PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES OF USING VISUAL MATERIALS IN

TEACHING ENGLISH GRAMMAR

BY

AKAPO ABAYOMI OLAYIWOLA

10/25OT085

COURSE CODE: ASE705

COURSE TITLE: MATERIALS AND RESOURCES FOR TEACHING

ENGLISH STUDIES

A TERM PAPER PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ARTS

EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN,
ILORIN, NIGERIA

Lecturer-in-charge: Prof. R.A. Lawal

1
 INTRODUCTION
Mastering English grammar is still one of the important components in mastering
English. For beginners and low level students, vocabulary and grammar are probably their focus
in learning English. Some difficulties are faced by students who learn English grammar as
second or foreign language. Teaching grammar is the cornerstone of any language teaching in
the world because of the importance of grammar itself. Grammar can be defined as the way a
language manipulates and combines words or bits of words in order to form longer units of
meaning. There is no doubt then that teaching grammatical rules constitutes an essential aspect in
the mastering of a given language.
Grammar teaching in the language classroom has constituted an important and debated
issue for the last fifty years. The way grammar is or has been considered has a direct and decisive
influence on pedagogical grammars, learning processes and many other areas involved in second
or foreign language teaching. Grammar, as a subsystem in a network of other linguistic sub-
systems and sub-skills (Newby, 2003), has been attached different roles in the language
classroom, reaching little consensus, not only about the particular items to be taught, but about
when, or how, or even where to teach or learn.
Teaching grammar through visual Aids seems to be important in the sense that it arouses
interest, motivation in the pupils in beginner classes. As the saying goes "Interest begets effort",
this is true in the sense that for undertaking any work, we must be first and foremost motivated
and interested in that work. Because if a pupil is motivated, the process of learning grammar will
become easier and he will understand quicker without time consuming. But if the teaching is
verbal, the teaching may appear as something boring for the pupils. Then the teacher should bear
all these factors in mind not to use abstract things which may result in not conveyed messages.

Keywords: Principles, Techniques, Visual materials, English Grammar

DEFINITION OF RELATED TERMS

Principles
A principle according to Encarta dictionary is ‘an important underlying law or
assumption required in a system of thought’. It is also a fundamental, primary, or general law or
truth from which others are derived. A principle according to Wikipedia is a law or rule that has
to be followed, or an acceptable or professed rule of action or conduct.

Techniques
A technique according to Wikipedia ‘is a procedure to complete a task.’ It is a way of
doing something by using special knowledge or skill. A technique is a way of doing something,
especially a systematic way; implies an orderly logical arrangement.

2
English Grammar
Rivers (1988) defines grammar as the rules of a language set out in a terminology which
is hard to remember, with many exceptions appended to each rule. The writing of a grammar is
basically an attempt at systematization and codification of a mass of data which may at first sight
appear amorphous but within which recurrent regularities can be discerned. The way in which
this systematization is approached depends on the convictions of the grammarian about the
nature of language (River 1988).
William (1981) defines grammar as an inescapable fact of a language system because it is
the set of principles which permit orderly speaking and writing. A grunt may be expression, but
it has little to do with grammar. The fact is that grammar would exist even if there were no books
about grammar because it is essentially the unwritten agreement among speakers of the language
about the ways they will express idea most efficiently (William, 1981). The grammar of a
language covers such points of usage as tenses, spellings, punctuation, agreement, parts of
speech, lexis and structures.
Crystal (2004) says, “Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express
ourselves. The more we are aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and
effectiveness of the way we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect
ambiguity, and exploit the richness of expression available in English. Additionally, it can help
everyone, not only teachers of English, but teachers of anything for all teaching grammar is
ultimately a matter of getting to grips with meaning.”
Grammar has to do with the notion of correctness and incorrectness, the theory of
language, the arrangement and the rules governing a language, thus, Grammar is an integral part
of language.

