1

Sociology Notes

Principles of Sociology

Origin of Sociology

Systematic study of sociology started with the Greeks; they consider man as a social
animal and the need of society is indispensable. Plato in his book “Republic” and
Aristotle in his “Ethics and politics” discuss society. The Romans Cicero, Augustine and
Thomas Aquinas discussed society.

The modern sociology was coined by august Comte, he is considering as the founder of
modern sociology. He called it “Social Physics”.

Meaning of Sociology:

The term has been derived from two words. The Latin “Socius: means companionship
and Greek “logos” mean study. So the term literally means the study of human
companionship or association or society.

Definitions of Sociology

Sociology has been defined differently by different social scientists.

1. Auguste Comte: “sociology is the scientific study of society.

2. Max Weber.” sociology is the study of social action”.

3. Kimball Young.” Sociology is the study of human behavior in groups.

4. Park & burgess: “sociology is the study of collective behavior”.

5. MacIver/Sorokin: “sociology is the study of social relationships, the network of

relationship. We called society”.

Conclusion: On the basis of above definition we can conclude that sociology is the science of
Society, human behavior, human interaction and relationships.

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Sociology Notes

Scope of Sociology: -

Society is a web of social institutions. Theses institutions i.e. family, education, Religion,
political, economic etc. are inter related and inter dependent on one another, since all
aspects of society are inter connected and inter linked with each other as the parts of
human body. It is therefore essential that the subject of sociology should study society
as a whole.

Sociology studies social life as a whole, being the study of society, the scope of sociology
is very wide. The subject does not confine its study to only economic or political life of
human beings but to all aspects of life with which man in society is connected.
Therefore we say that sociology is the mother of all social sciences.

The scope has been divided into two divisions’ i.e.

A: scope in the field of knowledge

B: scope in the field of profession

A: In the Field of Knowledge

Sociologists have the primary and basic aim to build up knowledge about the society
and social interaction. The sociologist are required to gain know how about the social
problems and their solutions. This is possible for the sociologist but on the basis of
scientific knowledge.

The specialized fields of sociology, which give knowledge to the students of sociology
about different aspects of human social life, are as under.

I-Rural sociology ii- Urban sociology iii-Medical sociology

Iv-Criminology v-Social psychology vi-Economic sociology

Vii- sociology of religion viii-Industrial sociology ix-Social change and development

x- Sociology of social problems xi- Sociology of education xii-Political sociology

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Sociology Notes

B:-In the field of profession

Sociology is also a professional discipline .it performs the following services as a profession.

1:- Teaching

2:- Research

3:- Administration

1:- Teaching

The person who get great knowledge, become qualified. These qualified persons are
serving in the teaching profession. These teachers in the field of research and surveys
and to transmit them the cultural traits train the students.

2:-Research

The qualified persons in the discipline of sociology are involved in the field of research.
They work to detect serious problems; their factors and are able to get these problems
solved.

3:- Administration

The sociologists are employed in different programs of governmental and non-

governmental organizations as administrator. They direct and guide the people in
organization about development in different sectors .they are doing so and are
preferred, because they are skilled in the same field.

From the above discussion, it is concluded that the sociologist gets knowledge about
society then they serve as teachers, researchers and administrators to make the
development of the community possible.

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Master of Business Administration
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Sociology Notes

Importance of Sociology

Sociology has proved its utility in many ways, discussed as under

1. Locating social problems

The human association is where, there will be a problem. How to locate the
problems is the responsibilities of the sociologist. They bring the attention of the
people towards the problem.
They also differentiate between the more and less severe problems.

2. Scientific Study of Problems

The sociologists are trained in using scientific methods. They study the problems
scientifically and make their solutions possible with the help of sociological knowledge.
3. Solution of Problems
If the problem is located and scientifically studied then their solution is possible,
because of the cause and effect study.
Through sociological study the cause of the problem are found out and also their
effects on the society. Then the remedial measures are easy to be given.

4. Reconstruction
Today every society is engaged in economic as well as political reconstruction. It
is a continuous process, but impossible without social reconstruction, therefore we can
say that sociology helps in political and economic reconstruction.
5. Preserve and Growth of Culture
The sociologists collect information about their culture. They transmit it to
others, they as a teacher doing the same job. The sociologist also write books etc. to
preserve the culture heritage, so they preserve and give growth to the culture in
different ways i.e. writing about the culture and teach it to the students in the subject of
sociology

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Sociology Notes

6. Help in Conciliation
society is essentially homogeneity and it is in diversity that society
develops and progresses .but this diversity has its own problems as well. In a diverse
society the people have different food, clothing and social habits. The people in such a
society can grow if the people belonging to different communities, castes and classes
understand customs, fashions and culture as well as civilization of others. This work is
done in society by a sociologist who provided data, observation and conclusions, which
help in toleration and conciliation.
7. Help In the Growth of Democracy
A sociologist helps in strengthening and developing society. As we are aware that
every society suffers from certain maladies and such evils as prejudices, selfishness,
and as such it is essential that there should be scientific approach to these problems. It
falls upon the sociologist to analyze these problems so that democracy is strengthened
from the very foundation.
8. Comparative Studies of Societies
There are societies spread all over the world, which have different culture and
civilizations. It is essential to have their comparative study both for the sake of
development, progress and growth .such a comparative study can become possible
only with the help of sociology.
Thus sociology helps us in comparative study of societies of the world.

Pure and Applied Sociology

A distinction between pure and applied science is drawn in every scientific field .Both
Pure and applied sociology and discussed below.

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Sociology Notes

A: - Pure Sociology

Pure sociology searches for new knowledge. It pertains to the objective and scientific
study of sociology for the pure knowledge. Pure sociology is not interested in practical
use of knowledge.

B: - Applied sociology

Applied sociology tries to apply sociological knowledge to solve practical problems. It

is the practical application of sociological principles and insights to the analysis and
understanding of a social solution.

All the NGO’s research associations, consultants, researchers, social organizer, social
motivators and technocrats as sociologist are applying the pure knowledge of sociology
to develop the human life.

Basic concepts of sociology

Society

Almost all the disciplines of social sciences use this term but its standardized and
precise definition is lacking .individual is the basic component of society .the interaction
of individuals with each other gives birth to group. The social groups interact /with each
other and develop relationships with each other, leads to a society.

