SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES

“Sociology is nothing more than common sense.”

SOCIOLOGY

 The science of society.

 Is the study of society?

 It studies human social behavior.

 It came from the Latin word socios (companion with others) and the Greek word logos (study of reason) which
were coined by a French philosopher and the “Father of Sociology”-August Comte.

 In general sense, sociology is a way of looking at society and social behavior where sociologists see beyond
individual experiences and focus on group interaction. This is the perspective where the sociological
imagination is drawn. This explains why sociology is more than a common sense because sociologist uses special
tools in studying society and human behavior. These tools now gave birth to the conceptualization of
sociological perspective.

Sociological imagination

 Is an awareness of the relationship between an individual and the wider society?

 It is a rare kind of creative thinking that enables sociologists and ordinary people to understand human behavior.

 It uses symbolic values thinking skills.

 It is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence each other.

 For instance, to understand the concept of the sociological imagination to any behavior; take the simple act of
drinking a cup of coffee, for example. We could argue that coffee is not just a drink but rather it has symbolic
value as part of day-to-day social rituals.

 Often the ritual of drinking coffee is much more important than the act of consuming the coffee itself.

 For example, two people who meet “to have coffee” together are probably more interested in meeting and
chatting than in what they drink.

 Another example, a student who is reviewing his lecture notes is drinking a cup of coffee not because he only
wants to drink it but because he wants to be awake for the rest of night.

 In short, sociological imagination is the process of putting meaning to social actions based from our sociological
interpretation.

 To have a sociological imagination, a person must be able to pull away from the situation and think from an
alternative point of view.

Sociological perspective

 Is a perspective on human behavior and its connection to society as a whole?

 It invites us to look for the connections between the behavior of individual people and the structures of the
society in which they live.

 Considered as the most acceptable point of view/truth that project us the realities of life and our guide to bind
the society as whole.

 The true manifestation of “good” or “bad”.

  For instance, you as a student are studying because you are guided by the reality that education is the key to
success where all agrees with this also.

 Another, we as citizen of the country needs to vote because it is viewed to be our right as member of the
society. In addition, we tend to vote because we need to comply with our constitution law-right to suffrage.

Two levels Sociological perspective

 Macro-perspective – an analysis of social life that focuses on broad features of society, such as social class and
the relationships of groups to one another; an approach usually used by functionalist and conflict theorists.

 Assumes that society’s larger structures shape those individual interactions.

 Micro-perspective – an analysis of social life that focuses on social interaction; an approach usually used by
symbolic interactionists.

 Assumes that society’s larger structures are shaped through individual interactions.

AREAS OF SOCIOLOGY

1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
 This involves social institutions, social groups, social inequality, social mobility and the bureaucracy.
a. Social Institutions- a group of people who have come together for a common purpose having rights,
privileges, liabilities, goals, or objectives distinct and independent from those individual members.

Categories of Social Institution:

Community Community Service Organization

Educational Institutions Ethnic or Cultural Groups

Extended Families Government Institutions

Health Care Institutions Religious Institutions

b. Social Group- a collection of people who interact with each other and share similar characteristics and a
sense of unity.

Example:

Men Women

Elderly High School Students

Group of Friends

c. Social Inequalities- refers to relational processes in society that have the effect of limiting or harming a group’s
social status, social class, and social circle.

Example:

Income Gaps and Biases

Gender Inequalities

Health Care In-conformities

 d. Social mobility- shifting from one social status to another, commonly to a status that is either higher or
lower.

e. Bureaucracy- a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials
rather than by elected representatives.

2. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 This deals with human nature which focuses on social processes as they affect the individual.
 It is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others.
3. SOCIAL change
 This studies ecological changes, population, migration, technological change, cultural change, political
processes, social transformation, modernization, mass communication, and the impact of natural disaster.
4. Population
 This studies the characteristics of population, the processes, demographics, and the changes as they
influence the economic, political, and social systems, and vice-versa.
5. Applied sociology
 It concerns resolving social problems through the findings of pure sociological research.
 It is the utilization of sociological theory, methods, and skills to collect and analyze data to communicate
findings to understand and resolve pragmatic problems of clients.
6. Sociological theory and research
 This seeks to explain problems, actions or behavior; or to discover, develop and replicate research tools
that test the validity, applicability, and usefulness of the results of investigation.
7. Human ecology
 It studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to the group’s social institutions.

SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

 There are other social sciences that also focus on the study of human behavior. Like sociology, these disciplines
also understand human behavior as it occurs in social life through the use of scientific methods.

Anthropology

 It emphasizes: (1) physical anthropology, which is the study of physical traits, artifacts, and genetic mutations,
and, (2) cultural anthropology, which studies social institutions, patterns of organization, and other aspects of
society.

 Cultural Anthropology is very similar to sociology.

History

 It studies the chronological record of important events in the past, including those about people and places.

 Sociology uses data and information that are provided by history.

Economics

 It studies how goods, services, and wealth are produced, consumed, and distributed within societies. A great
deal of human behavior is economically motivated.
Political science

 This studies power, governments and political processes. Sociologists are likewise interested in power
distribution, source of political beliefs, role of women and ethnic communities in political events, and social
background of political personalities, among others.

Psychology

 It involves the study of human behavior, human personality, and its development. Sociology takes into
consideration the behavior of people and how they relate to others in a group.

Geography

 It is concerned with the physical environment and the distribution of plants and animals (Physical Geography,
including humans (Human Geography). Sociology is interested in how the distribution of people in a particular
region influences social relationship.

Humanities

 It is a science that contains records of human experiences, high values, sentiments, ideals and goals. Knowledge
of the humanities is important in the development of the complete person who is ready to take on his or her
responsibilities in this constantly changing world.

DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

Development of sociology in Europe

19TH CENTURY (EUROPE)

 Sociological Theorists emerged in Europe during the Industrial Revolution.

1. August comte (1798-1857)

 A French Philosopher who founded sociology as a distinct subject
 First to coined sociology as the study of society.
 He suggested the two basic areas of study of society-social order and social change.
 Known for his work “Positive Philosophy” (1855).
 Developed the method of positivism, which emphasizes the techniques of observation, comprehension and
experimentation in the development of knowledge concerning the nature of society and human action.

The study of social order and social change

 Social Statics- considered as the process of holding society together or united (social order).
 Social Dynamics- considered as the definite process societal change (social change).
2. Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
 British popularize of Sociology
 Considered as the first women sociologist
 In 1853, she was the first to translate August Comte’s work “Positive Philosophy” from French to English.
 Martineau’s first published book was the “Society in America”, which discusses the topic marriage, family,
race relations, education, and religion as the focus of sociological study.
 She viewed that the roles of the scholars also had an impact in the society.
 She believed that scholars should advocate change to solve the problems that they studied.
 As a result, she spoke out about societal problems favorably in women’s rights, religious tolerance and the
end of slavery.
3. Karl Marx (1818-1883)
  A German Philosopher and a Revolutionary Socialist
 Known to his works “The Communist Manifesto and Das Capital-anti-capitalist works that form the basis of
Marxism.
 He viewed that society is divided into two unequal groups; these are the bourgeoisie (land owners or the
capitalist) and the proletariat (poor members of the society-especially the farmers)
 He founded the Conflict Theory that suggest people in the will never be equal from birth to death.
 He believed that a social scientist should not only observe but also work in order to change the inequalities
between different social classes.
4. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
 An English sociologist and philosopher.
 Co-advocator of the theory of evolution of Charles Darwin, who achieved an influential synthesis of
knowledge, advocating the preeminence of the individual over society and of science over religion.
 His magnum opus was The Synthetic Philosophy (1896), a comprehensive work containing volumes on the
principles of biology, psychology, morality and sociology.
 He believed that only the fittest societies would survive over time, leading to general upgrading of the world
as a whole – survival of the fittest (often credited to Charles Darwin.)
 Because of the similarities to Darwin’s ideas, Spencer’s view of society became known as Social Darwism
5. Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
 French social scientist that developed a vigorous methodology combining empirical research with
sociological theory. He is widely regarded as the founder of the French school of sociology.
 He was the first to receive a doctoral degree in sociology and was appointed as one of the first professors of
Sociology in France.
 His pioneering work on suicide using advanced sociological research with a classical statistical study showed
how the incidence of suicide vary from one population group to another and that it is influenced by social
forces.
 He also argued that behavior cannot be fully understood in individualistic terms but rather understood with
a larger social context.
 He also pointed out that society exists because of broad consensus, or agreement, among members of the
society.
 He viewed society with two image:
1. Mechanical solidarity-societies are guided by widespread consensus of values and beliefs, strong
social pressures for conformity, and dependence on tradition and family. (Pre-Modern Society)
2. Organic Solidarity- societies are guided by social interdependency based on a web of highly
specialized roles. These specialized roles make members of the society dependent on one another
for goods and service. (Modern Society)
6. Max Weber (1864-1920)
 He was a German sociologist, who thought that to comprehend social behavior; people must understand the
meanings attached to their actions.
 Best known for his thesis of the “Protestant Ethic,” relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas
on bureaucracy. 
 Developed the “ideal type” model of bureaucracy. According to him, bureaucracy reflects the value of the
institutions of the society it serves.