Principles of Grammar Teaching

The three principles that we describe below are informed by one general principle:
Effective grammar instruction must complement the processes of L2 acquisition.
In discussing the three principles, we will draw on work by a number of researchers in second
language acquisition (SLA), especially (but not exclusively) in work undertaken within a
cognitive, information-processing framework.

a. The Given-to-New Principle

The notion that there is a principled relationship of one sort or another between given and
new information is far from new. In discourse analysis, for example, it is argued that effective
communication is enhanced when new information is preceded by relevant information which is
already known to the hearer (Cook, 1989, pp. 64–67). Clark and Clark (1977, p. 92) discussed
this as the ‘Given New Contract’, pointing out that grammatical choices (such as whether to use
active or passive voice) are frequently motivated by determining what the hearer can reasonably
be expected to know. The Given-to-New contract focuses on language use.
However, our concern is with the ways in which given and new information are aligned in
the interests of language acquisition, which we refer to as the Given-to-New Principle. This
principle refers to the idea that the process of making new form/function connections involves

3
the exploitation of what the learners already know about the world as part of their ‘given’
schematic knowledge. This knowledge is used as a resource in order to help them perceive
something new: how a meaning they are already familiar with is expressed by a particular
grammatical form. This may involve learning to see how a given meaning is signaled by a form
with which they are unfamiliar, or how a form they have already used in relation to one meaning
(such as the present progressive tense for actions ‘as we speak’) canal so be used to signal other
meanings (such as using the present progressive to talk about planned future events). Batstone
(2002a, b) has argued that the significance of the Given-to-New Principle is underrated in
communicative approaches to language teaching.

b. The Awareness Principle

The Awareness Principle is directed at making learners aware of how a particular meaning is
encoded by a particular grammatical form. It is possible of course that learners are able to make
the connection between meaning and form implicitly (i.e. without awareness) and, to some
extent, this probably does take place but, as Schmidt (2001) has convincingly argued, ‘people
learn about the things they attend to and do not learn much about the things they do not attend to’
(p. 30). Following Schmidt, we would like to distinguish different senses of ‘awareness’.
This is useful because it also enables us to identify different kinds of instructional activities
to develop awareness at different levels. At one level, learners pay conscious attention to specific
grammatical forms that arise in the input. However, even features that are highly frequent in the
input (such as English definite and indefinite articles) may not be attended to if the learner’s
current interlanguage does not contain a representation of this feature and/or if the learner’s L1
does not contain an equivalent feature. In other words, the ‘given’ obstructs attention to the
‘new’. This suggests a clear role for instruction – to direct learners’ conscious attention to
grammatical features that normally they would fail to notice.
The starting point should be to establish a basis for the acquisition of a grammatical feature
in meaning. Ellis and Gaies (1999) offer a sequence of activities, the first of which requires
students to listen to a short text which contains exemplars of the target structure and answer a
number of questions to establish a general understanding of the text. For example, in the unit
focusing on the use of the English indefinite and definite articles to perform the functions of first
and second mention, they ask students to listen to a text about ‘a tamagochi’ and answer
questions like:
What is a tamagochi?
What does an owner of a tamagochi have to do?
The next activity is a listening cloze exercise that requires the students to listen to the
same text again, this time focusing on the use of ‘a’ and ‘the’. They are asked to complete the
text as they listen: ___ tamagochi is a computerized toy invented in Japan. The name means a
cute little egg. ___ tamagochi has become very popular all around the world. The gadget hatches
___ chick. ___ chick makes a chirping sound every few minutes. ___ owner has to push buttons
to feed, play with, clean up and discipline ___ chick. If ___ owner stops caring for the chick, it
dies.
Such exercises have two essential features. First, the specific grammatical feature the
learners are to attend to is made explicit in the instructions. Second, completion of the text does

4
not depend on learners’ knowing which form to enter in each blank (although of course they may
make recourse to this knowledge) but on their ability to detect the correct form in the input as
they listen. Such an exercise requires ‘intentional attention’ to specific exemplars of the
grammatical feature and, Schmidt argues, this may be essential for the learning of some
grammatical features (e.g. when the learner’s L1 does not contain an equivalent feature). An
important feature of the cloze listening activity is that it gives salience to grammatical features
(such as articles) which often lack salience in more communicative contexts.
A second level of awareness is awareness at the level of ‘understanding’. That is, learners
need to recognize that the forms they have attended to encode particular grammatical meanings.
The forms that learners notice are exemplars of higher- order and abstract categories, and
learning grammar involves discovering the connection between the exemplars and these
categories. Again, it is possible that this can be achieved without awareness, but there seems
little doubt that learning will be enhanced if learners (especially adult learners) develop a
conscious representation of the form-meaning mapping. ve a vital pedagogic function in
establishing ‘given’ meaning.