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Sociology Notes

Individuals Group Individual

Group Society Group

Individual Group Individual

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Sociology Notes

The players of team in games are not society, but just an aggregate of people. Within
the society there are patterns and groupings on the basis of likeness and differences.

Meaning of society

The term society has been derived from a Latin word ‘socious’ that means association
or companionship .thus society means ‘A larger group of individuals, who are associative
with each other.

Definition of society

Different social scientists have defined society from their own point of view .some of
the definition are given below.

1. MacIver: -Society is a web of social relationship, which is always changing.

2. Adam smith: - Society is an artificial device of natural economy.
3. Prof Wright: - It is a system of relationship that exists among the individuals of the
groups.
4. Linton: - Any group of people who have lived and worked together long enough to get
themselves organized and to think of themselves as a social unity with well defined
limits.
5. A.W Green: - It is the largest group in which individuals have relationships.

Conclusion:- On the basis of above definition ,we can conclude that society is a larger
group of individuals who are living together ,having common interest ,culture ,social
system and common needs of life .

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Sociology Notes

Characteristics of Society

These are given below:

I. It is the largest human group

II. It satisfies the need of its members
III. It is having sense of belonging and cooperation .it is more or less permanent association
IV. It is abstract (because social relationships can be felt and imagined and cannot be seen)
V. Everyone in society is dependent upon every other member.
VI. It should be organized i.e. will be having division of labor.
VII. It will be having likeness and differences. Due to these differences, variety in human
behaviors and division of labor and specialization of roles is there.
VIII. There is consciousness of kind.”Among the members of society.
IX. It is always changing.
X. It has its own means to survive.
XI. It is a self sufficient social system.
XII. It lasts for a longer period of time than groups and communities.
XIII. It has its own culture.

Basis of society:-

There are three major factors of society. Which form the basis of society, these are as under.

I: - Biological

II: - Geographical

III: - Socio-cultural

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Sociology Notes

I: - Biological Factor:-

This factor emphasizes that the people are grouped and associated with each other due
to biological needs. This factor is pleading for the importance of biological factor for
making a group or association.

II: - Geographical factor:-

This is one of the important factors. It moulds human behavior .behavior represent the
area. This factor is directing human behavior. An individual is doing an activity or acting
according to the geographical structure. The behavior of an individual is shaping
according to the geographical conditions.

III: - Socio-cultural factor

The factor is highly responsible for making up human society. It controls the other two
factors.

I.e. Biological and geographical to a great extent. Culture gives structured aspects of
society and social gives dynamism to that structure. It means culture is the structural
aspects and social is the functional aspect of society.

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Sociology Notes

Types of society:

Following are the types of society

I. Static Society:
A society that experiences little or no changes from one generation to another. A
simple and non-literate society was considered to be static society. These kind of
societies remained so for thousands of year. Little changes are taking place in simple
societies because of the transportation and communication systems, the spread of
knowledge etc.
II. Folk/Traditional Societies.
This is an ideal type of society; a folk society is small, isolated, non-literate and
homogeneous with a strong sense of group solidarity. This society has fewer social
institutions, simple culture with old ways of life exists, old means of communication,
slow social changes and population is not much and homogeneous .social life is found
.there is no formal legal system.
III. Modern Society: -
it is based on expansion of education, technology and industry urban life, it has a
complex culture, heterogeneous social life is found.
IV. Nomadic Societies
nomadic societies have no permanent place of settlement .the people change
their place with luggage. They usually use camels, donkeys and other animals as a
source of transportation. The cultural traditions have very forceful binding upon the
members.

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Sociology Notes

V. Sedentary Society
it is opposite to nomadic. In this society the people have permanent settlement
in rural and urban areas.

VI. Gemeinschaft
Given by Ferdinand Tonnies .it is a German word means community. It is
a generalized or ideal type of society in which social bonds are based on close personal
ties of friendship, close association and kinship. It is closely approximated by rural
agricultural societies.
VII. Close Society
a society in which social class is based primarily on family status rather than
personal abilities, capabilities and achievements .it is and an intermediate form
between an open class society and a caste society system. The chances of achieved
statuses are very limited in the fields of occupation, educational, religious, economic
and political institutions in a close society. The chances of social mobility are lesser as
compared to an open class society.
VIII. Primitive Society
Means a non literate society. The cultural environment controls the entire
human activities. The culture has simple technology, cultural homogeneity and isolation
from larger cultural influences.
IX. Rural Society
it is sparsely populated. The profession is mostly agriculture, can be called as
agriculture society. They live in farmstead settlement .there is slow rate of change.
X. Urban Society
having a large heterogeneous population, complex division of labor impersonal
social relations, relation is also casual, secondary, complex and formal. There is formal
social control. There is diversity in profession, education religion etc.

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Sociology Notes

XI. Secular Society

it is primarily a non-religious society in the sense that there is no official
(state) religion.
XII. Sacred Society
it is primarily heterogeneous, integrated and stable. Human relationship
and valve system are regarded as absolute, natural, rigid and fixed. Most of the third
world countries can be placed under this category. Religion is the cultural ethos of a
sacred society.

Community

Meaning of Community

It is the combination of two words i.e. ‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means serve i.e. serve
together is called community.

“Socrates had said about the person who is independent of his fellow beings and is unable to
live in society/community is either beast or God.

Men like trees need roots therefore they must have a soil to root themselves, where groups of
men living together can create some attachment to a particular locality. This if fundamental
connection between place and community, men have never lived alone. A requirement of
existence has been the social bonds that unite each man to others. The closest being those of
the family and close kin groups. But other wider social bonds have ever been needed to link
man to more extensive social arrangement .the structure developed from these more public
ties has been called communities.

In simple terms a community is a population rooted in one place where the daily life of each
member involves contact with and dependence on other members.

Cities Districts Provinces States World

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Sociology Notes

Definition of Community

Different social scientists have defined community differently, given as under.

1:-Bogardes:-

It is a social group with some degree of “we feeling and living in a given area”

2:- W.Ogburn:-

Total organizations of social life within a limited area.

