnetic field.
 The magnetic field has both magnitude as well as
direction.
 The direction of magnetic field at a point is the
direction of resultant force acting on a hypothetical
north pole at that point.
 The magnetic filed lines are the lines drawn in a
magnetic field along which a current would move.
Activity :-
Take the cardboard tray from a match box. Wind an
electric wire a few times around the cardboard tray.
Place a small compass needle inside it. Connect the
free ends of the wire to an electric cell through a
switch. When the switch is ON, the compass needle
deflects. When the switch is OFF, the compass
needle comes back to its original position. This
shows that when electric current flows through a
wire, it behaves like a magnet.
 We know that currents flows in a conductor
whenever there is a electric potential difference
betweens the ends of the conductor.
 If there is a temperature difference between the
ends of the conductor then thermal energy flows
from hotter end to the colder ends.
 Thermal energy flows may also be carries by the
electrons in the conductor and hence resulting the
presence of electric current.
 At the hotter end of the conductor electrons have
slightly higher kinetic energy and hence they move
faster.
 So there is net flow of current towards the end of
the conductor with lower temperature. Thus an
electric current exists in the conductor due to the
difference in the temperature of two ends of the
conductor.
 This phenomenon due to which electricity is
produced when two ends of the conductor are
kept at different temperature is known as thermo-
electricty.
 Seebeck showed experimentally that when two
junctions prepared by connecting ends of two
different appropriate metals, are kept at different
temperatures, emf is developed. This phenomenon
is called Seebeck effect.
 The device prepared in
this manner is called
thermocouple and
metals or alloys used
in are called thermoelements .
 This effect is called thermoelectric effect because
heat energy is directly converted into electrical
energy.
 The emf developed here is called thermoelectric emf
or thermo emf or seebeck emf.
 Thermo emf is of the order of micro volt per degree
celsius.(µV/ ̊C).
 The Seebeck effect is reversible, i.e., if the hot and
cold junctions are interchanged, the direction of emf
(and hence current) reverses.
 The magnitude and direction of thermo-emf
depends on the materials forming the thermocouple
and the temperatures of the 2 junctions.
 To study the variation of thermo emf with
temperature, an iron-copper thermocouple is taken
as shown in the figure.
 One junction is immersed in an oil bath and the
other junction is kept at melting ice whose
temperature is kept constant.
 The temperature of oil bath is increased gradually
by heating it. The galvanometer shows no deflection
as no emf is produced when the temperatures of
both junctions are at the same temperature i.e. 0o C.
 Keeping the junction B at 0oC, the temperature of
junction A is increased. The graph below shows the
variation of the thermo emf with the temperature of
hot junction, with the cold junction at 0oC.
 When the temperature of the hot junction is
increased, and the cold junction is kept at 0o C, the
deflection of the galvanometer is increases i.e emf
also increases till it becomes maximum at tn called
neutral temperature.
 The temperature of the hot junction at which the
thermo emf becomes maximum is known as neutral
temperature (tn). This neutral temperature is
specific for a particular thermocouple circuit.
 When the temperature of the hot junction is
increased beyond neutral temperature, thermo emf
starts to decrease and ultimately becomes zero at
temperature ti called temperature of inversion.
 The temperature of the hot junction at which
thermo emf is zero and changes its polarity is called
the temperature of inversion, ti.
 If the temperature is increased beyond ti, the
direction of thermo emf is reversed.
 The inversion temperature depends upon the
temperature of cold junction and nature of metals
used in the thermocouple. The variation of thermo
emf with temperature t is given by
Ɛ = αt + 1/2βt2
 Where α and β are constants. The values of these
constant depend on the materials of conductor and
the temperature difference of two junctions.
 Temperature of inversion Ti is as much above the
neutral temperature as neutral temperature is above
the temperature of the cold junction. Thus
mathematically
Tn-Tc=Ti -Tn
or Tn=(Ti+Tc)/2
 Hence neutral temperature is the mean of the
temperature of inversion and temperature of the
cold junction.
 Also the rate of change of thermo-emf with
temperature i.e., dƐ/dT is called thermoelectric-
power or seeback coefficient S . Mathematically
S=dƐ/dT
 Peltier effect is named after his discover Jean Peltier
who in 1934 discovered a thermo-electric effect
which is converse of Seeback effect.
 Peltier discovered that "when an electric current is
passed through two dissimilar conductor connected
to form a thermo-couple ,heat is evolved at one
junction and absorbed at the other end. The
absorption and evolution of heat depends on the
direction of flow of current.
 Thus, Peltier effect is the reverse effect of Seeback
effect.
 Experiments indicate that the amount of heat
exchanged at the junction is directly proportional to
the quantity of electric charge passing through that
junction.
ΔH α ΔQ
ΔH = π ΔQ
where π is the Peltier coefficient.
 Peltier coefficient is defined as the amount of heat
energy absorbed or evolved due to Peltier effect
at the junction of two dissimilar metals when one
coloumb of charge passes through the junction.
 Thomson effect is related to the emf that develops
between two parts of the single metal when they are
at different temperature.
 Thus Thomson effect is the absorption or evolution
of heat along a conductor when current passes
through it when one end of the conductor is hot and
another is cold.
 Amount of heat emitted or absorbed in any part of
the conductor is directly proportional to the amount
of charge passing and temperature difference
between two ends of that part of the conductor.
 If ΔQ is the amount of charge passing and ΔT is the
temperature difference between two ends of a part
of the conductor, the amount of Thomson heat
produced ΔH is given by,
ΔH = σ ΔQ ΔT
 Where σ is constant for given metal at given
temperature and is called Thomson coefficient and
is define as it is the temperature difference between
different points of a conductor per unit charge
passing between them.
 Michael Faraday (1834) stated two laws on the basis
of his studies on electrolysis:
1. Faraday’s first law :
 Mass ‘m’ of the substance liberated at the electrode
from the electrolyte on passing electric current
through the electrolyte is directly proportional to
the amount of charge ‘Q’ passing through it.
 If the amount of charge passing in time ‘t’ is ‘Q’ then
mαQ
m = Z Q ……(1)
 The constant of proportionality Z is called
electrochemical equivalent of the substance
liberated.
 Now, Q = I t
therefore, m = Z I t …..(2)
taking I = 1A and t = 1S, m = Z
 “ mass of the substance liberated from an electrolyte
on passing one ampere current for one second is
called electrochemical equivalent of that substance.”
 Unit of electrochemical equivalent is g/c or kg/c.
2.Faraday’s second law: When the same current is
passed for the same time through different
electrolytes, the masses of elements liberated at
electrodes are directly proportional to their
respective chemical equivalents.
 Chemical equivalent (e) of any element is the ratio
of its atomic mass to its valency.
 Let m1 and m2 be the masses of two substance
liberated at the electrodes when same current ‘I’
passes through the two chemical cell, for same time
interval ‘t’ and ‘e1’ and ‘e2’ be their chemical
equivalents respectively then,
 m1 e
 1
m2 e2
Z1 It e
  1
Z 2 It e2
e1 Z
  1
e2 Z2
e1 e
  2
Z1 Z2

 “ The ratio of chemical equivalents and

electrochemical equivalents is constant for all the
elements. This constant is known as Faraday’s
constant (F).”