c. The Real-operating Conditions Principle

We can distinguish two broad types of grammar teaching activities – those that treat grammar
as an object to be studied and analysed and those that treat it as a tool for engaging in effective
communication. The former type typically involves contrived examples and inauthentic
operations, while the latter strives to achieve either situational or interactional authenticity
(Bachman and Palmer 1996). Our position is that both types of activity are needed – and, indeed,
that the former can serve to guide learner performance in the latter. The activities illustrating the
Given-to-New Principle and the Awareness Principle in the previous sections have encouraged
learners to view grammar as an object, and have been directed at noticing and developing
explicit knowledge of form-meaning mappings.
We will now consider the case for treating grammar as a communicative tool and suggest
ways in which this can be accomplished. Johnson (1988, 1996) noted that cognitive theories of
language acquisition emphasize the need for practice in the context of ‘real-operating
conditions’. That is, learners need the opportunity to practise language in the same conditions
that apply in real-life situations in communication, where their primary focus is on message
conveyance rather than on linguistic accuracy. Johnson emphasises the importance of feedback
in the learning process, suggesting that the instructional sequence is best seen as one of ‘learn?
Perform? Learn’ rather than the traditional sequence of ‘learn? Perform’. During the ‘perform’
stage learners must have the opportunity to receive feedback. Johnson emphasises that for
feedback to be effective learners ‘need to see for themselves what has gone wrong in the
operating conditions under which they went wrong’ (1988,p.93). He suggests that this can
probably be best achieved by means of extrinsic feedback (i.e. feedback from an outside source)
that shows the learner what is wrong by modelling the correct form while they are attempting to
communicate.

5
Approaches to Grammar Teaching
Some approaches are also used to teach grammar; one of them is deductive approach and
the other is inductive approach. Deductive approach is a way of teaching which derives from
deductive reasoning and goes from general to specific. In deductive approach, rules, patterns,
principles are presented first and these are followed by examples. According to Paradowski
(2009), in this approach, learners are provided with ready-made grammar rules and a detail of the
formation of the new structure, what are its components and in which contexts it can be used.
Deductive approach is also known as rule-driven teaching. For example, the traditional Grammar
Translation Method purely uses the deductive approach (Gollin, 1998, p. 88). In order to teach
the target language grammar properly, the foreign language teacher should be competent in both
learners' mother tongue and the target language. Some possible activities in deductive approach
are rule-explanation, translation, doing worksheet and self-study grammar.
Inductive approach on the other hand is a way of teaching grammar implicitly without
stating the grammar rules directly to the students. In inductive approach, lesson starts with
examples or situations which contextualise the language items to be learnt. Then, students
discover and infer the rules from the context. It can also be called as a "rule discovery" technique
where students are not merely provided with ready-made grammar rules (Paradowski, 2009).
Inductive approach is often correlated with Direct Method and Natural Approach in English
teaching. In both methods, grammar is presented in such a way that the learners experience it.
Studies that have tried to find out which approach is better to grammar teaching, have had
similar results in favour of inductive approach. In a study, (Haigh, Herron, & Cole, 2007) the
effectiveness of deductive and guided inductive approaches for teaching grammar in college
French classrooms was investigated and the results showed that the guided inductive
instructional approach to teach grammar proved to be more efficient according to the post tests.

Methods of Grammar Teaching

1. The Grammar -Translation Method

The Grammar Translation Method is one of the most traditional methods, dating back to
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, which offered little beyond an insight into the
grammatical rules attending the process of translating from the second to the native language.
Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979: 3) feature the position of grammar in a lesson of the Grammar
Translation Method as follows:
 Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
 Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on
the form and inflection of words.
 Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in
grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected
sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
Or
“In the Grammar Translation Method, grammar is emphasized and taught deductively
(Larsen-Freeman, 1986: 10-14). In addition, as Brown (2000: 15-16), long and detailed

6
explanations of the intricacies of grammatical rules and forms are supplied for students to
memorize and apply the syntactic rules to other examples.” (cited in Lu, 2009: 23).
We can conclude that in the method, grammar stays an important position. However, its
contribution to language learning has been limited, since it has shifted the focus from the real
language to a "dissected body" of nouns, adjectives, and prepositions, failing to generate the
communicativeness in grammar lessons. Although the method is still a standard method for a
long time, it is necessary to find a new method for an innovation in language teaching.

