Module 2

i-Link College of Science and Technology, Inc Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences
MODULE 2:
Module Overview:
In the previous module, you were introduced to the various discipline of the social
sciences. In this module, you will analyse the basic concepts and principles of the major
social science theories: Structural-functionalism, Marxism, Symbolic Interactionism,
Psychoanalysis, Rational Choice, Institutionalism, Feminist Theory, Hermeneutical
Phenomenology, and Human-Environment Systems.
The learners shall be able to interpret personal and social experiences using
relevant approaches in the Social Sciences and evaluate the strengths and weaknesses
of the approach.
Module Outline (list of topics)
2.1 Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Theories

2.2 Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Ideas
Target Learning Competencies (MELC)
LC 2.1.a Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
theories:a. Structural-functionalism b. Marxism c. Symbolic
Interactionism
LC 2.1.b Apply the major social science theories and its importance in examining
socio-cultural, economic, and political conditions. a. Structural-
functionalism b. Marxism c. Symbolic Interactionism
LC 2.2.a Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
ideas: a. Psychoanalysis b. Rational Choice c. Institutionalism d.
Feminist Theory e. Hermeneutical Phenomenology f. Human
Environment Systems
LC 2.2.b Apply the social science ideas and its importance in examining socio-
cultural, economic, and political conditions.
LC 2.2.c Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
ideas: Psychoanalysis, Rational Choice, Institutionalism, Feminist

Theory, Hermeneutical Phenomenology, Human-Environment Systems
Performance Standard:
The learners shall be able to interpret personal and social experiences
using relevant approaches in the Social Sciences and evaluate the strengths and
weaknesses of the approach.
LESSON 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Theories
Lesson Objectives:
a. Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science theories:
b. Apply the major social science theories and its importance in examining socio-
cultural, economic, and political conditions.
STRUCTURAL FUNSTIONALISM
Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is essentially a sociological

theory revolves around the notion that society is composed of a system of
interconnected parts that have their own particular functions. Functionalism views
societal living as shaped and guided by social structures, or the patterns of social
relationships between groups or individuals.
Social structures formed among groups or institutions are referred to as
macrostructures, which include religion, education, tradition, and culture. On the other
hand, social structures established among individuals or within groups that result in
individual interactions are called microstructures. Education, as an example of a
macrostructure, shapes the minds of students to become productive members of
society. Addressing elders with respects, as an example of microstructure, patterns and
shapes the younger generation to promote social values.
The effects of social structures or their purpose are called social functions. Every
social structure has a corresponding social function. This relationship between social
structures and social functions are the parts of the system which structural functionalism
identifies and investigates, as it perceives the city as composed of structures and
functions. However, the end product of social structures is not always what it was
originally intended for or even immediately knowable.
To better understand functionalism, one can use the human body as a point of
analysis. Humans subsist through the various organs that function differently yet
symbiotically with one another. These functions are often exclusive, such that the
stomach’s role to digest food is not that of the brain’s, whose primary role is to process
sensory stimuli. However, when one function does not perform properly, the entire
organism experiences the effects of such malfunction (the person experiences sickness,
for example). In the same manner, society is composed of various parts (institutions and
structures) that function under certain rules (norms). When structures of society do not
function as intended, the society experiences chaos.
Key Concepts in Structural Functionalism

Manifest and Latent Functions
A manifest function is the predicted, intended, expected, and knowable effect of
a social structure. For example, people go to churches in order to pray and to pray and
to hear mass.
A latent function is the unintended outcome of social structure. So, if the
manifest function of going to church is to pray and hear mass, its latent function is to
gather people together in one place to reinforce bring about positive effects or
outcomes.
Manifest and Latent Dysfunctions

A manifest dysfunction is the predicted, expected, and knowable disruptions of
a social structure. For example, a large gathering of people such as concerts and other
events disrupts traffic flow within the vicinity of the event, even though it was not
intended to do so.
A latent dysfunction is the unpredicted and unexpected disruptions of social
structures. For example, there are customers who usually take pictures of their food in
social media. But since these customers are not only the ones doing so, the average
time spent by customers in their tables increased. The latent dysfunction in this example
is that the next customers will likewise have an increased waiting period.
Manifest and latent dysfunctions bring about negative effects of outcomes. For
the sociologist, studying manifest and latent functions is a way to promote the benefits
of such functions and further develop social structures. But because manifest and latent
dysfunctions are contrary to the idea of systems in society, sociologists focus more on
the dysfunctions to promote social stability and solidarity. Understanding manifest and
latent dysfunctions helps sociologists assess risks and prepare accordingly. Such
assessments and preparations can be useful in different fields and professions.
Important Theories
Auguste Comte
As discussed in the previous unit, Auguste Comte provided an analysis of social
evolution through his Law of Three Stages. Comte provided a theory of society and
man’s cognitive profession from religious and abstract concepts to a scientific
perspective. Comte’s ideas are considered as the precursor to structural functionalism,
as he identified tradition and other social structures as elements in shaping the society.
The Law of Three Stages itself is a critique of the social structures and of how humans
were shaped by progressive thinking.
Herbert Spencer
Similarity discussed in the module on sociology was the contributions of Herbert
Spencer, who is known as the first sociological functionalist. His comparison of society
of the human body is the overacting idea of structural functionalism. According to
Spencer, each social structure, just like a body part, has a purpose and function in the
overall well-being of the society. He also compared the way organism evolved to how
society develops. For Spencer, the progress or decline of a society will be determined
by how it handles constant problems. This idea of progress and decline is called
Spencer’s evolutionary model as applied to societies.
Talcott Parsons
Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) was an American sociologist known as one of the
primary contributors to the development of structural functionalism. Parsons identified
the different systems which make up the structure of society, which he called systems
levels. The systems he expounded on were the following: the cultural system, social
system, personality system, and biological system. All these systems work and interact
with each other in some level to provide structure to the society.
The cultural system is the structure that the society generated throughout history
so that people can socialize and live together as a community. The social system is
understood as the roles people have in society. The personality system refers to how
individuals affect society through their personality, attitudes, behaviours, beliefs, and
other characteristics. Lastly, the behavioural or biological system is the physical body of
the individual and the environment where he or she lives in.
Davis and Moore

Kingsley Davis (1908-1997) and Wilbert Moore (1914-1987) were American
sociologist known for the functionalist theory of stratification or Davis-Moore hypothesis.
Their hypothesis suggests that social inequalities are necessary so that society would
function. Further, social inequalities are even viewed desirable as the entire society
benefits for them – from the poor, the middle class, and the rich.
Robert Merton
Robert Merton (1910-2003) was an American sociologist who was also a key
contributor to the functionalist theory of society. Specifically, he was the one who
developed the concepts of manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions, which were
briefly explained in the first part of this module.
Almond and Powell

