2000

Michael Jarzabkowski

The role of acoustics in

preliminary sanctuary
design

Written by Michael Jarzabkowski ©Tel. (410) 695-0645Fax.(410) 695-2220Email mjarzo@gte.netWebsite

home1.gte.net/mjarzoFirst published in: Church Business, Vol. 5 Issue 11, November 2000,by Virgo
Publishing, Phoenix, AZ.
The role of acoustics in preliminary sanctuary design
When a building committee begins planning a new facility, the quality of the
listening environment should be given high priority. Its scientific investigation
1
should begin during the preliminary design stage before plans are committed to
blueprints. At the same time seating capacity is being decided, acoustic design of
the auditorium should begin taking a lead position in determining the layout and
shape of the building. Granted, churchgoers are most often attuned to the visual
aspects of a building's design. Even so, true stewardship dictates that basic
functionality takes precedence. After all, church auditoriums are primarily places
for people to gather and hear the gospel. If that message cannot be heard clearly
by every person in the room, the space could be considered a design failure.

This is not a do-it-yourself article on church acoustics. After all, you would not
expect a how-to article for calculating the acceptable deflection of a pre-stressed
concrete slab at a particular superimposed loading. Likewise, acoustics is an
engineering science with results that can only be predicted through vigorous
mathematical computation and investigation. As a skill, it requires experience
and the development of reliable intuition of one of the most complex natural
sciences known to modern physics. Rather, I hope to foster an appreciation and
basic understanding of acoustics so that intelligent questions can be raised in the
early planning stages of your new sanctuary. These are the questions that ensure
the completed project is a success, not a poor compromise characterized by
remedial treatment.

Very few architects are equipped with the skills to undertake even basic acoustic
design, so it is usually overlooked until late in the project, or not addressed at all.
In some cases, the acoustic consultant is asked to look at the completed plans and
suggest some remedial modifications. An even worse and more common scenario
is to hold off on acoustic consultation until after the project is completed and its
design flaws have become all too evident. Ideally, an acoustic consultant should
be engaged at the same time as the architect, saving redesign time and therefore
money. Here are some basic acoustic parameters that need to be discussed during
the initial preliminary design stage.

Determining the Auditorium Floor Area

The required floor area of an auditorium can be calculated by multiplying the

intended number of seats by about eight square feet (the space typically required
for each seated person), then adding the required aisle space and the desired stage
or platform area. Once the required floor area has been calculated, the shape and
layout of the auditorium should be determined by acoustic requirements and the
calculation of sight lines. Of course, there may be some architectural and
engineering controls on the available shape caused by site constraints or certain
construction methods, but these need to be discussed along with the acoustic
parameters.
2
Working on the Auditorium Volume

Some of the most basic auditorium design parameters have a significant effect on
the acoustic environment, which is why they must be discussed in the earliest
design stage. The ratio of the length to width for a typical auditorium should be
between 1.2 and 1.7. Even more important is the ratio of auditorium height to
width, which should be between 0.4 and 0.7.

If the ceiling is too low, it restricts stage sound from reaching the people at the
rear of the room. If too high, sound reflected from the ceiling arrives much later
than the initial direct sound from the stage and affects intelligibility. Actual ratios
should be an acoustically informed decision based on required seating,
auditorium dimensions, shape, layout and internal angles.

One example of an acoustically sound auditorium is the Concertgebouw in

Amsterdam, with a length to width to height ratio of 1.5 : 1 : 0.63. Built in 1888,
critics still consider it one of the best concert halls in the world. Though not a
church auditorium, the acoustic principles still apply. The ceiling in the 2,200-
seat auditorium is 58 feet high. This height requirement is often difficult to
explain to church building committees because many would rather look at floor
3
area as opposed to interior volume. They often view auditorium volume as
unnecessary; plus, it costs money better spent on something people can see--a
visual feature. To put this issue into perspective, I often ask committees an
anecdotal question: "If a blind and deaf person both attended your service on
Sunday, which of them would leave with a better understanding of what the
church is about?" Hearing is more important to the worship experience than
seeing.