3:- Prof.Manzar:-

“A Society that inhibits a definite geographical area is known as community.

The above definition means that community is a group of people having common
locality, common interest and common ways of need satisfaction.

Basic Elements of Community

The basic elements of community is discussed as under

1:- Locality:-

A community occupies a territorial area permanent or changing .the people are having
belonging to their locality and develop “we” feeling each other.

2:- Sentiments:-

The community sentiment is the social coherence, which the people inculcate within
themselves. This sense belonging together and to the residence is the real sentiment of
community .hence a common way of life of people along with its awareness on a
common territory is community.

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Sociology Notes

3:- Group of people:-

Community is the totality of individual with similar conditions of life; thus it is a group of
a people living together similarly.

4:- Common life: -

One of the elements of community is that there is always common life. There is no up
and down and inequality in community.

5:-Particular Name: -

A community is always identified by its name. Thus a community is having its own
particular name.

6:-Permanence:-

The membership of the community is permanent. An individual is always identified

through his community. Thus community is permanent in its nature.

Essentials of Community:

Community has the following prerequisites to be fulfilled:

1- Physical Part:
Physical part of community includes territory, buildings. Roads, streets and lawns etc.
2- Means of Production and Employment:
People in a community must have some means of earning; production and employment.
They become employers of a private firm, company, man or government or have their
own business.
3- Services:
The people of community have health, education, recreational, transportation and
communication and other facilities of life. The type of community has the type of
facilities. The standard of community depends upon the available facilities.

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Sociology Notes

4- Relationships:
There is a network of relationship in a community. May either be primary, secondary or
territory.
5- Primary Relation:
Primary relation is the natural one. The members have no choice to change it.
Socialization process is taking place mostly in the group. Examples are family, family.

6-Secondary Relation:-

The individual are less personal, no emotional attachments with one another, casual
contacts etc. examples are the interaction between shopkeeper and customer,
employers and his employees and industrialist and workers etc.

7-Tertiary Relation:

These need no physical relationships. In these relations we know about a person

through news paper, radio TV, and we have no personal contacts with him/her.

For example, we do not have much interest and whether Mrs.Helry Clinton or Mr.
Obama would be selected or not as president of USA is the example of tertiary relations.
We have contact with them through print media, electronic media and other sources of
communication.

Characteristics of Community

Following are the main characteristics of a community.

1. Needs fulfillment

A group of people living together in an area fulfils their needs by mutual cooperation.
This group may be so small as village, hamlet(small town), or a mohalla in a town or city.

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Sociology Notes

2. Territory

The condition for a group to be a community is that they live together in a territory and
fulfill the needs of their social life.

3. Sense of belonging/community sentiment:

A group of people having a sense of belonging to place of residence creates a

sentiment(feelings) of community .A community has two types of sentiments, which are
not found in other groups i.e.

Firstly: A sense of belonging to its territory

Secondly: A sense of belonging to one another

4. Face to face interaction:

The cohesion among members is created by close face to face social interaction .they all
know one another and frequent meet at different occasions i.e. funeral, at birth, at
marriage ceremony etc. a situation of primary group is mostly created among them.
Cooperation and mutual help are the formation of mutual relationship.

6. Common culture
community is a group of people having common culture .mostly they
have characteristics of a local group. They have their own social norms, which are
different from the norms of general public.
7. Interdependency:
The person of community depends upon one another. By interdependence
upon one another they can called as an organized group. This organized group of
people having social system performs its social functions according to the ways of the
community.

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Sociology Notes

Types of Communities:

Communities have been classified into rural and urban communities due to different
social conditions in both areas.

a. Rural community
b. Urban community

A:-Rural Community:

the community, which has primary relationship, personal relationship, face to face
interaction, dependency on each other, small size of population, low density of
population, social control is informal i.e. through family and religion is the rural
community

Characteristic of Rural Community

I. The population generally small living in villages not more than 5000 individuals.
II. They have no modern facilities i.e. water, gas, telephone, hospitals, college, industry,
hotels, etc.
III. Agricultural is the main profession of rural area.
IV. The settlement is that of farmstead i.e. houses are away from one another, built in the
farms.
V. Informal social control i.e. exercised by family and religion.
VI. Marriages are endogamous i.e. within the same bradari (group).
VII. The population is homogeneous.

B: - Urban Community

There is impersonal relationship, no face interaction, large size and high density of
population, formal social control exercised by state.

It is based on rational will and money is the chief form of wealth.

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Sociology Notes

Characteristics of Urban Community

I. The population is more than 5000 individuals.

II. Modern facilities are available i.e. health, education, security, gas, telephone, water,
etc.
III. The population is heterogeneous i.e. diversity in professions, caste, class, education,
residence, language, race, religion, sect etc.
IV. There is a variety in professions.
V. Marriages are exogamous i.e. outside the bradri.
VI. There is faster social mobility in urban area.

Role and Status

There are two important elements of a social system according to Loomis and Beegle.

These are discussed in detail as under.

Definition of Roles:

I. The culturally defined set of behaviors that are considered appropriate within a
given society.
II. “The part each person must play to create with the status for an individual

within a given society.”

III. According to Shakespeare “the world is a stage and all men and women merely
players.”

All participants in a collective activity have particular roles to play. These roles form
a society .

For Example, tellers role and the customer role are interdependent aspects of a
collective activity.

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Sociology Notes

Different types of roles required different types of behavior to be followed to

become a successful person, for example.

 A police officer expected to be courageous.

 An imam, peace loving and emotionally secure.
 A leader full of initiative.
 So these persons develop typical types of personalities which are mostly
distinguishable from one another.

Types of Roles

In broader sense the roles can be classified into two categories.

1. Ascribed Roles.

2. Achieved Roles.

1. Ascribed Roles:

Ascribed role are assigned to an individual automatically at the time of one’s birth. In
this category race, sex, and caste are included, as the roles in these categories fixed and
rigid, the roles result in different types of personalities.

For example the personality of a boy is quite different from a girl in Afghanistan society.

The ascribed roles are contrary to individual freedom of occupational choice, social
mobility and equality of educational opportunities.

Such a rigid system of social stratification kills the initiative of talented persons.