Gabriel Almond (1911-2002) and Bingham Powell (born 1942) are American
political scientist who applied structural functionalist theories in comparative politics.
Before the theory of structural functionalism was introduced in political science, states
were studied in a manner that they had the same systems upon which they operated on
and were subject to the same laws and production processes. Almond and Powell,
however, argued that the study of political systems of different states must be done
contextually. They highlighted the need to understand the institutions through which
political systems were allowed to function. Finally, the particular function and the
historical context which developed and established these institutions must also be taken
into account in conducting research.
Criticism and Limitations

The following are the general criticism against the structural functionalism theory.
1. Functionalism compares the purposes of an institutions to that of an individual. Such
comparison allows the error of reification – when an object or a thing is regarded as
something alive that has its own needs and purposes – to take place.
2. Functionalism falls for the fallacy or circular reasoning. Functions are seen as
existing because they are functional in society. This argument, however, was
modified by Merton in his theory of dysfunctions.
3. Because of its idea that everything has a function in society, functionalism finds it
difficult to explain social changes. If it is held that everything functions in society,
then there is no need to change. In case there is a change, it is attributed to the
gradual process of evolution; however, evolution does not account for rapid social
changes such as revolutions and war.
4. Functionalism is also criticized by how it sees the individual as a mere actor who
follows roles and is shaped by society. Hence, the sense of individuality is taken for
granted and is explained as a predicted social pattern and behaviour that are
accustomed to the values and norms instituted by the society.
MARXISM
Marxism is a sociological, political, and economic philosophy that is based on

the ideas and theories of Karl Marx (1818-1883). To understand the ideas of Marx, the
historical backdrop from which he lived – during the Industrial Revolution of the 19 th
century – must be considered.
Before the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the primary source of living in
many European countries was farming or agriculture – related work. However, with the
rise of factories, such character changed, which caused farmers to abandon their fields
to become factory workers. The introduction of machines enabled rapid advancements
in the production process, which allowed faster market trade and consumption of goods.
This development provided factory owners with profits that enable them to invest in
factory expansion. This cycle of production and consumption continued to create an

economy, which became known as industrial capitalism.
Industrial capitalism created two classes in society, which Marx termed as the
bourgeoisie (the factory owners or capitalists) and the proletariat (the industrial workers
or labourers). The bourgeoisie controls the means of production (factories, machines,
and land), while the proletariat, who does not have access to such means of production,
exchanges labour for wages. For Marx, this relationship between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat is a form of exploitation because the former gains profit the labour and
services of the latter.
Key Concepts in Marxism

Social Inequality
In a capitalist society, oppression and exploitation are among the social
inequalities that exist between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx argued that the
profit form goods should be equally divided among the labourers since they are the
ones who work to produce such good. But in reality, they are given low wages and are
often asked to work in terrible working conditions. For Marx, capitalists steal by taking
the profit themselves, while leaving the workers with salaries disproportionate to the
work that they provide. This setup, according to Marx, is perfect example of social
injustice.
Since the means of production is central to Marx’s sociological perspective, the
control of the means of production denotes control over society. In other words, those
with economic power have control over the political system and the other institutions of
society. Due to this overwhelming control and power, the bourgeoisie even takes control
over how the proletariat thinks. This idea is what Marx refers to as ideological control,
wherein the ideas of the ruling class are instilled in society through the institutions it
dominates. The ruling class manipulates minds so that the masses will remain
subservient. Ergo, a capitalist society makes people think that certain goods, which are
sold by capitalists for profit, are necessary for human living and happiness. The
labourers, in turn, would buy these goods using the wages they received form their
employers and the cycle continues. Marx calls this mind set false class consciousness,
and he believe that it allows the rich further exploit the masses.
Class Conflict
Class conflict or class struggle arises from the oppression of the proletariat by
the bourgeoisie. Such oppression happens whenever a society has a stratified and
hierarchical class division, and it is more evident in a capitalist society, where the
manipulative force of capitalism creates tension between the classes.
With his work written for the proletariat, Marx believed that labourers would soon
realize such oppression and ultimately break free from the imposed false
consciousness. Marx advocate for a revolutionary consciousness to fight back against
the capitalist oppressors. At the end of the revolution, a communist society will then be
established, which for Marx, will make the citizens happy as they will be treated equally.
A communist society is characterized by a classless society having common ownership
or property and resources (means of production). Private property and profit-based
economy are replaced by public ownership and control of at least the means of
production by the community.
Important Theorists
Marx and Engels
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) was German philosophers and
political scientists, who are regarded as the fathers of Marxism theory. Marx and Engels
were friends, and they collaborated many times. Their most notable work together was
Communist Manifesto, published in 1848.
Marx and Engels presented in Communist Manifesto their core ideas in a way
that the proletariat could easily grasp. Thy laid out their thought in a simple and
systematic manner which does not require the reader to be part of the academic elite in
order to understand. The Communist Manifesto provided a sociological perspective in
the understanding of history. For Marx and Engels, history is determined by the history
of class struggles and conflicts between the oppressor (bourgeoisie) and the oppressed
(proletariat). The bourgeoisie, who controls and monopolizes the means of production.
The proletariat, who contributes much to the profit of the bourgeoisie, remains as mere
workers.
V. Gorden Childe
Vere Gordon Childe (1892-1957) was an Australia archaeologist and philologist.
Childe used Marxist economics as a tool in distinguishing periods of prehistory and in
tracing the evolution of western civilization.
Production is central to Marxist economics because it is the means by which
human living is maintained and sustained. It is through the process of production where
the bourgeoisie and the proletariat engage with one another and where exploitation and
oppression occur.
Theodor Adorno
Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) was a German philosopher and sociologist. His
most notable work, Dialects of Enlightenment (1944), was made in collaboration with
Marx Horkheimer (1895-1973) who was also a German philosopher. In this work,
Adorno and Horkheimer criticized the capitalist ideology by taking off from where Marx
began. For Marx, capitalist ideology places value and focuses on commodities so that
consumers would find necessarily in buying material goods. Marx called this effect of
capitalist ideology as fetishism of commodities. Fetishism of commodities places value
on consumerist goods by making the masses want and desire to consume them.