The Auditorium's Plan Shape

Apart from dimensional ratios, the Plan shape of the room also needs to be
considered in the preliminary design stage. Numerous Plan shapes have been
used in auditorium design, from the traditional cruciform to rectangles, squares,
circles, fans, pentagons, hexagons, other polygons and various irregular shapes.
Of these, the most solid choices are fans, rectangles and modified polygons;
square is acceptable if the auditorium is large enough; while cruciform and round
shapes are the hardest to design for good acoustics. After all, the cruciform is
actually four rooms joined together in the form of a cross, so sound from each
4
section affects hearing in other sections. The problem with round or partially
round rooms is that the walls will reflect the sound waves to focus on a particular
point. This is similar to the way a semicircular reflector in a flashlight focuses
light rays into a narrow beam. At the beginning, the committee must resist the
temptation to depart from acoustically tried and tested shapes in search of
something unique that runs the risk of favoring form over function.

The Auditorium's Internal Geometry

After dimension ratios and plan shape, the next most important acoustic
parameter to consider is the relationships between the auditorium's internal
angles or its internal geometry. The angles of the walls, floors, balconies and
ceilings greatly affect how sound from the stage or platform is reflected into
other areas that may be receiving less direct sound. The acoustically ideal room is
one in which all seats receive the same sound level and frequency spectrum. This
is never wholly possible due to the attenuation of sound with distance, but by
carefully modeling the internal angles of the auditorium, the reflected sound can
be "aimed" at those areas that need it and kept away from those that don't.

These reflection calculations used to be done by building a plywood one-tenth

scale model of the internal shape of the auditorium and using mirrors and light
rays to see where reflected sound would concentrate. Modifications were made
by adjusting wall and ceiling profiles and testing again. Today, an accurate 3-D
computer model of the auditorium is constructed and ray tracing programs are
run, showing the amount of direct and reflected sound for every seat in the
auditorium. By adjusting interior wall and ceiling angles (and wall and ceiling
materials) the level and concentrations of reflected sound versus direct sound can
be determined, as well as the frequency spectrum of that sound.

Reverberation Time
The physical characteristics of reflected sound bring us to another important
acoustic parameter: reverberation time. Reverberation time in an auditorium is
the length of time it takes for the reflections from an impulsive sound--like a
sharp handclap--to die away or decay a certain amount from its initial level. The
5
physical expression of this parameter is called RT60 which is the amount of time
required for the reflected sound to drop by 60dB from its initial level once the
source is shut off. Apart from being a measurable quantity in existing
auditoriums, RT60 can also be calculated with relative accuracy from various
empirical formulae and through 3-D computer modeling prior to construction.

RT60 is controlled by the amount of absorptive material in an auditorium. A

simple example of a room with lots of absorptive material is a lounge room with
plush upholstered seats, thick carpets and heavy curtains. Its opposite would be a
large, tiled bathroom or changing room in a sports facility with dressing mirrors
and porcelain bathroom fixtures. A loud shout in each of these rooms quickly
teaches you about the basic concept of RT60 and the effect (or, conversely, lack)
of absorptive materials. It should be noted that every material and item used in
construction has an absorption coefficient. Pews, people, brick, and even
windows absorb some sound, so they must be taken into account during RT60
computations for an auditorium.
Not only does every material have an absorption coefficient, the amount of
absorption varies with the frequency of sound. Carpets, drapes and curtains
absorb mostly high frequencies while wood, sheetrock panels, and thin plaster on
furring strips absorb lower frequencies.
6

The amount of absorption in an auditorium should be fairly even throughout the

frequency range to get a balanced spectrum in the RT60 although a slight bass
rise is considered musical. In practice, the lower frequencies usually require the
greatest design control because they are less likely to be absorbed by padded
seats and carpet. Even concrete blocks absorb some sound, so the precisely
calculated use of a variety of general building materials can result in excellent
acoustics. Contrary to common belief, acoustic design does not mean adding
padding on the back wall after a project is completed!
The optimum RT60 for an auditorium is determinable by both the room's volume
and its intended use. For example, an auditorium to be used primarily for speech
should have a shorter RT60 than an equivalent volume room used mainly for
music. Even the particular music style and instrumentation must be taken into
7
account when determining the optimum RT60 for an auditorium. Contemporary
music requires a lot shorter RT60 value than orchestral music, traditional organ
with choir requires a longer value, and acappella Gregorian chant requires one of
the longest. A lot of research is required to define the optimum RT60s for a
particular church auditorium because the space has to be used for a number of
different functions including speech, music, drama and also audience
participation during worship.