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Sociology Notes

2. Achieved Roles:

Achieved role are left open to an individual’s initiative, abilities, or efforts.

For example every person is free to compete for the president ship of Afghanistan, if he
or she fulfills the basic qualification laid down the constitution. In the same way an
individual can achieve the role of a doctor. Professor, engineer, etc. after having
requisite qualifications in every competitive society. There are multifarious roles, which
are achieved by competition.

Definition of Status:

Obviously, not all people have the same amount of money, prestige or social
influence. These things are desired by almost every one, but are unequally distributed in
any population. It is impossible to rank the people in society in terms of their Income,
prestige, education or power. A person rank based on these standards, in his or her
socio-economic status. More often, however we classify people much more loosely on
the basis of only one or two standards, income alone and usually into only a few
categories such as “upper class”, Middle class and lower class.

Types of status:

There are two types of social status

1. Ascribed status

2. Achieved status

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Sociology Notes

1. Ascribed status:

Roles which are assigned on the basis of standards over which a person has no control.

When status is ascribed, people are assigned to high or low position on the basis of their
characteristics, such as royal birth, caste birth or sex. The high rank of princess is
ascribed. She is assigned to that role simply by being born to her particular parents
instead of the laborer and his children etc.

Another example is that of sex. Males have almost always been chosen as leaders and
female expected to be followers. Some time males and some time females are
discriminated against in one way or the other way on the basis of ascribed status.

2. Achieved status:

“Roles are assigned on the basis of standards over which a person has some control,”
when status is achieved, population or people are assigned to high or low position on
the basis of how well they have been showed their ability to perform various roles. The
high rank physician is achieved status. They have to show certain abilities before they
are allowed to practice medicine. Industrialist societies are more likely to use achieved
status. Industrialist work requires division of work to perform the work efficiently and
other abilities to run the business.

That’s why this is said that “roles be based on what people can do, not on the basis of
who they are.

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Sociology Notes

Social Organization

Definition of social organization:

I. Elliot and Merrill: “Social organization is a state of being, a condition in which the
various institutions in a society are functioning in accordance with their recognized
or implied purposes.
II. Earnest Jones: “Social organization is the system by which the parts of the society
are related to each other and to the whole society in meaningful way.”

Formal organization (bureaucracy)

Meaning and Definition

Bureaucracy is composite of two words “bureau” which means office and “cracy”
means rules or order. Thus bureaucracy means office rules and orders.

A bureaucracy is a formal, rationally organized social structure that carries out the work
of a large organization. It consists of a pyramidal structure of different levels of power
and responsibility, with carefully defined procedures of operation .it originates in the
need for efficiency, integrity, and uniformity in a large organization.

According to Merton, “bureaucracy is a formal, rationally organized social structure

involving clearly defined patterns of activity in which, ideally every series of actions is
functionally related to the purpose of organization.”

In simple words “it is a hierarchy arrangement of an organization parts based on the

division of labor and authority.”

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Sociology Notes

Characteristics of bureaucracy:

Max Weber found that bureaucracies have the following characteristics

1. Division of labor:
The staff and activities of an organization are divides into units called offices or
bureaus. Each bureau has certain carefully described responsibilities and each job is
designed to meet a specific need. Suppose in bank there is a division of labor similarly in
secretariat .each member does his own duty according to his ability and capability.
2. Hierarchy of authority:

Organizations are run by a chain of command hierarchy of bosses and workers who are
in turn, the bosses of other workers.

I.e. Board of director. Middle level management .lower level managers.

3. Public office:
The office and the organizations written files are in a separate location from employees
home and families and are not subject to their influence. Each bureaucracy has a public
office which will remain though the person may be removed.
4. Merit selection:
Organization select members on the basis of merit, using standardize criteria such as
civil service examinations or educational training rather than friendship, political or
family connections.
5. Career pattern:
Employees are expected to devote themselves completely to the business of the
organization and recognize that people work their way to the top. As one move up in
the hierarchy, job security and salaries improve .seniority is recognized, valued and
rewarded.

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Sociology Notes

6. Objective rules:
The operation of the organization is governed by a consistent set of rules that define
the responsibilities of various positions, assures the coordination of tasks, and
encourage the uniform treatment of clients. These rules are quite stable and
comprehensive and they can be readily learned and followed.

Bureaucracy is a term mostly often connected with government but is a characteristic of

all large organizations, large corporations, government offices and university.

Imperfection of bureaucracy:

This model of bureaucracy which Weber lines should be a model of efficiency. In practice,
however there are some difficulties.

1) Bureaucratic tendency to confuse means with ends:

The procedure become an end in themselves, and collecting data and filling reports
becomes a substitute for doing anything about a problem. It is said that every army
prepare to fight the last war, keeping obsolete equipment well shined and practicing
outmoded maneuvers. The national health organization may worry more about the
health of the organization than about the health of the nation. Some organizations are
successfully solving their problems. Which are given to them.
2) Inherent conflict of rigid rules of procedure:
Rules required that all cases be handled alike, but in special cases this creates injustice,
but if bureaucrats break the rules whenever they feel it justified, the result is unequal
treatment and perhaps corruption.
3) Bureaucracies are inherently inflexible, and slow to adapt to changed needs or
circumstances:
To change procedures is an arduous task. It is simpler to follow the rulebook and let
someone else worry. Every bureaucracy has many functionaries busily performing
useless tasks. Some time rules impose injustices, or to make it impossible to do that is
necessary.

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Sociology Notes

4) Inefficient through the multiplication of personal and procedure:

It is easier to introduce a new rule procedure, form, or position than it is to abolish a
needless one. so personnel increase while forms, reports, and other paper work
multiplies, and functionaries spend more and more time pushing paper and conferring
with one another ,unless any organization periodically reexamines all its procedure
,position, and paper work, inefficiency will grow relentlessly .
5) Isolation of higher level executive:
In a small business operation, the owner operator can easily know what is going on in
shop. But in a huge corporations, with thousands of employees scattered over the
globe. And multiple layers of intermediate officials separating the board of directors
from workers, the directors have difficulty in finding out anything except what their
subordinates want them to know.