1. A general criticism to Marxism theory is that the ideals of communism – which aim to
established a society with citizens being treated equally and enjoying a communal
ownership and control of property and resources – do not require a revolution to take
place. Counterarguments against Marxism criticize the need for a class conflict and
a revolution of the proletariat, which are violent in their very nature.
2. Marx’s idea of historical materialism – a notion which supports that technological
progress in the modes of production results in changes to society – is seen as very
limiting. Critics argue that societal development takes place not only through
material changes but also through ideas, cultures, and other aspects of society.
3. Historical determination directly supports historical materialism as it tracks all
societal changes and development from an economic basis. However, critics argue
that the main proponent of change is not strictly confined in economic progress but
through the entirely of human experience.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONASM
Symbolic interactionism is a theory on society that focuses on the individual’s

interactions with objects and other people. It perceives reality through the composition
of social interactions and the understanding of the meanings of these social interactions
that provide a perspective on social order and social systems. The basic premise of
symbolic interactionism is that behaviour is influenced and can only be examined
through social interactions.
Considers the following, for instance. The Filipino word for wisdom is often
thought of as bintana, which came from the Spanish word ventana. For the Spaniards,
the window is associated with ventilation, which allows cold air to circulate around the
house and the hot air to get out. A ventana or bintana is simply a house feature that
vents air out. However, the formal word for window in Filipino is not bintana but
dungawan. For the Filipinos, the window is associated with something to look outside
on; but more than that, the dungawan is a place where Filipinos could socialize at.
Typically, an individual opens his or her window to see the neighbourhood, to greet
people passing by, and to learn about the latest news in town.
Symbolic interaction explores the social dynamics between people and how they
assign meanings to things. Actions are guided by these meanings, such as the usage of
the word window in a Filipino society. But as the word dungawan has changed over time
and was replaced by the word bintana, so does the meanings associated with things.
Therefore, symbolic interactionism explores not just associated of meanings but also
the changes that occur interactionism explores not just association of meanings but also
the changes that occur with the association.
Symbolic interaction goes down from the superstructures of society to the very
individual who inhabits it. As such, it goes beyond the changing definition of the word
window in Filipino society – it goes beyond the meanings that individuals associate with
things, and how they differently give meaning to things. Symbolic interactionism can
also be applied in other disciplines such as anthropology and psychology.
Key Concepts in Symbolic Interactionism

Interaction-based Meaning
It can be said that meaning is not monopolized by single person or perspective –
something can have different meanings as there are different perspectives. Actions are
determined by the meanings people associate with things. In sense then, symbolic
interactionism sees reality as an association of meanings. As meanings change, so
does society. Even interactions with the environment are only done through the
meanings assigned to them. A tree can be perceived as a source of shade during a hot
day, or as means to produce a thousand sheets of paper. Symbolic interaction sees
reality not just as meanings but sees meanings as constitutive of reality itself. Hence,
culture, science, society, and mathematics to name a few are only as real as the
meanings assigned to them.
Human Agency
Humans are perceived to be active social actors who willingly negotiate their
roles and identities within and through the system. This concept emphasizes the
capacity of humans to project and plan their actions based on certain goals formed for
the betterment of their conditions. Hence, despite the impositions of a greater structure,
the individual can be seen as an active player in the interpretation and modification of
the structure’s and rules and processes.
Important Theories
Herbert Blumer
Herbert Blumer (1900-1987) was an American sociologist who coined the term
symbolic interactionism. A central idea to Blumer’s works is that social reality is in a
continuous process of creation. This idea stems from the notion that social interactions
create social reality. Since there are multiple and simultaneous interactions happening
in a society at a given place and time, it allows that social reality is in a constant process
of creation and reinvention.
Symbolic interactionism, for Blumer, has three basic premises:
1. ‘’Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings that things have for
them.’’
Actions are highly dependent on the perceived goal. An individual ascribed a
meaning to a particular goal and this affects his or her actions toward achieving
it.
2. ‘’The meanings of things derive from the social interaction. ‘’The meanings
ascribed by individuals to things are formed form their interaction with society. In
a sense, the individual accepts the meanings of things given by society.
3. ‘’These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process
used by the person in dealing with the things he or she encounters. ‘’ Meanings
are in a constant flux; they are evolving each time interaction takes place and
each time an individual reflects on these interactions. Although the interpretation
of things and the corresponding meanings produced are internal and subjective,
the elements which formed the meanings are highly social and come from
interactions. As such, the creation of meanings requires, in some level,
conformity to the generally established meaning assigned by society.
George Herbert Mead

George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) was an American sociologist, philosopher,
and psychologist considered as one of the founders of social psychology. Mead’s three
activities are language, play, and games.
Language allows communication through which attitudes, opinions, emotions,
and ideas are conveyed between individuals. Language also allows individuals to
respond to each other using symbols, gestures, and sounds. For Mead, the use of
language enables the individual to understand and internalize the opinions of others
about him or her. Play, on the other hand, allows an individual to act in another role or
capacity, or what is commonly referred to as role play. Role play is important as it

makes the individual confine his or her actions by the expected roles assigned to him or
her. Play enables the self to internalize his or her roles and assume the expectations
derived from such roles. Lastly, games allows an individual to act within the confines
imposed by the rules of the activity. They also allow an individual to know when to bend
rules or to completely break them. Games allow an individual to internalize and acquire
knowledge of societal rules, which are essential in order to live in a society.
Charles Horton Cooley

Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) was an American sociologist whose main
contribution in the field was the study of primary groups. He coined and defined primary
group as the first group where a person belongs, and where the individual develops his
or her ideas, beliefs, values, and self. Based on the given definition, one will instinctively
think of the family as his or her primary group. The family, being the first primary group,
influences the way a person thinks and the way he or she relates to others.
Cooley’s most famous theory of self is the looking-glass self in which the self is
understood as that which is formed from interactions, such as those don with the
primary group. The looking-glass self is the process by which self-conscious emerges
through the lens of the other. Though encounters in interactions, the individual
formulates a self-identity by how others perceive him or her. As a mirror functions to
reflect one’s body, the looking glass self-functions in a way that the individual
recognizes himself or herself in the eyes of the other.