2. The Direct Method

As with the Grammar Translation Method, the Direct Method, sometimes called the Natural
Method is not new. The Direct Method, an answer to the dissatisfaction with the older Grammar
Translation Method, teaches students grammar and vocabulary through direct translations and
thus focuses on the written language.
Its principles have been applied by the language teachers for many years. Since the Grammar
–translation Method is not effective in preparing learners to use the languages communicatively,
the Direct Method became popular. (Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 23).
The principles of the Direct Method were as follows:
- Classroom instruction was conducted in the target language
- There was an inductive approach to grammar
- Only everyday vocabulary was taught
- Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects, while abstract vocabulary
was taught by association of ideas
We can see that in the Direct Method,
“Grammar is not of as importance as in Grammar_ Translation Method. (Larsen
Freeman, 1986: 24-26, 43-46), grammar is taught by inductive analogy from the
examples presented orally in the target language. Little of no analysis of grammatical
rules is given. Structural patterns are given through the repetition drills and sequenced by
means of contrastive analysis and taught one at one time. (Brown, 2001: 45, 74-75) (cited
in Lu, 2009: 23)

The Direct Method enjoyed great popularity at the end of the nineteenth century and the
beginning of the twentieth but it was difficult to use, mainly because of the constraints of budget,
time, and classroom size. Yet, after a period of decline, this method has been revived, leading to
the emergence of another method, the Audio-lingual Method.

3. The Audio-lingual Method

The Audio-Lingual Method was developed in the 1940s and dominated foreign language
teaching in the 1950s and 1960s in an attempt to address some of the perceived weaknesses of
the Direct Method.
The Audio-lingual Method, like the Direct Method, is also an oral-based approach. However,
the method drills learners in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. It was also based on
linguistic and psychological theory and one of its main premises was the scientific descriptive

7
analysis of a wide assortment of languages (Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 35). According to Skinner
(1957),
“In the Audio-Lingual Method, grammar is most important for the student; the teacher drills
grammar, the student must repeat grammar patterns after the teacher.”

The method fell short of promoting communicative ability as it paid undue attention to
memorization and drilling, while downgrading the role of context and world knowledge in
language learning in general and in grammar in particular. After all, it was discovered that
language was not acquired through a process of habit formation and errors were not necessarily
bad or pernicious. Due to weaknesses in performance, and more importantly because of Noam
Chomsky's theoretical attack on language learning as a set of habits, Audio-Lingual Method is
rarely the primary method of instruction today.

4. Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR (Total Physical Response), developed by Dr. James Asher, is a method of teaching
language using physical movement to react to verbal input in order to reduce student inhibitions
and lower their affective filter. It allows students to react to language without thinking too much,
facilitates long term retention, and reduces student anxiety and stress.
TPR reflects a grammar-based view of language. Asher states,
“….most of the grammatical structure of the target language and hundreds of vocabulary
items can be learnt from the skillful use of the imperative by the instructor”. (Asher,
1977: 4)
TPR makes students use grammar in their daily life, also helps them accomplish to be
successful. It helps reduce students’ stress, yet students gain successful grammar acquisition.
However, it is a type of method for only beginners (children) because students learn the language
with the objects, pictures and kits and they are treated as if they don’t have prior knowledge.
This method helps students internalize grammar in a perfect way and uses psychomotor systems
to teach grammatical points.