Values

Definition of values

Anything getting importance in life becomes our values. The origin of values is not
biological process. It is a social production. It means while living in society the values
develop .values depend upon the social structure and the culture. Cultures vary in all
societies: therefore the values differ from society to society.
We know that our values are what we like and say well in our life. Liking a thing,
selecting a thing or idea as good, emerges as a result of social living. The collectively
liking or customary behavior provides experience of good thing and ideas to the people.
These things and ideas are called values.
When a natural object acquires a meaning it becomes a value .an object without
meaning has no value. Attitudes and values are correlation. The thing toward which an
attitude is directed is a value.

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Sociology Notes

Some of the values are hereditary; the culture is full of values. Cultural values are
transmitted or learnt from others through generations living in a group. These values
are received from parents, elder and books etc.
Values changes very slowly, if a rapid change occurs, there will be social unrest and
frustration among the people.

Examples of values

Values differ from culture to culture and society to society. For example:
I. Tenets of Islam are great value for Muslim countries society.
II. Confucius teachings for Chinese.
III. Faith in Islam, safety of life, Honor to National flag and anthem, chastity and modesty
of women, respected for parents, teachers and religious leaders, generosity, mercy
upon the aggrieved, truth, wearing National dress and respect for the Holy Quran and
Arabic writings are our national values

Every value can be achieved through its respective institution. Every society has its own
culture and its own social structure. This social structure is made of five basic
institutions i.e.

Family, economic, religious, Political and educational. These institutions work according
to the prevalent culture.

Types of values

There are two types of values i.e.

1. Culture values.
2. Social values.

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Sociology Notes

1. Cultural values
Cultural values are hereditary and form core of the culture.
“Cultural values are the traditional values.”The customs, rituals (Prayer, Hajj and
sacrifice) styles and fashion remains in the core of cultures.
The values give shape to the culture and society. They are ideals of society. The people
seek direction in their behavior from these values. They remain live in the experience of
our elders, books and religious and ethical literature. The deviation from culture values
creates serious social problems.

2. Social values
Social are the modern values. These are the current values of social groups in a society.
The young people like them. They accept social changes according to the social
requirements. These values direct towards social progress. University, music,
competition etc .are the instances of social values.

Social Norms

The standard of appreciation and the standard of right and wrong vary from culture to
culture and society to society. The tendency of adjustment in a group or society requires
the fulfillment of that expectation. If the person fulfills the group expectations will easily
be adjusted.

A social situation is created when the interaction process work among the members. In
such situation how the initiator starts the interaction and what the receiving members
expect from the initiator, are the roles defined by social norms.

Definition of Social norms

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Sociology Notes

A few definitions of social norms are the following.

1. Social norms are the shared expectations of group members in a social situation.
2. Social norms are the standards of right and wrong in society.
3. Social norms are the code of ethics.
4. Social norms are the customary ways of life usually approved by people of the
society.
5. Social norms are the codes of mutual relationships.
6. Social norms are defined roles in a society.

Functions of Social Norms

The people living in the society develop social norms. These norms have its importance
and pay a vital role in the socialization of an individual and molding of personality. There
are some important functions of social norms, which play essential part in the smooth of
the society. These functions are given below:

1. Control behavior:

Social norms provide a set pattern for our behavior within the context of that pattern
our behavior acts and works later on this set pattern becomes custom, when socially
approved .then the people are expected to follow these customs. That pattern i.e.
custom becomes the way of life every is expected to follow that way, and therefore it
becomes the shared expectations of the group members.

For the fear of punishment the people follow these customary ways i.e. norms in their
social life .in this way the behavior of the people is controlled.

2. Harmonize the society:

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Sociology Notes

Another function is that the behavior of the people becomes systematic and patterned.
A person does according to the ways provided by society. In society harmony among
members of group is created. Due to harmony of behavior certain laws can be enforce
to control them.

3. Law and order:

Due to harmony in behavior, law and order can be maintained in society. For a disorderly
society no law can work because of unsystematic behavior of people.

Culture

Introduction

Culture is one of the important concepts in sociology. Its significance in sociology is

quite different from every body

No human society can exist and develop without its culture .the main differences
between animal and a human society is of culture only. Animal societies have no culture
because they do not have the system of learning and transmitting social experiences.
Sociologists are keenly interested in the study of culture because the study of human
society is incomplete without it.

Definition of Culture

Different sociologists have differently defined the term culture.

1. Taylor: “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge belief, art morals,
law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by a man as a member of
society.”
2. White: culture is symbolic, cumulative and progressive process.
3. Herskovits: “Man-made part of environment is the culture.”

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Sociology Notes

4. John Beattee: “ Culture is the way of life which is transmitted from generation to
generation”

Conclusion:

On the basis of above definitions we can conclude that culture is the design, pattern, ways
and procedures of different activities, which the member of a society follow and transmitted
from generation to generation.

Characteristics of Culture

From the definition it becomes clear that sociologically culture has specific meaning
and characteristics .it the product of human behavior and gaining knowledge through
groups. It is a system of learned behavior and set procedure. Some of the salient
characteristics of culture are as under:

1. Culture is learned:
Most of the behavior is learned in society. This learning might be conscious or
unconscious but nobody can deny the process of learning. The uniformity of culture in a
society is clear example. I.e. mostly the same pattern of culture prevails among the
members of society.
Culture is something learnt and acquired e.g. wearing cloth or dancing. It is not
something to natural to the parson.
2. Social concept:
Cultural is not an individual but on the other hand it is a social concept, it does not
relate to an individual behavior but concerns with group behavior.
3. Cultural is actually shared:
All the traits, attitudes, ideas, knowledge and material, object like radio, television, and
automobiles etc. is shared by members of society. However, every member of society
may not share these material and non material objects equally. For instance, every
person is not possessing radio, automobile etc, which are found in our culture.