When discussing optimum RT60s, most texts on church acoustics provide three
formulaic curves based on the following delineations: Roman Catholic, High
Church Protestants, and Low Church Protestants. This is an antiquated concept
carried over from an era when the liturgies of each particular denomination were
more uniform and predictable. Such generalizations are no longer true, which
means that new churches--especially evangelical churches that use contemporary
forms of musical worship--do not fit into any of the categories.

Regardless of denomination, determining the optimum RT60 for any new church
requires a detailed study of that particular congregation's current and future
trends. At the preliminary design stage, the ministerial staff and building
committee must sit down with the acoustic consultant and clearly define their
ministry style and future objectives. Once this is done, the acoustic consultant
can provide design specifications that will best meet the church's needs. Areas to
be considered include liturgy, forms and varieties of congregational worship,
different media used in presentations--contemporary band, choir and orchestra
repertoire, drama, plays and musicals--and the use of multimedia technology
including audio-video recording and even broadcast.

Other Factors in Auditorium Acoustics

Many other parameters affect the listening environment, like noise intrusion from
outside (roadways, airports and railways) and from other rooms within the
building, as well as noise from the mechanical equipment for HVAC. Even rain
on the roof can be one such intrusion, and persistent ventilation system noise is
one of the biggest problems in speech intelligibility. Still, surprisingly few
churches consult an acoustics expert to help solve their noise problems. An
acoustic consultant can devise planning concepts that minimize unwanted noise
and also provide design measures to stop noise intrusion wherever necessary.
Finally, we come to the sound reinforcement system itself. While not a part of
this article, the sound system is so closely linked to the acoustics of the
auditorium that its design should be handled by the acoustic consultant. It should
be noted that the installation of a sound system cannot fix inherent acoustic
8
problems in an auditorium. While the sound reinforcement system does not alter
the building acoustics, a good engineer will design the system taking building
acoustics into account. Sound system engineering formulae include a number of
acoustic parameters, but they affect the sound system design and not vice versa.
So often, churches are told that specialized acoustic design is unnecessary
because the sound system will "fix" any problems with the acoustics. This is
inaccurate--some churches go through three or four new sound systems before
they realize that the room acoustics are to blame instead. A clear orator in an
acoustically well-designed auditorium should be able to address 700 people
easily without the aid of any sound system. Installing a sound system does not
make the acoustics of an auditorium better or worse, but it can certainly amplify
any existing acoustic problems.

Needless to say, building committees should rely on expert acoustic advice in the
very beginning to avoid an acoustical monstrosity. It is usually during the
preliminary design stage when a project gets off-track. The final result: an
auditorium (if one dare use the word) in which the congregation has to strain to
hear the message--or worse, cover their ears in self-defense. Often the acoustic
consultant is contacted when construction is almost finished and then asked to
help fix the potential sound problems. By this stage, many of the controlling
parameters are set in stone (more literally concrete), and even the best treatments
will yield mediocre results.
 9
Primary Sources

Building For The Master: By Design

Roe Messner and Ruth Ann Messner. Wichita, Kansas: RAM Media Inc. 1987
257 p. : ill., diagrams ; 26 cm., ISBN: 0940609002
A great handbook which includes checklists for church design and planning. Written by Roe Messner
whose company has designed and built more than 1200 churches in the USA.

Planning And Building Church Facilities

Gwenn E. McCormick. Nashville, Tennessee: Broadman Press, 1992.
253p. ill., 23 cm., ISBN: 0805430113
Deals with a lot of the basics including property selection, finances, committees, and selection of architects.

Building Plans: For Medium/Large Churches

Fred H Turner. Nashville, Tennessee: Sunday School Board of the Southern
Baptist Convention, 1991.
32 p., ill. 28 cm.

Church Architecture: Building And Renovating For Christian Worship

James F. White and Susan J. White. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1998.
176 p. ill, 22 cm. ISBN: 0687081432 DIVINITY NA4810 W45 1998 (LC)
This book deals with some of the theological and liturgical issues in design and renovation of church
buildings.