1. Among the main criticism against symbolic interactionism is its lack of testability
due to its focus on small group interaction. As a theory, it is also contested for
being unsystematic and reliant upon the impressions made by the researcher.
2. Symbolic interactionism is seen as unreliable in analysing empirical data and in
predicting outcomes of social activities. It heavily relies on qualitative data, which
makes it difficult to arrive at binding conclusions. A shared meaning between
individuals does not necessarily reflect reality even if this shared meaning
constructs for them a social reality.
3. Cooley’s development of the self is based on the person’s imagination and
reflection. However, imagination is not always based on reality and the person
might create a self-identity that is completely separate from reality.
LESSON 2: Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Ideas
Lesson Objectives:
a. Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science ideas
b. Apply the social science ideas and its importance in examining socio-cultural,
economic, and political conditions; and
PSYCHOANALYSIS
A school of thought developed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis refers to a
theory of the mind and its direct connection to personality and behaviour. The basic
premise of psychoanalysis is that the human mind has an unconscious state. There are
thoughts, memories, emotions, and feelings that are hidden from a person’s conscious
mind, which, without him or her knowing, affects the way he or she think feels, and acts.
There are also drives and desires in a person’s unconscious mind that influence hos ir
her view of the world and how he or she decides to go about his or her daily life.
Freud’s theory states that most unconscious desires originate from childhood
experiences that people have long forgotten or repressed. Although repressed and
buried deep within a person’s thoughts, these desires and urges propel one to function
in society. The practice of psychoanalysis comes into play when these unconscious
desires hinder the individual to function in society. Psychoanalytic practice is the
method by which the troubling unconscious material, such as memories and desires, is
brought to the level of the conscious mind so that the individual could better understand
himself or herself better.
Specifically, Freud developed a personality theory called psychosexual
development of personality, which posits that at different stages of growth, the individual
derives pleasure form different parts of the body – thus the term psychosexual, relating
to pleasure and the human body. The central idea in this theory is how the mind relates
to the body and the pleasure derived from the activities of the body. An important term
in this personality theory is called libido, which is defined as the natural mental energy
that operates the mechanisms results in a personality disorder that could manifest later
in adult life.
The first stage is orag stage, which manifest from birth to approximately 18
months of age. During this period, the child is totally dependent on others to provide for
his or her needs. Pleasure is derived from the use of the mouth in activities such as
sucking, chewin, and biting. The personality developed in this stage is dependence.
The second stage is the anal stage, which begins at 18 months and lasts until 3
years when the child is being toilet-trained. The personality in this stage is
independence, self-control, and sense of accomplishment.
The third stage is the phallic stage, which takes place from 3 to 6 years of age.
During this period, the child develops an attraction to their parent of the opposite sex
and sees a jealous and rivalrous relationship with his or her parent of the same sex.
This is what Freud termed as the Oedipus complex for boys and the Electra complex for
girls.
The fourth stage is the latency stage, which is manifested from 6 to 12 years of
age. Personality traits developed in this stag are associated with social skills and social
interactions.
Finally, the fifth stage is genital stage. This stage manifests from 12 years of age
onward, or from puberty to adulthood. The personality developed in this stage is sexual
maturity.
Key Concepts in Psychoanalysis

Id, Ego, Superego
Freud’s psychoanalytic personality theory provides three levels of awareness:
conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The conscious level of the mind is the
accessible information, memories, and thoughts that an individual has. The
preconscious is the level where accessible and retrievable information are situated, but
are not currently in the conscious level. The unconscious is the inaccessible memories,
thoughts, emotions, and feelings that are most populated by childhood events. The
popular saying ‘’you only see the tip of the iceberg’’ is a suitable analogy for the three
levels of mind. The tip is the conscious level, the part right below the sea line is the
preconscious, and the major portion beneath the sea is the unconscious.
The id, ego, and superego are the parts of the constitutive of personality that
occupy these three levels of the mind.
The first part to develop is the id, which occupies the unconscious level. Because
the id is the biological aspects (instincts and basic urges) of personality, it only seeks
pleasure and demands instant gratification. It does not take reality into account as it
only demands what it wants without reason or logic.
Second to develop is the ego, which resides in the conscious and preconscious level of
the mind. Because the ego is considered as the center of logic and reason, it is also
described as the decision-maker.
The superego is the third to develop and it resides in all three levels of the mind.
As the moral and social aspect of personality, it is considered as a person’s conscience.
The superego demands to social norms. It makes a person feel guilty. Like the id, it
does not take into account as it merely asserts and demands moral perfection.
Important Theories
Sigmund Freud
Freud was an Austrian neurologist and is known as the Father of
Psychoanalysis. Freud’s theory states that behaviour and personality are driven by past
events, which are mostly inaccessible to an individual’s consciousness.
Psychoanalysis involves methods through which an individual is guided to
understand himself or herself. Through a treatment called psychotherapy, the
originating event or circumstances which hinders an individual to live a healthy life is
brought to the surface of consciousness. The method of psychotherapy is mostly
interpretative. The psychoanalyst would interpret the patient’s problem and allow the
subject to directly come to terms with his or her problem. One technique used in
psychotherapy is called free association, a technique that allows the patient to have an
inner dialog with oneself by saying freely the words that he or she associates with a
thing, person, or an event. By having an inner dialog, the unconscious reveals itself and
the words associated with an object would gradually lead to the originating event which
caused a mental problem to the patient. Freud relates free association to what is now
known as the Freudian slip or slip of the tongue. When an individual commits a
Freudian slip (or unintentionally saying something as opposed to what he or she wanted
actually say), he or she reveals his or her innermost thoughts.
Carl Jung
Carl Jung (1875-1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and psychotherapist. He
founded the school of thought called analytic psychology, which departed from Freud’s
traditional psychoanalysis. For Jung, a healthy mental life is achieved through a
balanced and a well-understood personality Jung’s theory of personality has been
modified and changed over time but hat survived over the years are his concepts of
extroversion and introversion.
Today, psychoanalysis still use the terms extrovert and introvert in describing
personality. However, popular culture has given these terms a different definition as to
what Jung originally proposed. Popular culture describes an extrovert as a person who
goes to parties or who is more adventurous, while an introvert is a person who chooses
to stay at home, alone and quiet. While these descriptions could be a possible
behaviour of extroverts and introverts, these do not encompass their true meanings.
Extroverts, in Jungian psychology, is the personality which is motivated by
outside stimuli or factors. The focus of the individual tends toward outside objects,
things, and other people. Introversion, on the other hand, is the personality which is
motivated by inner necessity. The focus of the individual tends toward the self.
Jacques Lacan
Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) was a French psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. In his
development of Freud’s psychoanalytic thought, Lacan incorporated the ideas of
Saussure’s linguistics, Levi-Strauss’s anthropology, Kant’s idealism, Marx communist
theory, and Aristotelian logic, among other thoughts and thinkers. Lacan said that
psychotherapy requires a communication between the patient and the specialist
because the medium by which psychoanalysis operates is through language, as such

Lacan’s psychoanalytic theory centered on language.
The development of the Lacanian subject (pertaining to the person)
superimposes itself on that Freud’s. His first major paper in the psychoanalytic
conference talked about what he called mirror stage. The mirror stage can be
associated with Freud’s development of the superego and the phallic stage of
development. A child is said to be in the mirror stage upon seeing himself or herself in
the mirror for the first time and establishes a relationship with the image he or she sees.
This mirror could be theoretical; it can be either an actual mirror or a person, usually the
mother. What the child sees in the mirror is a fully formed self, a body, something whole
and complete. However, the child still feels incomplete – having no ability to control his
or her own body still struggling to stand, walk around, and eat. The child then images
himself or herself to be whole and complete, and able to move his or he body with
complete control. What this image represents is an ideal child or what is called ego
ideal; what is formed in this relationship with the image is what Lacan calls divided
subject. The subject becomes split into what actually is and what the subject imagines it
to be. As such, the Lacanian subject is neither truly formed nor is it ever whole – there is
always a conflict between itself and what it imagines it to be.
Eric Fromm
Eric Fomm (1900-1980) was a German sociologist, psychologist, and
psychoanalyst, among others. Like Jung, he developed a distinct type of psychoanalysis
which he called humanistic psychoanalysis. This type of psychoanalysis uses historical,
anthropological, and psychological perspectives to approach an individual. Fromm’s
psychoanalytic theory assumes that humans have lost their ties with nature and are now
left with no instincts capable to adapt to the ever-changing world. But since humans
developed the ability to reason, they can rationalize their isolated existence or condition.
Fromm called this rationalization human dilemma.
A dilemma is a problem. The human dilemma is the problem of reuniting with
nature, in a manner similar to the union of our prehistoric ancestors and their
relationship with the environment. However, the second part of the problem is that a
complete going back or a complete reunion to our prehistoric relationship with nature is
unattainable. Hence, human society has, over the course of history, developed away
from nature to the point that it is quite impossible to go back to such a state of things.
Fromm’s psychotherapy helps the individual realize how to achieve human needs
and to be productive members of society. An unhealthy mind is one which has chosen
the negative components of human needs.