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Sociology Notes

4. Culture is transmitted:
All the cultural traits and objects are transmitted among the members of society
continually. Most of the culture traits and material objects are transmitted to the
members of society from their forefathers learning and transmission process maintains
continuity in culture.
5. Culture is ever changing:
Culture never remains static but changing. It is changing in every society, but with
different speed and causes, it constantly under goes change but adapts itself to the
environment.
6. Culture is accumulative:
Culture is not a matter of a month or a year; it is transmitted from one generation to the
next. Then the new cultural elements added up as the need arise. Many culture traits
are borrowed from out side culture.
7. Linked with the past:
Culture is communicated and transmitted from one generation to the next. It has a
linked with the past, because it has come from the past, without past cultures not have
survived.
8. Culture manifests man’s mind:
Culture manifests man’s mind in varying moods in the charging course of history .what
kind of changes occurs in the human behavior, culture represents those changes.

Types of culture

Types of culture are discussed below

1. Material culture
2. Non-material culture
3. Real culture
4. Ideal culture

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Sociology Notes

1. Material culture:
From material culture we understand material and physical objects. For instance,
house, road, vehicle, pen, table, radio set, book etc. these are the products of human
efforts to control his environment and make his life comfortable and safe
2. Non Material culture: In non material culture we include non material objects. For
example religion, art, ideas, customs, values system, attitudes, knowledge etc. it does
not have physical shape. It is very important in determining human behavior and has
strong hold on an individual.
3. Real Culture:
Real culture is that which can be observed in our social life .the culture on which we act
upon in our daily life is real culture. It is that parts of culture which the
People adopt in their social life, for example
If a person says that he/she is a Muslim, will be, when followed all the principles of Islam
is the real and when doesn’t follow, is not a real one.
4. Ideal Culture:
The culture which is presented as a pattern to the people is called ideal culture. It is the
goal of society and never achieved fully because some parts remain out of practice. This
culture is explained in books, speeches etc.

Cultural Uniformity

All societies have go their culture. Every society has its own culture. The culture of one
society is different from the others, but among these societies there are certain traits
common which have their biological, geographical, and social background .on this
ground similarly is also found .this similarity among all culture is called uniformity of
culture.

Most of the Islamic countries are cooperating with one another in these fields on the
basis cultural uniformity.

Examples of Cultural uniformity

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Sociology Notes

A few examples of cultural uniformity are given below.

I. Uniformity in Religion: Religion is a belief in supernatural powers. These are different

religion in the world but each society has got belief in supernatural powers. Every
society has certain ways of faith in the unknown. There are unforeseen and unexpected
event, which is the main aim of language everywhere in the world.
II. Language: Language is the media of communication .different societies have different
language for interaction. But their exist a reliable system of communication, which is the
main aim of language everywhere in the world.
III. Family and marriage: Family is the old and basic institution. This is to perpetuate the
race and society. There can be different forms and systems of marriage and family, but
the customs and pattern of marriage and responsibilities for the children and
socialization exist in every culture.
IV. Political system: The states have different political system for social control. It includes
government, political parties, rules and regulations. Some societies follow democracy
and others dictatorship or kingship. What so ever, the difference may be present, but
the uniformity is that, there will be political system.
V. Normative order: For keeping order in society, there is normative system, Norms are
the standards right and wrong, A valid system is given in society by culture, which is
approved by the people. This normative system or normative order is to be followed by
everyone.
According to this system those who violate rules of the society or state are considered
to be the criminals and they will be given punishments through a legal system.
VI. Education: Formal and informal education is the necessity of life and of the day in all
human societies. Through education, individual of the societies get their culture. The
culture can be transmitted from generation to generation through education. So
education is the source of transmission of culture.

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Sociology Notes

Ethnocentrism

All societies and groups assume the superiority of their own culture, this reaction is
called ethnocentrism.

The ideas and customs about which people are ethnocentric vary from society to
society, but all know societies and all groups within a society, display ethnocentrism.

Culture both aids and hinders human adjustment. We could not live without culture,
sometimes it is not easy to live with it.

Definition of ethnocentrism

The tendency to judge other ways of life by the standards of one’s own groups.

1. Sumner:
“The view of thing in which one’s group is center of everything and all others are scaled
and rated with reference to it.”
2. M Iqbal Chaudhry:
“A belief that one’s own group, race, society and culture is good, normal, right and
superior to other groups. Culture, Society, and race that are Inferior, Wrong, Abnormal,
and bad”

Ethnocentrism makes our culture into a yardstick with which to measure all other cultures
as good or bad, high or low, right or queer in proportion, as they resembles ours. It is
expressed in such phrases as “chosen people” progressive, superior race, true believers,
backwards people and savages etc.

We are usually quick to recognize ethnocentrisms in others and slow to see it in

ourselves. e.g.

I. An ethnocentric person may believe that Muslim men who marry several wives are
sick or sinful or at best ill advised.

Ii. An ethnocentric westerner or other may laugh at the Hindu taboo against eating beef

(Flesh of an ox or cow).

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Sociology Notes

III.The ethnocentric Chinese will laugh at the others unwilling to eat dogs.

Ethnocentrism is an attitude of regarding one’s own culture or group as inherently

superior to others. Ethnocentrisms expresses an inability to appreciate the various view
points of others culture where languages, religions, morality and ethical standards, are
different, such an attitude is responsible for creating many personal; group racial,
sectarian and cultural problems ranging from an individual to international level.

Advantages of Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is not always harmful for the individual and societies. It also performs
positive functions. These are as under.

1. Loyalty and patriotism:

The individuals remain loyal to their groups and culture; they feel satisfaction with
their own culture setting, values system and normative order of the society. It
encourages patriotism to one’s own society and culture.
2. Contentment /No confusion:
The individual would remain in contentment and satisfaction with their culture. They
are saved, to a greater extent from the confusion to understand what is wrong or right,
good or bad and normal or abnormal in different cultures. The proverb “ignorance is
blessing” applies here.
3. Integration and solidarity:
There is contentment and unity of thought and action people remain loyal their own
culture, group and society. Thus it can bring more solidarity and inter group,
cooperation which leads to integration and unity.

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Sociology Notes

4. Concentration to one’s own problems:

An average man find readymade solution of the problems confronted by him in
different social solutions of his daily life, he will be concentrated to his own problems
instead of others. He will easily understand his local problems and will provide/suggest
solution to these problems. He will not think for the problems of other people of other
culture, group and race.

Disadvantages of Ethnocentrism

It has some disadvantages, which are given below.