5. Communicative language Teaching (CLT)

Developed in the 1970s, and in critical reaction to the formal and boring types of exercises
used under the Audio-lingual Method (‘drill-and-kill’ exercises), Communicative language
teaching (CLT), also referred to as “communicative approach, is an approach that emphasizes
interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language.
“In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), grammar is taught as a means to help
learners convey their intended meaning appropriately. The teaching of grammar can be
managed either deductively or inductively but focuses on meanings and functions of
forms in situational context and the roles of the interlocutors. (Larsen- Freeman, 1986:
132-133) The overt presentation and discussion of grammatical rules are less paid
attention to. (Brown, 2000: 266-267)” (cited in Lu, 2009: 24)

8
 It can be concluded that Grammar can be taught inductively or deductively in
Communicative Language Teaching. It is fact that some learners learn better by being given the
context and then are presented with the grammar rules afterwards while others need the rule in
order to understand the rationale for the new grammatical structure. Besides, it depends on the
kinds of grammatical points, which help teachers decide the ways of presenting grammar
effectively.

In Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), the teacher spends less time on the structures
of the language and more time encouraging the learners to use the language. It is frequent that
communication activities such as games and puzzles which are often carried out in pairs or group
are encouraged in teaching with no much correction or intervention during the activity.
From all the above we can see that through the history of grammar teaching, the ways
teachers have gone about the teaching of foreign languages have seen enormous changes over the
past centuries. Each method has its own strengths and weaknesses, and it provides a 'recipe' for
various practical classroom ideas and procedures; a good method that stems from a good theory
can produce a number of ideas. Depending on the content and the purpose of the lesson, teachers
choose and combine many methods in a lesson as long as these methods are suitable and
affective in their grammar teaching. Grammar should be taught in the context of communication
that is grammar is being taught communicatively.

Visual Aids
A visual aid is, as STEVICK defined it, "anything visible which helps your student
master the language more quickly or more accurately"... Then a visual aid is nothing but an
eternal support which is visible and that helps the teacher to convey his messages to the students
by appealing to their visual sense. A visual aid, according to Dictionary of Applied Linguistics,
is “a visual device used by a teacher to help learning. For example pictures, charts, flashcards”
(1987, p.26). Corder (1966, p.34) states that “in language teaching anything visible can be used
by the teacher to teach meaning”.
Komorowska (2001) mentions other examples of visual stimuli, such as pictures cut out
from illustrated magazines, postcards, photographs, posters, maps, transparencies, etc. Wright
and Haleem (1991) include in their book all the visual media which could be found for the
classroom or are easily available for the teacher, namely chalkboard and whiteboard, flannel
board, magnet board and adhesive plastic, wall pictures and wall posters, picture flash cards,
word flash cards, work cards and worksheets as well as authentic printed materials.

Classification of visual Aids

Generally, we can define visual aids as ‘non-verbal’ materials appealing to the sense of sight.
They are used in the teaching process to provide a visual stimulant which reinforce what students
are learning.
F.L. Billows suggests that visuals can be divided into three main groups:
1) 2-dimensional aids – include wide variety of pictures and drawings, such as all kind of
pictures, postcards, posters and magazines, maps and plans, tables, charts, diagrams, graphs,

9
mind maps and time lines, picture stories, cartoons and comic strips, film, video, television,
cinema and slides.
2) 3-dimensional aids which mean teacher’s and students’ body language (mimes, gestures,
facial expression, acting a situation, puppets)
3) Other visual aids - almost everything that presents information visually and is used in teaching
process. These are realia such as a calendar, a clock, a mirror, toys and art: (paintings, albums,
and sculptures).
As has been already stated, visual aids have many different forms, but they have
something in common – they mean all events of human communication which transcend spoken
or written language. They are used as a medium of conveying a message in iconic code and play
important role in a communication system.