Psychoanalysis is mainly criticised as unscientific or, even at times, a
pseudoscience. Critics argue that psychoanalysis takes a phenomenological approach
instead of a positivistic approach in investigating the mind. This phenomenological
approach is characterized by the lack of quantitative and experimental research in its
theory and practice. Psychoanalytic theory I also allegedly untestable and is not
falsifiable. It is also argued that it lacks scientific basis and at times is associated with
the mystical practices of witch doctors. Because most of the psychoanalytic theories are
based on case studies, their applicability is questioned to be limited only to the specific
cases studied and not to the general public.
RATIONAL CHOICE
The rational choice theory explains that human action and behaviour are
products choice. Individuals rationalize their situations by processing between the most
beneficial choice and the lesser individual cost. In the rational choice theory, cost-
benefit analysis is always performed in every given situation and is considered an
instinctual response of every human. Cost is something disadvantages to or what is lost
by an individual, while benefit is that which is gained by or advantageous to the
individual after making the choice. Some of the questions commonly asked during a
cost-benefit analysis are the following:
 Will this benefit me?
 How will this benefit me?
 What will benefit me most?
 How far am I willing to negotiate?
 What will I have to sacrifice?

 How much will it cost me?
For example, Sebastian has two classmates whom he wants to be friends with: Ethan, a
social outcast but has the newest action game, and Alyster, the most popular in the
class but does not like to play action games. Sebastian’s first level of cost-benefit
analysis is choosing between having the chance to play the newest action game or not.
His second level of cost-level analysis is choosing whether he would like to be
associated with a social outcast or with the most popular student in class. The rational
choice for Sebastian would then be dependent on which is more important to him – to
play the game or to be associated with the popular crowd. This example provides the
basic principle of rational choice theory wherein preference plays an important role in
decision-making, while the individual rationalizes the burdens and benefits of the
available choices. This example also highlights the basic assumptions of rational choice
theory which are the following:
1. Individuals act purely on self-interest.
2. Individuals understand their interest enough to rationally categorize them
according to what thy most prefer.
3. Preferences are transitive in nature. This means that choices have a hierarchical
order and that the highest preference will always be favoured.
A famous example of rational choice theory is the prisoner’s dilemma. Two recently
released convicts committed a crime. However, investigators of the case lack sufficient
evidence to prove their guilt. As a scheme, the investigators had the two suspects held
in separate rooms where they were told that if they tell on the other, they would be
freed. This condition allows one of them to go free, while the other faces incarceration.
Since both will think that the one is already betraying the other, both would indeed
decide to betray the other, causing both of them to be incarcerated. This example
proves that individual self-interest weighs heavily in the process of choice making.
The underlying structure of the rational choice theory is the incentive to do what is
beneficial to the individual. This structure best explains how this theory is readily applied
to social phenomena and interactions.
Key Concepts in Rational Choice Theory

Social Consequences of Scarcity-based Decision
Humanity’s unlimited wants and perpetual desires dove civilizations to either their
prominence or destruction. With natural resources being finite and the requirements of
human ambition unending, the most rational choice is to conserve the limited resources
and share these with each other. However, the problem is that individuals only seek
self-interest and would end up deciding what benefits them the most.
Such is the structure of human nature when being described in the context of
rational choice theory. The tragedy of the common further elaborates this structure. The
tragedy of the common is a scenario wherein a common piece of land is shared for
grazing by a community. Because the grass that grows on the land is limited, farmers
need to limit their herd when grazing so that the land could keep up with the
requirements of the community. The tragedy in this scenario starts when a farmer lets
his herd graze more than what is allotted, thinking that such action would provide him
with better profits. If the farmers would all think of the same, the land will eventually
become useless to the community. When the land is already unusable, the farmer
would just resort to letting his herd graze more because after all, there will be nothing
left.
Plato discussed in his The Republic this very notion of exploitation by the unchecked
freedoms of people. Without justice, people would consume as much as they like and
would eventually deplete the resources common to all. Thomas Hobbes philosophized
that the only thing that could prevent the pillaging of public or common good is the
absolute monarch, which he calls Leviathan.
Important Theorists
William Stanley Jevons
William Stanley Jevons (1835-1882) was an English economist who applied the
principles of rational choice theory in political economy. Jevons was one of the first to
advance the theory of marginal utility, which sought application in determining and
understanding consumer behaviour. This theory states that utility of something
decreases as more of it is consumed. Utility, in this sense, can be substituted for the
term value. A thing becomes less valuable when more of it is. This can be equated to
the rarity of an item, the significance of first experiences, and the value held over for
things that have the so-called sentimental value.
Jevons also identified the concept called equation of change, which says that in
order to get most utility, the ratio of marginal utility must be equal to the price of the
commodity. Marginal utility, in this sense, points to the line wherein the value for a
certain object is still within satisfactory levels.
Gary Becker
Gary Becker (1930-2014) was an American economist who expanded the study of
economics to the realm of sociology and the other social sciences. Suggesting that
human behaviour is subject to economic analysis, Becker argued that individuals act to
maximize their own welfare, thereby taking the scope of economics beyond mere
calculation of financial gains. Like the other thinkers of rational choice theory, Becker
ascribes to the principle that humans behave according to their ‘’perceived values and
preferences.’’
Becker first ventured to expand economy to social sciences topics in his discussions
of discrimination. He found in his research that discriminating employers lose out to
competition due to the discriminated applicant providing services to their competitors. If
the discriminated applicant was a productive and intelligent worker, a valuable asset is
displaced only because of skin color or shape of the eyes. Becker emphasized that non-
discriminating employers do not lose competitiveness as they draw in a skilled worker in
their company, in contrast to their discriminating counterpart. Thus, limiting the
application pool to what has been left after a discrimination screening also limits the
talents that could have a potential influence in the productivity of the company.