1. Hinders/blocks development and unity:

Ethnocentrism blocks the road to growth of human knowledge and religious
teachings. The unity and integration of different societies become difficult. It brings
conflict among different social institution, which may lead to social disorganization
and higher rate of crimes.

2. Social problems:
Ethnocentrism can be seen in the shape of sect, race and ethic problems e.g. Shia
and Sunni in different Muslim countries, Whites in Africa and America.

Some time it takes the form of conflicts, was and other types of destructive
activities among two or more societies, it brings frustration and restlessness among
the people of different groups, castes, classes. Religion and sects in such a way that
they waste most of their energies, time and resources in unhealthy activities.

3. Individualism:
Ethnocentrism spreads up individualism. It is difficult to achieve the greatest degree
of mutual affection, cooperation, close association and “We group feelings” among
the members of society.
It decreases the better understanding of individual of other groups, cultures and
societies. It leads to isolation and backwardness of the countries and nations.

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Sociology Notes

Socialization and Personality Development

Introduction of Socialization

An individual faces so many situations in life, in every situation he /she has to play
different roles. For this purpose leaning of norms is necessary, which enable her/him to
do so. This learning of norms is called socialization. The individual by learning social
norms and playing different roles, get experience of social life is called socialization.

Socialization in life is a long process and continues to the end of life. It is the process
which makes the personality of a person. When a new individual i.e. baby is born in the
society, requires the languages, cultures, norms, attitude etc. of the same society. This
task can be only done by socialization process. Due to this process an individual can
develop his/her self and personality.

It is the process of interaction of individuals with each other in a group life. Through this
process individuals develop personality and culture can be transmitted an individual
develop personality and culture a can be transmitted from one generation to the next.

It is concluded that socialization is life –long process of learning the culture and
transmitting it to the next generation.

Definition of Socialization

Different sociologists and other have defined socialization variously.

1. Mack and young: “the process of inducting an individual into the social world is called
socialization”.
2. C.H.Cooley: “A process through which an individual develops his self by learning norms
is called socialization.”
3. Ogburn: “Socialization is the process of learning the norms of the group and society.”
4. Bogardus: “A process of learning to live and work together is called socialization”.

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Sociology Notes

Conclusion:

On the basis of above definitions we can conclude that socialization is a learning process
through which an individual adjust himself in society and find his role and position in
society.

Socialization Process

When individual comes to the world and starts living in this society of human beings.
He/she knows nothing about how to talk, eat, and wear etc. according to the need of
society. In this trouble some time period of childhood socialization starts. This is mostly
in primary group when the members have to face interaction. This face to face
interaction is important in the process of socialization. As a result of face to face
interaction, identical process starts in individuals. By the identical process the infant
learns to believe like others. This identical process is called incidental learning or
philological learning. By this process infant identifies the values and attitudes of adults.

Four conditions for identification

There are four fundamental conditions which are necessary and by which an individual
identifies himself/himself with the adults. The conditions are given below.

A. Interaction must occur between the infant and adult.

B. The adult must be able to satisfy the child in the required.
C. Dependence relationship must be developed between the child and adult.
D. The adult must be able to keep control over the resources, which the infant/child
needs.

For family structure and birth order, personal adjustment in the family etc. teachers and
parents are the principal agents of socialization .through the help of these agents, the
process of socialization is to be taken place.

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Sociology Notes

Socialization is a process by which relations are developed and children learn from the
elders. Through socialization process person identifies himself/herself.

Characteristics of socialization

The process of socializations can be understood from the following characteristics.

1) The process of socialization starts from birth and continues till death. It never
stops, however, the speed and nature of socialization is different at different stages
of life.
2) The process of socialization converts “human beings” into “social beings” so that he
might be able to play his role more effectively and as a member of organized group.
3) Healthy growth of personality is possible only due to proper socialization.
4) With the help of socialization, the culture is transmitted to the next generation.
5) With the passage of time, the individual leads the old roles, responsibilities and
interest and adapt the new ones. This process is called re-socialization.
6) When the child is made involved in the process of his own socialization, he is given
the freedom and is encouraged to bring to the front his hidden qualities, this is
called participant socialization.

Socialization is a two way process i.e. not only adults socialize the children, but
sometimes adults can also be socialized by children .e.g. his educated child may
socialize an uneducated father.

Agencies/Means of Socialization

The agencies of socialization of an individual can be classified into two broad categories I, e.

a. Informal

b. Formal

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Sociology Notes

A. Informal: the most important are the informal agencies that play their part good for the
socialization of an individual. These agencies are locally practicing for the socialization of
the individual. These agencies are the basic ones. Informal agencies of socialization include:

i. Family
ii. Neighborhood
iii. Play/Group/Peer Groups
I. Family:
Family has been discovered as the main source for developing good personality. A
baby during the starting period of socialization attaches to the parents, especially
with mother. It is not only the mother, who stands important for baby, but the
entire family serves as the context in which abilities and value are learned. Structure
of the family and size are important factors in the child’s development. Small
families give more attention to the children than the big families. Through family
child can learn language, symbols, values, parent’s attitude about importance of
education, patriotism, work, religion, etc.
II. Neighborhood:
This is another informal agency that plays of socialization. A child goes out of family
or home mix up with others of the neighbor. They interact with each other and learn
much from each other. During this process, give and take is happened among them.
III. Playgroups/Peer groups:
Young people spend their time considerably in neighborhood and especially
playgroups or peer groups. People of the same age are important for each other for
the process of socialization.

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Sociology Notes

B. Formal:

Formal agencies are equally good for the socialization of an individual. Formal
agencies have written rules and regulations to be followed and do work are done
accordingly.

These agencies are usually under the control and support of the state. These
agencies are as under.

i. School, College, and University

ii. Mosque
iii. Mass Media
iv. Education.
I. School:
It is important agency of socialization. School plays important role after informal
agencies. It teaches more than reading, writing and other skills. It also teaches the
student to develop themselves according to the norms of society, to cooperate with
each other and to obey the prevailing rules of society. School teaches citizenship,
the country geography, history and national integration etc.
II. Mosque:
Mosque is one of the important agencies. It moulds the behavior of an individual. It
let the individual know about good and bad, right and wrong. It lays stress especially
on morality and keeps check on the activities of the individual.
III. Mass Media:
It is also important agency of socialization. There are two types of media. One is
electronic media and the other one is print media. Both of them include television,
radio, newspaper, magazines etc. Are the largest sources of socialization
Socialization through mass media can be good as well as bad. It can be so,
because if we observe the movies on T.V. and other literature are good, but on the
other hand if movies on cinema like that horror, crime, etc. are bad from these
movies the young generation takes effects and gets like the socialization.