Development of sociology in THE UNITED STATES

1893

 The first Department of Sociology was established at the University of Chicago. The University was the leading
sociological training and research center at that time in the United States

1864-1944
  The Chicago School of Sociology produced scholars whose work emphasized the importance of social interaction
in the development of human thoughts and action.

1. Jane Addams (1860-1935)

 American social reformer and pacifist, co winner (with Nicholas Murray Butler) of the Nobel Prize for Peace
in 1931.
 She is probably best known as a cofounder of Hull House in Chicago, one of the first social settlements of
North America.
 Her study focused on the problems caused by the imbalance of power among the social classes.
 Her best known work was the “Hull House Maps and Papers-1895”. The study covered such subjects as
wages levels, sweatshops, child labor, the immigrant experience, and living conditions in poverty stricken
neighborhoods.
 Her study focused on the problems caused by the imbalance of power among the social classes.
 Her best known work was the “Hull House Maps and Papers-1895”. The study covered such subjects as
wages levels, sweatshops, child labor, the immigrant experience, and living conditions in poverty stricken
neighborhoods.
 The groundbreaking work provided the first serious discussion of the effects of two major social forces-
industrialization and urbanization.
2. Lester ward (1841-1913
 He believed that social progress is possible only through intelligent social action.
 He also advocates the use of scientific knowledge and investigation to guide people in restructuring society
towards improvement.
3. George Herbert mead (1863-1931)
 He advocated that self and society are one and individuals internalize social role expectations, social values
and norms.
4. Robert park (1864-1944)
 He was interested in urban processes and development.
5. W.E.B. DUBOIS (1868-1963)
 An African American educator and social activist influenced the early development of sociology in the United
States.
 He used community studies underscore the significance of race in American Society; believed that
sociologists should be involved in social reforms as well as academic study.
6. Robert Merton (1919)
 He was concerned with linking general theory to empirical testing.
 He contributed immensely to the understanding of concepts such as social structures, deviance, and
bureaucracies.
7. Talcott parsons (1902-1979)
 He developed a general theory of action and analyzed the social phenomena.

MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

FUNCTIONALIST THEORY

 Also known as Structural Functionalism.

 Authored by Emile Durkheim.

 Its focus is on maintaining social order or stability.

 According to functionalist theory, social order in the society is maintained through social consensus (a decision
by which the members of the society agrees together and develop together as major part of the society role),
whereby people and groups agree to cooperate in order to pursue common goals.
  In other words, most people agree on what is best for the society and work together to ensure that social
system runs smoothly.

 Believes that all social structures (human being, family, religion, education, economy, and the society itself) have
their own specific functions or roles in the society that helps maintain stability or social order.

The three types of functions

a. Manifest Function - refers to the intended function of social policies, processes, or actions that are consciously
and deliberately designed to be beneficial in its effect on society. It is observable or obvious in nature.

Example:

School Hospitals Car Speed

Government Agencies

b. Latent Function - one that is not consciously intended, but that, nonetheless, has a beneficial effect on society.
Latent function is neither conscious nor deliberate, but also produces benefit. This is, in effect, unintended
positive consequences.