Rational choice theory is heavily criticized for its neglect of ethical and moral
standards. The main philosophy of rational choice theory is the acquisition of personal
interests, power, and wealth. It is not strict with the method and the product of decision-
making; rather, it analyses the outcome and the preferences based on what is optimal
and ultimately beneficial for the individual actor. The tragedy of the commons and
others reflect today’s society – the widening gap between the poor and the rich, rising
global temperatures, and political corruption. These events are but a few effects of
weighing personal gain over the good of the many.
INSTITUTIONALISM
In order to understand institutionalism, it is important to first define institutions in this
theoretical perspective. Institutions are patterns, routines, norms, rules and schemes
that govern and direct social thought and action. Institutionalism, therefore, is an
approach that aims to understand and analyse how actions, thoughts, and meanings
penetrate into the social consciousness deeply enough to embed themselves into the
social psyche. There are different types of institutionalism, but their common concern is
to find out the effects of these institutions and determine how these affect the manner
by which the society functions. Institutionalism claims that institutions persist because of
the reason that they came about in the first place: social legitimacy and survival. An
institutions such as education persists because a person would have a bleak future
without it. Being educated means having the potential to ascend social hierarchies and
organizational structures, which in turn, affect the economic prosperity of the person
and survival in a capitalist market.
Institutions provide social legitimacy and survival through isomorphism.
Isomorphism refers to the similarity in form, shape, or structure. Institutions arise,
change, and persist due to their regulative, normative, and cognitive functions. These
functions are isomorphic in nature as they adopt in form, shape, or structure to provide
social legitimacy, survival, or both.
The regulative function operates through coercive isomorphism, which place value
on expediency as an effect of compliance. Change either happens or not depending on
external factors such as rules and laws. The normative function operates through
normative isomorphism, which places value on complying with social obligations.
Change either happens or not depending on external factors such as accreditations and
certifications. Finally, the cognitive function operates through mimetic isomorphism,
which places value on what is being complied with by others. Change either happens or
not depending on internal factors such as uncertainty and prevalence of other’s

performance.
Institutionalism, at its core, studies how institutions achieve balance and stability as
they manipulate their different regulative, normative, and cognitive functions. The
dynamics that happen when these three functions try to meet or comply with
environment and organizational structures is where institutionalism as a theory presents
itself as a model for research analysis.
Key Concepts in Institutionalism

Formal and Informal Institutions
Formal and Informal institutions can be distinguished by what rules, practices, and
norms they derive authority from. Formal institutions are codified rules, policies, and
norms that are considered official, originating from state laws, government, or
organizations. Informal institutions, on the other hand, are equally known rules and
norms but are not commonly written down. Informal institutions are social practices that
have been commonly viewed as acceptable and are more persistent than codified laws
like that of formal institutions.
One of the institutionalism studies how formal and informal institutions affect the very
society that created them and how this society behaves to either conform to or break
established rules. Institutionalism also studies conflict or congruence between formal
and informal institutions.
Institutional Actors
Institutional Actors refers to the people who make up society, whose actions are
controlled and regulated by institutions. Institutional actors can be an individual, a group
an organization, or a government that creates or follows rules. However, it must be
noted that the term ‘’institutional actors’’ does not simply denote people or organizations
in the perspective of institutionalism. It also represents a series of underlying questions
about perceptions, individuality, identity, and self. It even represents interactions of
multiple entities – or game theory, players - and is often referred to as the constellation
of actors.
In political science, institutional actors and their relationship with one another is often
the subject research. Local and international laws, and economic gains and fluctuations,
together with historical relationships, are but some of the elements that are used in
political intuitionalism.
The rigid line that institutions provide us also constrains our ability for creativity,
individuality, spontaneity, and even reasoning. Institutions become constraints as they
predetermine actions, making them predictable, assumed, and expected.
Important Theories
David Mitrany
David Mitrany (1888-1975) was a Romanian-born British scholar, historian, and
political theorist. Mitrany is considered the father of functionalism in international
relations, which is classified under liberal institutionalism. Functionalism, as applied to
the study of states, proposes an alternative to territorialism, which is the foundation from
which states derive their power of authority from territory. Functionalism explains that a
state’s authority lies in functions and needs, and the ability to provide for those needs. It
sees scientific knowledge and technological advancements as source of authority from
which the state can derive its power. Territory then becomes negligible and focuses
instead on expertise and the ability to produce what is needed by the people or by other
states. Take for, example, the island nation of Singapore. Singapore is just a little bigger
than the National Capital Region, but the former is considered a First World country due
to its economic prosperity and its technological and scientific advancements.
Jean Monnet
Jean Monnet (1888-1979) was a French political economist and diplomat. As one of
the originators of the European Union, he saw how the needs of the state are to be
achieved through the principle of supranationality. As Mitrany argued against territory
being the source of authority, Monnet used the argument to erase country borderlines.
During Monnet’s time, coal production was abundant in Germany, which was atill
under the sanctions imposed by the Allie’s victory after World War II. However, France
at that time also needed some coal. Given the situation, Germany needed some
sanctions to be lifted so as to gain some economic growth, while France needed coal to
get back to its pre-war economic status. A series of events took place and Monnet
conceived the idea of breaking borders so that the need of both countries – and other
European countries – would be provided. Thus, the European Union was formed,
initially called European Coal and Steel Community in 1953, and after some years,
European Economic Community, before finally acquiring its present name.
Stephen Krasner
Stephen Krasner (born 1942) is an American professor of international relations.
Krasner argues that the American government and nongovernment organizations
should prioritize the stabilization of weakened states so that American interests would
be protected. In order to address the continued deterioration of weaker states, he
suggests creation of institutions that will allow the weaker states to enter a market
democracy. Krasner sees the foreign policies and other political objectives of America a
direct reflection of the U.S. president’s agenda and goals. Krasner also argues that the
formal institutions of the U.S come from decisions made by the president, but
bureaucratic processes convey the idea that many people decided on these matters
and not just the president. He holds that the president’s power to control, manipulate,
and create policies is seemingly perceived as being dissipated by the bureaucratic
machinery.
Criticism and Limitation