Places For Worship: A Guide To Building And Renovating

Marchita B. Mauck. Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1994.
71 p., ill. 21 cm. ISBN: 0814622836 DIVINITY BX1970.3 M38 1995
Looks at form and function from the perspective of gathering, entering, reconciliation, communion, and then
going forth.

Churches And Chapels: A Design And Development Guide

Martin Terence Purdy. Oxford, Boston: Butterworth Architecture, 1991.
103 p. ill. 31 cm. ISBN: 0750612223

Building For Effective Mission: A Complete Guide For Congregations On

Bricks And Mortar Issues
Kennon L. Callahan. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco, 2nd ed. 1997.
152 p. 22 cm. ISBN: 0060612800
When Not To Build: An Architect's Unconventional Wisdom For The Growing
Church
Ray Bowman, Hall, & Eddy. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1992.
156 p. ill. 22 cm. ISBN: 0801010314
10
An architect's perspective on timing, finance, mission, and other factors that may cause a church
to reconsider whether they should be building a new facility.

Architecture in Communion: Implementing the Second Vatican Council

through Liturgy and Architecture
Steven J. Schloeder. San Francisco: Ignatius Press 1998.
DIVINITY NA4828 S37 1998 (LC)
Drawing on Vatican II texts, this book attempts to deal with the history and future projection of
Catholic architecture. The questions are examined with regard to theology, iconography, symbolism,
sacrament, and parish community.

Re-Pitching The Tent: Reordering The Church Building For Worship And
Mission
Richard Giles. Norwich: Canterbury Press, rev. ed., 1999.
255 p. 25 cm. ISBN: 1-85311-245-3 DIVINITY Ministry Resource Center G55
An excellent book that gives a brief history of church architecture before attempting to pave a way to
the future. It has some checklists in the final chapter that would be useful during preliminary design.

Architecture For The Gods

Michael J. Crosbie. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 2000.
ART/ARCHITECTURE NA5212 +C76X 1999 (LC)
I have included this book for its excellent photography and the diverse selection of new churches
that are portrayed. Each church featured has an accompanying plan drawing (small) and some
also have sections and elevations. It should help provide inspiration.

Church Builders
Edwin Heathcote and Iona Spens. London: Academy Editions (Division of John
Wiley & Sons), 1997.
224 p. over 450 illustrations, ISBN 0-471-97755-1
"This book traces developments in church building through the momentous changes in architecture and
theology of the twentieth century." Great photograpy, plans, sections, etc. Similar to the book above,
which should help stimulate great ideas.

Internet Sites and Electronic Texts

Church Buyer's Guide: Helping You with the Business of Ministry
Website http://www.christianitytoday.com/cbg/
Lists of architects, builders & contractors, construction management, pre-engineered buildings,
modular buildings, church furnishings, acoustics, audio equipment, liturgical consultants, etc.
This site is run by Christianity Today Magazine
11
Church Architecture: A Resource Network
Website http://www.churcharchitecture.net/index.html
There are numerous practical resources including lists of architects, acoustic consultants,
financiers, and suppliers of fonts, audio-visual equipment, organs, pews, etc.

Church Construction Connection

Website http://www.churchconstruction.com/
More practical resources including lists of architects, acoustic consultants, financiers, and suppliers
of fonts, audio-visual equipment, organs, pews, etc.

Southern Baptist Convention: Church Architecture

Website http://www.lifeway.com/churcharchitecture/
A good site for many denominations during initial planning stages. Lots of standard forms to
download as well as rules-of-thumb regarding zoning areas, square footage, parking, access,
property selection, etc. These topics will be of concern to any denomination planning a new facility.

Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod: Worship Articles

Website http://www.wels.net/worship/articles.html
A worship site for the W.E.L.S. which has about 15 articles on church architecture, along with other worship
information.

Baptist General Convention of Texas: Church Facilities

Website http://www.bgct.org/bgctroot/churchfacilities/publications.htm#fact
A Baptist site with a lot of checklists and standard forms that would be useful to any denomination during
initial planning stages.

Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship

Guidelines of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops
Website http://www.nccbuscc.org/liturgy/livingstonesind.htm
This website has the written text of the architectural guidelines issued by the National Conference of Catholic
Bishops.

Adoremus: Society for the Renewal of Sacred Liturgy

Website http://www.adoremus.org/ArchArticles.html
Documents and Articles of concern to Roman Catholics interested in church architecture and renovation of
worship space.

