CAD & Engineering Drawing

Lines and Line Styles

In the first tutorial we learnt how to create simple shapes using the place line tool. The lines we created were all of the same thickness and type.But lines on an engineering drawing signify more than just the geometry of the object and it is important that you use the appropriate line
types.

Line Thickness
For most engineering drawings you will require two thickness', a thick and thin line. The general recommendation are that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines.

A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines.

A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centre lines, dimensions and projections.

Line Styles
Other line styles used to clarify important features on drawings are:
Thin chain lines are a common feature on engineering drawings used to indicate centre lines. Centre lines are used to identify the centre of a circle, cylindrical features, or a line of symmetry. Centre lines will be covered in a little bit more detail later in this tutorial.
Dashed lines are used to show important hidden detail for example wall thickness and holes..
Dimensioning – An Overview
A dimensioned drawing should provide all the information necessary for a finished product or part to be manufactured. An example dimension is shown below.

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate where the dimension starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are drawn
perpendicular to the element you are dimensioning.

In general units can be omitted from dimensions if a statement of the units is included on your drawing. The general convention is to dimension in mm's.

All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading

zero. i.e. .35 should be written as 0.35
Dimensioning – An Overview
 Dimension lines:
Dimension line is a thin continuous line. It is terminated by arrow heads touching
the out lines, extension lines or center lines.
 Extension line:
An extension line is also a thin continuous line drawn in extension of an out line. It
extends by about 3mm beyond the dimension line.
 ArrowHead:
An arrowhead is placed at each end of the dimension line. Its pointed end touches an
out line, extension line or a centre line. The length of the arrowhead should be
about 3 times its maximum width. It is drawn free hand with two strokes made in
the direction of its pointed end.
 Leader:
A leader or a pointer is a thin continuous line connecting a note or a dimension
figure with feature to which it applies. It is drawn at a convenient angle of not less
than 30 degree to the line to which it touches.
Dimensioning – An Overview
Two system of placing dimensions are:

1. Aligned System and

2. Unidirectional System
Types of Dimensioning
Parallel Dimensioning
Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions originating from one projection line.

Superimposed Running Dimensions

Superimposed running dimensioning simplifies parallel dimensions in order to reduce the space used on a drawing. The common origin for the dimension lines is
indicated by a small circle at the intersection of the first dimension and the projection line. In general all other dimension lines are broken.

The dimension note can appear above the dimension line or in-line with the projection line
Types of Dimensioning
Chain Dimensioning

Combined Dimensions
A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel dimensioning.
Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning by Co-ordinates
Two sets of superimposed running dimensions running at right angles can be used with any features which need their centre points defined,
such as holes.

Simplified dimensioning by co-ordinates

It is also possible to simplify co-ordinate dimensions by using a table to identify features and positions.
Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning Small Features

When dimensioning small features, placing the dimension arrow between projection lines may create a drawing which is difficult to read. In order to clarify dimensions on small features any of the
above methods can be used.
Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning circles

All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several conventions used for dimensioning circles:
(a) shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the circle between two lines projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second method dimensions the circle internally.
(b) is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was placed inside the circle. A leader line is used to display the dimension.
(c) the final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow which points directly towards the centre of the circle.
The first method using projection lines is the least used method. But the choice is up to you as to which you use.
Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning Holes

When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they necessary for the function of the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added unless it is considered necessary. The depth of the hole is usually indicated if it is isn't indicated on another view. The depth of
the hole refers to the depth of the cylindrical portion of the hole and not the bit of the hole caused by the tip of the drip.
Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning Radii
All radial dimensions are proceeded by the capital R. All dimension arrows and lines should be drawn perpendicular to the radius so
that the line passes through the centre of the arc. All dimensions should only have one arrowhead which should point to the line
being dimensioned. There are two methods for dimensioning radii.

(a) shows a radius dimensioned with the centre of the radius located on the drawing.
(b) shows how to dimension radii which do not need their centres locating.

Spherical dimensions
The radius of a spherical surface (i.e. the top of a drawing pin) when dimensioned should have an SR before the size to indicate the
type of surface.
Types of Dimensioning
Tolerancing
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on an engineering drawing. The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process
used and the care taken to manufacture a product. A tolerance value shows the manufacturing department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension.

Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either as:
 a general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note specifying that the General Tolerance +/- 0.5 mm.
 or a tolerance specific to that dimension
General Rules for Dimensioning
 Dimensioning should be done so completely that further calculation or
assumption of any dimension or direct measurement from drawing is not
necessary.
 Every dimension must be given but none should be given more than once.
 The dimension should be placed on the view where its use is shown more
clearly.
 Dimensions should be placed outside the views.
 Mutual crossing of dimension lines and dimensioning between hidden lines
should be avoided.
 Dimension line should not cross any other drawing of the line.
 An outline or a centre line should never be used as a dimension line. A centre
line may be extended to serve as an extension line.
 Aligned system of dimensioning is recommended.
 Dimension lines should be drawn at least 8 mm away from the outlines and
from each other.
Representation of Scales
Scale can be expressed in the following two ways.
Engineering Scale
Engineering scale is represented by writing the relation between the
dimension on the drawing and the corresponding actual dimension of the
object itself. It is expressed as
 1mm=1mm
 1mm=5 m, 1mm=8km
 1mm=0.2mm, 1mm=5µm
The engineering scale is usually written on the drawings in numerical forms.
Graphical Scale
Graphical scale is represented by its representative fraction and is captioned
on the drawing itself. As the drawing becomes old, the drawing sheet may
shrink and the engineering scale would provide inaccurate results.
However, the scale made on the drawing sheet along with drawing of object
will shrink in the same relative proportion. This will always provide an
accurate result. It is a basic advantage gained by graphical representation of a
scale.
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
Representative fraction is defined as the ratio of the length of an element of
the object in the drawing to the corresponding actual length of the
corresponding element of the object itself.
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
Example 1
If 1 cm length of drawing represents 5m length of the object than in
engineering scale it is written as 1cmcm=5m and in graphical scale it is
denoted by
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
Example 2
If a 5cm long line in the drawing represents 3 km length of a road then in
engineering scale it is written as 1cm=600m and in graphical scale it is
denoted as
Representative Fraction (R.F.)
Example 3
If a gear with a 15cm diameter in the drawing represents an actual gear of
6mm diameter in graphical scale, it is expressed by

Scale 1:1 represents full size scale

Scale 1:x represents reducing scale
Scale x:1 represents enlarging scale.
Construction of scales
R.F. of the scale
The maximum length of scale to be drawn on the
drawing sheet
The least count of the scale, i.e. minimum length
which the scale should show and measure
The maximum length of the scale to be drawn on the
drawing sheet is determined by the following
expression:
Types of Scale
Scales are classified as
Plain scale
Diagonal Scale
Scale of Chords
Comparative Scale (plain and Diagonal Type)
Vernier Scale
Plain Scale
The plain scale is used to represent two consecutive units i.e., a unit and its sub-division. Example
 Meter and decimeter
 Kilometer and hectometer
 Feet and inches
1. In every scale the zero should be placed at the end of first main division.
2. From zero mark the units should be numbered to the right and its subdivision to the left.
3. The names of the units and the subdivision should be stated clearly below or at the respective ends.
4. The name of the scale or its R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.

Steps
1. Determine R.F. of the scale
2. Determine length of the scale using the formula mentioned earliar
3. Draw the line of the length of scale.
4. Mark zero at the end of first division and 1,2,3,4 and onward etc. at the end of each subsequent
division to its right.
5. Divide the first division into 10-15 equal subdivisions, each division represents the least count of the
scale.
6. Mark the units
Plain Scale
Exercise
 Problem 1: Construct a scale of 1:4 to show centimeters and long
enough to measure upto 5 decimeters

 Problem 2: Draw scale of 1:60 to show meters and decimeters and long
enough to measure 6 meters.

 Problem 3: Construct a scale of 1.5 inches = 1 foot to show inches and

long enough to measure 4 feet

 Problem 4: Construct a scale of R.F. = 1/60 to read yards and feet and
long enough to measure upto 5 yards.
Diagonal Scale
A diagonal scale is used when very minute distances such as 0.1 mm etc. are to
be accurately measured or when measurements are required in 3 units e.g.
decimeter, centimeter and millimeter or yard, foot and inch.

Small divisions of short lines are obtained by the principal of diagonal division

Principle of Diagonal Scale

To obtain the divisions of given short line A B in multiples of 1/10 its length e.g.
0.1AB, 0.2AB, 0.3AB etc.
1. Draw line AB
2. Draw perpendicular from B to C
3. Divide BC in 10 equal parts
4. Number the division points 9,8,7,…,1 as shown.
5. Join A to C
6. Through the points 1,2 etc. draw lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1’,2’ etc.
7. Through the rules of similar triangles 1’1 = 0.1AB, 2’2 = 0.2AB, 3’3 = 0.3AB and
so on.
Diagonal Scale
Diagonal Scale
Problem: Construct a diagonal scale of R.F. = 1/4000 to
show meters and long enough to measure upto 500
meters.
1. Find the length of scale
2. Draw line of length of scale and divide into 5 equal
parts. Each part will show 100 meters.
3. Divide the first part into 10 equal divisions. Each
division will show 10 meters.
4. Add the left hand end, erect a perpendicular and on it
mark equal 10 divisions of any length.
5. Draw the rectangle and complete the scale as shown.
Scale of Chords
In the absence of protector, a scale of cords may be
used to measure the angle or to set the required
angle. The construction is based on the lengths of
cords of angles measured on the same arc.
Scales of Chords
Comparative Scale
Scales having same representative fraction but
graduated to read different units are called
comparative scales.