Institutionalism has many definitions as there are scholars who practice it.
Unsurprisingly, institutionalism has many forms, and as such, there is no central
approach that can define the method of intuitionalism and that the predictability of
outcome changes as different researchers conduct their studies.
One criticism against institutionalism is that while it can describe and analyse
differences between institutions, it lacks the ability to analyse changes happening in a
certain institutions. This criticism further argues that institutionalism is only capable of
comparing institutions to one another, but lacks the ability to examine how certain
behaviours, norms, and rules acquire their status as institutions.
Another criticism against institutionalism is the assessment of institutions

themselves. Since there are many approaches to institutionalism, there are also a
variety of ways by which institutions can be identified. The question then is how to judge
whether an institutions is an institution – is it according to persistence, value,
compliance, or outcome?
FEMINISM
Feminism studies gender and its relation, to power, and the dynamics these two
concepts play out in economics, politics, sexuality, race, and nationality, among others.
It is both a sociological perspective and a philosophy that aims to promote gender
equality. It is both a sociological perspective and a philosophy that aims to promote
gender equality, social justice, and women’s right. However, the primary concern that
feminism tries to address is the oppression of women in society and the patriarchal
structure of most societies.
Patriarchy, in its most basic sense, is a social organization wherein the father or
eldest male heads a society or government. To illustrate this, one only has to look at the
traditional Filipino family structure or of most societies for that matter. The head of the
family is the father, and the mother is subordinate to the decision of the father.in some
contexts, however, patriarchy constructs a social structure where men are seen as more
powerful than women. In labor and economics, for example, the father goes to his job
every day while the mother is left at home to take care of the children. In the past, when
women did find opportunities to leave house and gain employment, the jobs offered to
them were limited to being a secretary or a nurse. Even when women’s role stated
being considered in the workforce, they were still subjected as subordinates to men.
The popular saying ‘’Women are best left in the kitchen’’ is not pronouncement of a
women’s cooking skills but rather an affirmation of patriarchal ideology or belief that
treats women as productive only in household work. This is but not struggle that
feminism undertook in its advocacy for women.
Key Concepts in Feminism

Gender Ideology
Gender Ideology is a social belief that supports gender inequality. It is a social divide
that establishes perceived roles form men, and relegating them to specific roles. Some
gender ideologies include women staying at home while men go to work, and women
being more delicate, emotional, and nurturing compared to men who are more
aggressive, assertive, and dominant.
Gender inequality is the actualization or realization of gender ideology. There is
gender inequality when the perceived role of women subordination to men reflects hiring
procedures and requirements; for example, a secretarial post accepting only female
applicants. Salaries are also unequal when it comes to men and women. For instance, a
research on gender pay gap revealed that women in the U.S received less than men
even if they have the same position and job title.
Gender ideology is also actualized in how toys are determined for children. Typically,
action figures are supposed to be played by boys and dolls are to be played by girls. A
boy playing with a doll is ridiculed as being gay, while a girl playing action figures is
teased as a lesbian. It is evident that at this early stage of development, children’s
perception of gender roles are already being established and affirmed. The gender
ideology in children’s play evolves in adulthood as gender bias and prejudices, which
further support inequality.
Important Theorists
Mary Wollstonecraft
Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) was an English writer, philosopher, and
women’s advocate. Wollstonecraft advocated that the human rights written by John
Locke aslo be accorded to women. Although Locke’s human rights did not discriminate
sexes, their application during that time was relegated only to men. Wollstonecraft thus
argued that women should also have the right to life, property, pursuit of happiness, and
suffrage. Her views were in direct criticism of the French Revolution, which espoused
human rights but seemed to have selectively applied such rights to the male gender
only.
Nancy Cott
Nancy Cott (born 1945) is an American historian and professor. Cott traced the
historical roots of the feminist movement in America and identified its paradoxes,
struggles, and periods of decline. One paradox pointed out by Cott was the rise of two
feminist ideologist – human feminism and female feminism. Human feminism argues for
equal treatment of women and disapproves discrimination based on sex. Female
feminism, on the other hand, argues solidarity among women and acknowledges that
there are differences in human capacities that are based on sex. A supporter of same-
sex marriage, Cott argued that such union could be similar to how traditional marriages
functions. She said that same-sex marriages also have the capacity to take on the roles
associated with heterosexual marriages in aspects of equal partnership and symmetry.
Adrienne Rich
Adrienne Rich (1929-2012) was an American poet, essayist, and feminist. Sh
eased poetry to bring to light the oppression of women and lesbian in society. Her
poems explored themes such as women’s roles in society, racism, and war. Her
collection of poetry, Diving into the Wreck (1973), garnered wide praise and accolades.
In her essay ‘’Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence’’ (1980), Rich defined
how heterosexuality becomes an alienating and oppressing concept that only lends to
the establishment of male dominance over women. Rich defined being a lesbian as
more trhan a sexual preference, but a cumulative lived experience of women and their
history.

During the first wave of feminist, anti-feminism was already present, which
opposed the granting of women’s right to vote, hold public office, and attain higher
education.
Anti-feminism also argued that traditional values, beliefs, and established
religious norms be upheld, and that divorce is considered taboo. Feminist claim that
history has provided the roles by which society has come about and that should be the
way it is. Women are to be relegated to their homes while their husbands go to earn for
the family.
Other critics of feminism are feminist themselves, who see feminism as an

attempt to make women’s rights and power more than or in suppression of men’s. Yet,
they argue that feminism must advocate for equality and not create a new form of
oppression.
HERMENEUTICAL PHENOMENOLOGY
Hermeneutical Phenomenology is a philosophy of and a method for
interpreting human experiences as a means to understand the question of what it is to
be human. This philosophy was developed by Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) as a
continuation and divergence from phenomenology, the philosophy developed by his
mentor and colleague, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938). Hermeneutical phenomenology is
sometimes referred to as interpretative phenomenology or existential phenomenology,
while the phenomenology developed by Husserl is sometimes referred to as descriptive
phenomenology or pure phenomenology. In order to understand the fundamental
similarities and differences of both ideas, let us first examine Husserl’s phenomenology.
Phenomenology as developed by Husserl is an inquiry on how the human mind
can grasp the true nature of things as experienced in the world. It is a question of how a
thorough examination of experiences of the world can provide deeper insight and
perception – by how descriptions are formed and how descriptions can form truths
about experiences. Husserl suggested that prejudgements, prejudices, and biases must
first be removed in order to grasp the essential nature. Husserl hoped that a thing would
reveal what it truly is if these unnecessary descriptions are removed. This is precisely
why the tenet of the phenomenological project is ‘’to go back to the things themselves,
‘’which means that describing a thing for what it really is reveals its universal truth.
The phenomenological perspective tell us to remove our preconceived ideas in
order to arrive at a pure description of our experiences. Hermeneutical phenomenology,
on the other hand, similarly seeks the truth in things as experienced in the world.
However, it attempts to see the truth in things as a means to understand what it is to be
human. Heidegger’s phenomenological approach attempts to interpret experiences of
the world to find truths, which can be used to learn about human existence or being.
Heidegger states that humans are born in a particular historical period, country,
community, and background. The human mind is shaped by these factors and is
therefore constitutive of how we experience and interpret the world. Rather than
description, hermeneutical phenomenology is more concerned with how experiences
are interpreted and how they generate meaning. The question of hermeneutical
phenomenology is what the revelation of the thing means for you.