The Built Environment of American Religion: The State of the Art

Website http://www.materialreligion.org/journal/archbiblio.html
A website by Peter W. Williams that attempts to explore the academic research possibilities in church
architecture
The Catholic Liturgical Library: Art and Architecture
Website http://www.catholicliturgy.com/index.cfm/FuseAction/Art/Index/15
A site dedicated to Roman Catholic theology of church architecture. Numerous Roman Catholic articles
12
Reference Tools

Dictionary of architecture & construction

Edited by Cyril M. Harris. 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000.
1028 p. ill. 24 cm. ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) NA31 H32 2000 (LC)
An excellent practical handbook/dictionary of terms related to architecture and construction with
plenty of diagrams and illustrations.

Dictionary of architectural and building technology

Henry J. Cowan and Peter R. Smith with various contributors. 3rd ed., New
York: E & FN Spon, 1998.
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) NA31 C63 1998 (LC)
A similar text to the one listed above but by different authors. If you're spending a few million on
a project, one of these two dictionaries should be in your church library so you can converse in the
language of your architects, engineers, and construction contractors.

Encyclopedia Of Architecture: Design, Engineering & Construction

Joseph A. Wilkes, ed.-in-chief, Robert T. Packard, assoc. ed., New York: Wiley,
1990.
5 vols.: ill. (some col.), plans ; 29 cm. ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference)
NA31 +E59 1988 (LC)
This is a multi volume work and obviously much more detailed than the two dictionaries listed
above. It tends to cover a lot more historical terms and methods of construction although the
contemporary material is also excellent.

Time-Saver Standards for Building Types (esp. pp. 631-72)

Edited by Joseph De Chiara and John Callender. 3rd ed., New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1990.
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) NA2760 +D42 2001 (LC)
A large and very useful text with lots of design data for numerous building types. The section
on church design is from page 631 to 672 and includes a good basic checklist. I have the 3rd edition
which has 400 more pages than the 4th edition released in 2001.

Time-Saver Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning

Edited by Joseph De Chiara, Julius Panero, & Martin Zelnik. 3rd ed., New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1990.
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) NK2110 +D35X 1991 (LC)
Specializes on interior details and layout of spaces. A checklist section on seating layout, aisles,
and audio-visual systems will be useful for basic reference.
13
Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data
Edited by John Hancock Callender. 7th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 1997.
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) TH151 +T55 1997 (LC)
I have the 6th edition which is a constant reference in the preliminary stages of design for any
building. Sections on structures, materials, building components, and environmental design
including acoustics, architectural and day lighting, and audio-visual. It also includes basic design
data for heating, ventilation, and other mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.

Journals: Electronic and Print

Church Business
Edited by RaeAnn Slaybaugh. Phoenix, Arizona: Virgo Publishing.
Serial, 12 per year ISSN: 1521-3536
This magazine is aimed at ministers, church committees, and other groups interested in the design
and construction of larger churches that make use of contemporary multi-media technology systems.
I have written a number of technical articles for them on acoustics and sound system design.
Some advertising but excellent technical articles and design checklists as well as case studies.

Church and Worship Technology

Edited by Scott Hoover. Scottsdale, Arizona: Workhorse Publishing.
Serial, 12 per year ISSN: 1531-8206
Another magazine very similar to the one listed above. I have written technical articles for both of
these magazines and they appear to be cutting edge publications on the design and construction of
new church facilities that make a serious attempt to integrate contemporary technology.

Church Production Magazine

Edited by Brian Blackmore. Cary, North Carolina: Production Media Inc.
Serial, 6 per year
"The Educational Magazine for Houses of Worship Covering Audio, Video, and Lighting Technologies"

Faith & Form

Edited by Michael Crosbie. The journal of the Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art,
and Architecture.
Serial, 3 per year.
The Interfaith Forum on Religion, Art, and Architecture (IFRAA) is since 1995 affiliated with the
American Institute of Architects (AIA). This is their journal which appears three times per year.