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Sociology Notes

IV. Education:
Education occupies an important place in the socialization agencies. On one side it
gives sources of livelihood and on the other it provides the source of transmission of
culture. So through education the desired type of socialization is taking place and
the same type of personality will be developed. It means that.

Culture Socialization Personality

From the above discussion on the agencies of socialization, it is clear that both
informal and formal agencies are equally paying important role. Informal agencies
are basic source of the formal agencies. Informal agencies prepare an individual to
follow the formal agencies. So one is proved a source for other.

Personality

Culture Socialization Personality

Sociologically speaking that every has a personality, irrespective of the fact that it is good or
impressive or unimpressive etc. thus from a beggar to the president and form a criminal to the
chief justice of the country, everybody has personality. It is difficult to attribute, the personality
of an individual as good or bad, because a person may be good to his children and his wife, but
may not behave nicely with his subordinates. Further the meaning of good or bad, right or
wrong, brave or coward varies from culture to culture i.e. these al are relative terms .so we are
unable to determine as to what type of personality is desired or undesired universally.

For instance, a killer in peace time is considered criminal, while during a war a person killing
the enemy is decorated, garlanded, awarded and becomes national hero.

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Sociology Notes

Personality is the product of social interaction in group life. The feelings and actions of a person
in the society is attributed the personality, covers all the roles of a person, which he/she plays.

Personality is the result of socialization, unique pattern of behavior, thoughts and feelings are
the components of personality.

A sum of our habits, behavior and feelings is called our personality.”

Meaning of Personality

The word personality has been derived from the Latin word “persona” which was used for the
“Mask “utilized by the actors to change their appearance, but Roman times it was taken as a
particular itself. Since that time it is used for distinctive characteristics, thoughts, behavior and
attitude for an individual.

For social psychologists and sociologists personality is not just out the word physical
characteristics of a person but personality are the combination of individual’s thoughts,
characteristics, behavior, attitudes, ideas and habits. Personality is the product of social
interaction in group life. It is the result of socialization.

Definition of Personality

Some of the definitions of personality are given below.

1. Ogburn and Nimkoff:

“Personality is the totality of sentiments, attitudes, ideas, habits, skill and behavior of
the individual”
2. J.F.Cuber:
“Personality is the sum total of the observed and observable characteristics of a
person.”

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Sociology Notes

3. Kimble Young:
“Personality consists of habits, attitudes and ideas which are built-up around both
people and things.”

4. G.W.Allport:
“A person’s pattern of habits, attitudes and traits which determine his/her adjustment
to the environment.”

Factors/Determinants of personality

There are many factors contribute towards the formation of personality. Anyhow, the
factors affecting the formation of personality are enumerated as under.

1. Biological factors
2. Social factors
3. Physical environment
4. Situational factors.
1. Biological factors:
We find that in every family the children inherent many traits and features from the
family. Vigor weakness, energy, lethargy, intelligence, cowardliness and courage etc. are
certain traits which individual inherent. It s however believe that heredity alone acts,
though it acts to some extent with certain features of social life. But undoubtedly
heredity furnishes material, which moulds personality.
2. Social factors

Birth of an individual is the signal for experience in group life and to adjust one’s abilities
according to group expectations. In most of the cases it depends upon the group life or
social relationship or social interaction that an individual will be law abiding or criminal,
freethinker or religious minded etc. In group life every person play sand bolds roles and
status in society, personality especially its social aspects can be seen sociologically as a

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Sociology Notes

combination of roles that an individual plays in his/her social relationship. For example
in our society mostly the young persons are expected to be submissive to their elders
and their opinion does not carry more weight in comparison to their elders. So far the
personality development of an individual many social factors are involved as affecting
ones like social environment, group life, family, media, and many others with which
individual interacts in daily life.

Therefore we can say that what so ever comes in contact during interaction with
individuals affects the personality of the individual. These social factors are important
from the point of view that the either good or bad personality can be developed
through these factors.

3. Cultural factors:
Cultural factors also play its role. Culture whether material or non material affects
personality. The relationship between culture and personality involves, on the one side,
the total social heritage available to the individual and to which he/she consciously
respond and on the other, the integral character of the individual being. The culture
of any society determines the personality of the individual. The behavior of the
individual is the result of the cultural expectations.
Whatever is setting up for the individuals in the society by culture, will be
followed. Conformity to the culture is considered to be good personality or normal one
and non conformity as abnormal.

4. Physical environment:

Physical environment includes land, fertility of land, hills, rivers, forests, etc. this
physical environment plays role in the formation of personality. For example, the people
living in hilly areas have different health, stamina; physique color etc. in comparison to
the people of plain area. Other example is that for urbanities and ruralities etc. Physical
environment affects the structure of some parts and affects personality trait like
feelings, emotions, ideas, attitudes, habits etc.

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Sociology Notes

5. Situational factors
The personality traits are not permanently fixed, but they can be changed according to
the social situations an individual confronts. e.g. a person may be honest to his wife, but
not to Neigh borers or subordinates.

Types of personality

There are three main types, given below.

1. Extroverted personality
2. Introverted personality
3. Ambivert personality

1. Extrovert personality:

Those individuals who are highly socialized ads like to live with others. They would like
multiple group membership. They are usually drivers, excessive drinkers and smokers
etc.

2. Introvert personality

It is opposite to extrovert; those individuals who always live in their own imaginary
world. They usually live in their rooms. This group includes teachers, scientist, thinkers
and philosophers etc.

3. Ambivert personality

Some thinkers believe that in between the two types of personality there is a third one,
which is Ambivert personality.

Those people who are enjoying both the parties are called Ambivert personality. Some
time they want to live with other people outside their rooms. But sometimes they like to
live alone. They are middle mind personality.

Sayed Muallim shah

Master of Business Administration