The primary criticism against phenomenology is that it lacks the application of the
scientific method. However, the absence of such intentional since the scientific method
is even criticised by Merleau-Ponty as contrary to perception that holds no preconceived
judgments. The lack of an actual method is another criticism against phenomenology.
While there might be techniques such as phenomenological and eidetic reduction, these
are not methods per se, but are ways by which consciousness derives meaning from.
The meaning derive from phenomenological reduction as also relative to the perceiver.
The creation of meanings and perception of things, therefore, are subjective in nature
and cannot be duplicated or lend itself to falsifiability.
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEMS
One of the major scientific challenges of our time is investigating the impact of
human activity to our natural environment and how each system affects one another.
Human environment systems are the interdisciplinary approaches which study the
complex interactions among human and environment systems. Human systems are the
various institutions and activities humans created in society. These systems include
government policies, industrial waste management, agriculture, urbanization, culture,
and tradition. On the other hand, environment systems are the biological, ecological,
and living and non-living natural systems in our planet. Environment systems include
the biodiversity of Earth, global weather systems, landscapes, and animal and plant life,
among others.
The idea of human-environment systems holds that society shapes nature and
that nature shapes society. What we do to the environment affects and changes us.
One could see how human systems affect environment systems by looking at our laws
and policies. For example, our political and economic systems dictate how we create
laws on forestry and agriculture, which could result in either the conservation or
depletion of natural resources. Additionally, such laws could affect food production for
human consumption. Consequently, political agendas and economic models are
influenced by food supply, which in the first place, was influenced, too by human laws
and policies. As if depicting a cycle, every human system affect environmental systems,
which then affect human systems. Hence, human environment systems are an inquiry
into how these systems interact, mitigate, and respond to problems that arise in either
or both systems.
Key Concepts in Human-Environment Systems

Sense of Place
A sense of place refers to the development of meaning or association with a
given location. Geographers, sociologist, and psychologists study how a sense of place
is developed for an individual, a community, or a group of people, and how this sense of
place differ from other places set upon these people. A sense of place is an
attachmentto a particular environment and is deepened by its history, the writings about
it, and the experiences of an individual. A sense of place is a sense of belonging or
identity, which is developed through the community that occupies it, its landscape
features, and the emotions it bring. Some sense of place are codified such as historical
landmarks, heritage sites, or even places given special names by an individual, group,
or community.
Mental Map
A mental map of a place refers to the mental representation of things and people
of a given location. A mental map is formed by the memory’s identification of the
physical characteristics and features of a particular place. A simple exercise that could
develop your mental map is by describing of your classroom. What is the sitting
arrangement of your class? What is the color of the floor and of the walls of your
classroom? Over time, mental maps change as new experiences of the place are
acquired directly or indirectly from how others would describe a place by watching travel
shows. A better focus of the mental image is also reached when objects and people are
associated to the place. For example, you and your best friend met in a store in your
neighbourhood; hence, you are reminded of the attached feeling and memory whenever
you visit that place; either physically or in your mind.
Primary Landscape
The themes, attachments, memories, and emotions we hold for places create a
sense of place of us in the world. That is why we call our house a ‘’home’’ whenever we
might be relocated because ‘’home’’ is a sense of place which we attach to a house.
The place where we grew up is what human geographers consider as our primary
landscape and is the basis for our experiences of new places. It is from the primary
landscape that we compare new places we visit, and the memories and emotions we
attached to it be transposed to the new environment and bring a new sense of place.

The human environment systems theory is criticized because of its deterministic
approach in understanding social phenomena. This determinism could be seen in
Hardin’s work, which highlighted population as the main cause of social issues. This
was also apparent in Burgess’s work, which centered on urban spaces in the U.S.,
making his model inapplicable in areas outside his country. Lastly, determinism was
also true in Bronfenbrenner’s work, which presented a highly linear environment that
neatly interacts and creates the personhood of the child. This is deterministic due to its
lack of consideration of the nonlinear relations of the systems.
Assessment 2.1
Directions: Analyse the basic concepts and principles of the major social science
theories.
1. How can the human body be used to understand structural functionalism?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. How is social inequality experienced in a capitalist society?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. What is looking-glass self-theory?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Performance Check 2.1

Directions:
1. The function of the police department is to ensure that civilians are safe and that
order is maintained. As a student, find a news reports about the police force.
2. Based on these reports, evaluate the efficiency of police officer on a scale of 1
(highly inefficient) to 10 (highly efficient, meaning they were able to fulfil their
function).
3. Justify your rating in a space provided for you and answer the following question.
Justification:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Question: What is the importance of social science theories in examining socio-cultural,

economic, and political conditions?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Assessment 2.2
Directions: Analyze the basic concepts and principles of the major social science ideas
1. What is the difference between the conscious level and the unconscious level in
Psychoanalysis?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. How is an informal institution different from a formal institution in Institutionalism?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. How a patriarchal society does affects gender relations within the household?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Why does hermeneutical phenomenology seek the truth?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Performance Check 2.2

Directions: You are an urban sociologist who is tasked by the City Planning Office to
provide a sociocultural map of your municipality. In order to do this, you need to use
your municipal existing map and creates labels/legend that would inform the user of the
sociocultural divisions and fusions in your municipality. This does not only refer to
ethno-linguistics groups. This may also refer to other existing (sub) culture within your
municipality (e.g., LGBT community, Muslim Community, etc.,) Your teacher will
evaluate your work based on its accuracy-10pts and clarity 10pts.

Module 2

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 2

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

i-Link College of Science and Technology, Inc Discipline and Ideas in the Social Sciences

Module Outline (list of topics)

2.1 Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Theories

Target Learning Competencies (MELC)

ideas: Psychoanalysis, Rational Choice, Institutionalism, Feminist

LESSON 1: Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Theories

Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is essentially a sociological

Key Concepts in Structural Functionalism

Manifest and Latent Dysfunctions

Davis and Moore

Almond and Powell

Criticism and Limitations

Marxism is a sociological, political, and economic philosophy that is based on

factory expansion. This cycle of production and consumption continued to create an

Key Concepts in Marxism

Criticism and Limitations

Symbolic interactionism is a theory on society that focuses on the individual’s

Key Concepts in Symbolic Interactionism

George Herbert Mead

capacity, or what is commonly referred to as role play. Role play is important as it

Charles Horton Cooley

Criticism and Limitations

LESSON 2: Basic Concepts and Principles of Social Science Ideas

Key Concepts in Psychoanalysis

because the medium by which psychoanalysis operates is through language, as such

Criticism and Limitations

 What will I have to sacrifice?

Key Concepts in Rational Choice Theory

Criticism and Limitations

not depending on internal factors such as uncertainty and prevalence of other’s

Key Concepts in Institutionalism

Criticism and Limitation

Another criticism against institutionalism is the assessment of institutions

Key Concepts in Feminism

Criticism and Limitations

Other critics of feminism are feminist themselves, who see feminism as an

Criticism and Limitations

Key Concepts in Human-Environment Systems

Criticism and Limitations

1. How can the human body be used to understand structural functionalism?

Performance Check 2.1

Question: What is the importance of social science theories in examining socio-cultural,

Performance Check 2.2

You might also like