Architecture For Spiritual Guidance: Journal Articles On Building,

Maintaining, And
14
Preserving Churches, 1980-1985
Dale E. Casper, Monticello, Illinois: Vance Bibliographies, 1986.
7 p. 28 cm. ISBN: 0890287775 Series ISSN: 0194-1356

Avery Index To Architectural Periodicals

Serial, Avery Library, Columbia University, 1973-
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) Z 5945 .A93.
Coverage goes back to ca. 1860 in some cases. Indexing data since 1978 are available at the A&A Library
on CD-ROM; and online via the Library home page on the Web http://www.library.yale.edu/art/aa.html
under "direct links to art resources." The Index analyzes all the major architectural periodicals (and many
art history journals) by author and subject. Includes architectural aspects of archeology, interior design
(including mural painting), decorative arts, housing, city planning, landscape architecture, conservation
and restoration.

Electronic Discussion Lists

Thanks to

alt.architecture: building design/construction and related topics.

alt.architecture.alternative: non-traditional building designs.
alt.architecture.int-design: interior design of constructed spaces.
alt.building.architecture:: building industry architecture.
alt.sci.physics.acoustics: acoustics and noise control in auditoriums.
rec.audio.pro: sound system design and installation for auditoriums.
rec.arts.theatre.stagecraft: technical lighting for stage and effect.
Library of Congress Subject Headings

Useful LC subject headings for library research include:

15
CHURCH FACILITIES
CHURCH BUILDINGS
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE
PROTESTANT CHURCH BUILDINGS
CATHOLIC CHURCH BUILDINGS
ARCHITECTURE AND RELIGION
LITURGY AND ARCHITECTURE
CHURCH DECORATION AND ORNAMENT

Bibliographies

Books with lists of other books!

Architecture: A Bibliographical Guide To Basic Reference Works, Histories

And Handbooks
Donald L. Ehresmann. Littleton, Colo.: Libraries Unlimited, 1984.
ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) Ref Z 5941 .E38 1984 (LC)
This is a large volume with extensive lists of resources and reference works in architecture. It tends to
focus more on historical works once the section on Church Architecture is consulted, but the reference
information is quite detailed. It would be a useful reference work for the academic rather than a church
building committee.

Bibliographic guide to art and architecture

New York Public Library. Art and Architecture Division. Boston: G. K.
Hall.Boston, G. K. Hall.
Volumes, continuing. ART/ARCHITECTURE (Reference) Z881 N592 +A77A
(LC)
A continuing series in a multi-volume set which again, tends to focus on historical works, or
contemporary information on historical works. Not a lot for the practician but great for scholarly
research--especially History of Church Architecture.

Christianity And The Visual Arts: A Bibliography

Diane Peters. Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University, 1990.
Description: 113 p. 28 cm. ISBN: 0921821107
Worship Space: An Annotated Bibliography
Thomas V. Stehle & Federation of Diocesan Liturgical Commissions.
Washington, D.C.: The Federation, 1994.
40 p. 28 cm.
16
Conservation And Restoration Of Churches: A Bibliography
Mary A. Vance. Monticello, Illinois: Vance Bibliographies, 1982.
11 p. 28 cm. Series ISSN: 0194-1356

Church Architecture: A Bibliographic Guide To Church Architecture In

Selected
Municipalities And Regions In The United States
Coppa & Avery Consultants. Monticello, Illinois: Vance Bibliographies, 1980.
10 p. 28 cm. Series ISSN: 0194-1356

Modern Church Architecture: A Guide to the Form and Spirit of 20th Century
Religious Buildings.
Albert Christ-Janer. New York: Dodge Book Dept., McGraw-Hill, 1962.

Indexes and Abstracts

Monographs On Church Architecture

Mary A. Vance. Monticello, Illinois: Vance Bibliographies, 1984.
2 v. (249 p.) 28 cm. ISBN: 0890280193 Series ISSN: 0194-1356

Organizations and Institutions

The American Institute of Architects (AIA)

1735 New York Avenue
NW Washington, DC 20006
Website http://www.aia.org/
ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities (ADAAG)
Website http://www.access-board.gov/adaag/html/adaag.htm
The Americans with Disability Act (ADA) guidelines and regulations for the design of new buildings.
17
International Code Council (ICC)
Website http://www.intlcode.org/
This is the council that guides and provides recommendations for the three building codes used in the
USA. Depending on the area, one of the three regional codes will be used: BOCA, ICBO or SBCCI.
The website has links to these three regional code councils.