Comparative scales may be plain scales or diagonal

scales and may be constructed separately or one
above the other.
Comparative Scale
Comparative Scale
Problem: on a railway map, an actual distance of
36miles between two stations is represented by a 10cm
long line. Draw a plain scale to show a mile, and which
is long enough to read up to 60 miles. Also draw
comparative scale attached to it to show a kilometer
and read up to 90 km. take 1mile=1609meters
Steps:
Calculate R.F.
Calculate length of scale for miles and kilometers
Draw plain scale for both km and miles and attach each
other.
Vernier Scale
Vernier scale like diagonal scale are used to read to a very small unit
with great accuracy. A vernier scale consist of two parts i) primary
scale and ii) Vernier Scale.

Primary scale is a plain scale fully divided into minor divisions.

The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on the primary
scale.
GEOMETRICAL
CONSTRUCTION
CED
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
BISECTING A LINE
 To bisect a given straight line
 To bisect a given arc

TO DRAW PERPENDICULARS
 To draw a perpendicular to a given line from a point within it
a) When the point is near the middle of the line
b) When the point is near the end of the line
 To draw a perpendicular to a given line from a point outside it
a) When the point is nearer the
centre than the end of the line

b) When the point is nearer the end

than the centre of the line.
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO DRAW PARALLEL LINES
 To draw a line through a given point parallel to a
given straight line

 To draw a line parallel to and at a given distance

from a given straight line
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO DIVIDE A LINE:
 To divide a given straight line to any number of
equal parts

 To divide straight line into unequal parts ( let AB

be the given line to be divided into unequal parts
say 1/6, 1/5, ¼, 1/3 and ½.)
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO BISECT AN ANGLE

 To bisect a given angle

 To draw a line inclined to a given line at an angle

equal to a given angle
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO TRISECT AN ANGLE

 To trisect given right angle

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF AN ARC

 To find the centre of given arc

 To draw an arc of a given radius, touching a

given straight line and passing through a given
point
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF AN ARC (contd.)
 To draw an arc of a given radius touching
two given straight lines at right angles to
each other

 To draw an arc of a given radius touching

two given straight lines which make any
angle between them.
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF AN ARC (contd.)
 To draw an arc of a given radius touching a given arc and a given straight line.

a) Case 1

b) Case 2
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF AN ARC (contd.)

 To draw an arc of a given radius touching two given arcs

a) Case 1 b) Case 2 c) Case 3

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO FIND THE CENTRE OF AN ARC
(contd.)

 To draw an arc passing through three

given points not in a straight line

 To draw continuous curve of circular arcs

passing through any number of given
points not in a straight line
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
Steps:
1. Let A, B, C, D, and E be the given points.
2. Draw lines joining A with B, B with C, C with D etc.
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC intersecting at O.
4. With O as centre and radius equal to OA, draw an arc ABC.
5. Draw a line joining O and C.
6. Draw the perpendicular bisector of CD intersecting OC or OC produced, at P.
7. With P as centre and radius equal to PC, draw an arc CD.
8. Repeat the same construction. Note that the centre of the arc is at the
intersection of the perpendicular bisector and the line, or the line-produced,
joining the previous centre with the last point of the previous arc.
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO CONSTRUCT REGULAR POLYGON
 To construct a regular polygon, given the length of its side, let
the number of sides of the polygon be seven.
Method 1
a) Inscribe Circle Method

b) Arc Method
GEOMETRICAL
Method 2
CONSTRUCTION
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
SPECIAL METHODS FOR DRAWING REGULAR POLYGONS:
 To construct a pentagon, length of side given

Method 1 Method 2
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO DRAW REGULAR FIGURES USING T-
SQUARE AND SET-SQUARES (contd.)
 To describe a regular hexagon about a
given circle

 To describe a regular octagon about a

given circle.
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO DRAW TANGENTS:
 To draw common tangent to two given circles of equal radii.
a) External Tangents

b) Internal Tangents
 GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
TO DRAW TANGENTS: (contd.)
 To draw common tangents to two given circles
of unequal radii.
a) External Tangents

b) Internal Tangents
GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION
LENGTH OF ARCS:
 To determine length of given arc