Example:

Knowledge Health Plans Love Care Good Governance

c. Dysfunction - is the negative consequence an element has for the stability of the social system. Dysfunction
elements such as crime disrupt the working society as a whole and create social problems. It can lead to social
change, because to re-establish social stability the various element of society must adopt and adjust.

Assumptions of functionalism

a. A society is a relatively integrated whole.

b. A society tends to seek relative stability.

c. Most aspects of a society contribute to the society’s well-being and survival.

d. All structures in the society hold specific functions and roles that benefits each other structure as well as
society as a whole.

e. A society rest on the consensus of its members.

Conflict THEORY

 Authored by Karl Marx.

 It focuses on social conflict and change, competition and constraint within a society.

 It posits that society is made up of conflicting groups, pursuing their own interests.

 Social order is maintained through coercion (the practice of persuading someone to do something by using
force or threats).

 Authored by Karl Marx.

 It focuses on social conflict and change, competition and constraint within a society.

 It posits that society is made up of conflicting groups, pursuing their own interests.
  Social order is maintained through coercion (the practice of persuading someone to do something by using
force or threats) whereby social order is imposed by the powerful groups over the weak.

 Conflict theory classified society according to status or social classes, wherein, the land owner wear
(Bourgeoisie) born to dominate and poor wear born to be slave (Proletariat)

 Social class also called class, a group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status.
Due to this division, class struggle emerges.

 Class Struggle - Also called class conflict. Conflict between different classes in a community resulting from
different social or economic positions and reflecting opposed interests.

 Also called class war, class warfare. (In Marxist thought) the struggle for political and economic power carried
on between capitalists and workers.

Assumptions of conflict theory

a. A society experiences inconsistency and conflict everywhere.

b. A society is continually subjected to change.

c. A society involves the constraint and coercion of some members of society.

Symbolic interactionist theory

 Authored by Herbert Blumer.

 Focuses on how individuals interact within a society using symbols to maintain connections.

 Interactionism suggests that society is composed of individuals whose actions depend on interpreting each
other’s behavior. Social order is maintained through constant negotiations between individuals and groups
trying to understand each other’s actions and reactions.

Essential elements:

a. Meaning – the individuals responds to people and things based on the meanings he or she gives to those
people or thing.

b. Language – meanings arise out of the social interaction, through the vehicle of language that the individuals
have with others.

c. Thought – individual adjusts and modifies meanings through thought- a kind of internal conversation.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

1. Sociology broadens our perspective to understand culture and other situations.

2. It promotes accurate study about human behavior, thereby eliminating superstitions and misconceptions.

3. It improves the quality of life and the lives of others around us by applying scientific investigation to find
appropriate solutions to problems of society.

4. Results of sociological investigation are useful in planning actions for the betterment of society.

5. Aside from teaching, sociologists are employed by government, business, industrial, social, civic, and religious
entities all over the world as researchers and consultants.

6. For students of sociology, it develops their intellectual potentials towards preparing them for professional and
career opportunities.
SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS

1. SURVEY
 Allows sociologists to collect data on attitudes and opinions from large numbers of people. Two
techniques are commonly used to gather informative survey- questionnaires and interviews.
2. Analysis of existing sources
 Historical Method – it involves examining any materials from the past that contain information of
sociological interest. It enables the researchers to make comparisons between events of today and events
that happened in the recent past or long ago
 Content Analysis- the process involves counting the number of times a particular word, phrase, idea,
event, symbol, or other element appears in a given context. Content analysis can be used.
3. Observational studies
 Researchers observe the behavior individuals and groups in actual social settings. Data can be collected in
two ways, through detached observation or through participant’s observation.
4. Case study
 It is an interview analysis of a person, group, event, or problem.
 Case studies tend to rely on observational techniques.
 Is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject of study
(the case), as well as its related contextual conditions.

RESEARCH ETHICS

 Ethics are the moral principles that a person must follow, irrespective of the place or time. Behaving
ethically involves doing the right thing at the right time. Research ethics focus on the moral principles that
researchers must follow in their respective fields of research.

 Research ethics calls for researchers to ensure the welfare of respondents. Researchers must be honest and
disclose all details of their research. Moreover, sociologists should not do research that could be harmful to
society.