Using visuals in Grammar teaching

The purpose of teaching grammar through visual aids is to develop listening, reading,
speaking and writing at the same time. Pictures are used to arouse interest in pupils and they help
them to "translate" the meaning of the text or of individual items of language. The pictures also
give the pupils a context for the language and for their activity- Pictures can contribute to the
search for specific information in the text and to help the students demonstrate verbally that he or
she has found that information and understood it and has a personal response to offer about it.
Moreover, the purpose of visual aids is to motivate, to stimulate and guide the student.
A written text may provide sufficient visual focus in itself; but accompanying graphic
material often improves comprehension and performance if it helps to elucidate difficult content,
adds meaning to a very short or boring text, or is used to compare and contrast: "the text says
she's dancing but in the picture she's sitting down". Such materiel is usually in the form of a
picture: a poster, a magazine, a slide etc. but it may of course be a representation of the
information being talked about in brief notes or a diagram. You yourself are often an excellent
visual aid, when using your own facial expressions and physical movement to illustrate
something, so are the students and the classroom environment.
Andrew Wright writes that “at some stages in teaching and learning sequence the teacher
will probably want the learner to become consciously aware of the grammatical principle behind
the new language being learnt.” Visuals help there in many ways. Wright provides an example of
visual material used for a statement of principle. There are two pictures of a cat. In the first one
the cat is eating a fish, in the second one there is evidence that the cat has eaten the fish. These
pictures are prepared in such way, that they direct the students’ attention and present the
differences between the tenses.
In tense teaching very common is application of a time line. Timelines are used to explain
language in the more universal form of pictures, diagrams and symbols. They enable the
communication of sophisticated concepts to the lowest level of learner. Visuals are also very
useful in drilling. Practising description, comparing pictures, naming, asking the questions and
answering them students are using certain tenses or grammar structures, either in a written or
spoken form.

10
When teaching tenses, the teachers can use for example the top of the Blackboard which may
represent the past, the middle may represent the present simple and the bottom the future. He can
draw a diagram like this on the board to represent time
Past Present Future
Yesterday Now Tomorrow
The blackboard is indeed of paramount importance but it presents some drawbacks because it
does not move from its place like a felt board.
The time table can also be a visual aid to explain tenses in this sense:
Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
8:00 – French English Arabic
8:40am 2 1 3

Student 1: Today is Wednesday, I have English (Simple present)

Student 2: Yesterday was Tuesday, I had French (Simple past)
Student 3: Tomorrow is Thursday, I will have Arabic (Future)

For another grammar lesson, the teacher can also use pictures. For example when teaching
comparative forms, pictures can be helpful for students to master quickly some forms of
comparison. The pictures are going to illustrate that.

When teaching prepositions through visual aids, the teacher can use some real object so as to
make the students visualise what they are being taught.

11
 CONCLUSION

Visual aids are very important and their advantages are broad particularly in beginners’
classes. They help the teacher get his class lively and beget interest from the students. When a
teacher uses visual aids, he does not have to explain at length a grammar point, the very act of
making visual illustration brings out quickly the meaning and valuable class time is then saved.
Visual aids allow participation in a classroom, more, they can bring cultural enrichment to
students. In beginners’ classes, visual aids are important because it is in the first cycle in which
the students learn for the first time the language. So, the fact of using visual aids is something
that is advisable. Visuals will help teachers to teach grammar communicatively.
Lastly, teachers should use judiciously the visual aids that are reachable in their teaching
and they should know when, why and where they use them and how they use them also. When
all these principles and techniques are applied by every teacher, the teaching of grammar in
beginners' classes will get its improvement and development too.

12
 REFERENCES
Andrew Wright, 1000+ Pictures for teachers to copy. Longman

Asher, J. (1977). Learning another language through actions: The complete teacher’s guide
book. Lost Gatos, Calif.: Sky Oaks production.

Brown, H. D. (2000). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy.

2nd Edition. England: Pearson Longman.

Crystal, D. (2004). Words and Deed. Available online at

http://www.davidcrystal.com/DC_articles/Education2.pdf.

F.L.Billows (translated by B.Jasińska, B.Pawłowska), Technika nauczania języków obcych

(Warszawa: Państwowe Zakłady Wydawnictw Szkolnych, 1968), 138-163.
Gollin, J. (1998). Key concepts in ELT: Deductive vs. inductive language learning. ELT Journal
52(1), 88-89. doi: 10.1093/elt/52.1.88

Haigh, E. C., Herron, C., & Cole, S. P. (2007). The effects of deductive and guided inductive
instructional approaches on the learning of grammar in the elementary foreign language college
classroom. Foreign Language Annals, 40(2), 288-310. doi: 10.1111/j.1944-9720.2007.tb03202.x

Larsen-Freeman. D. (2000). Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. 2nd Edition. New
York: Oxford University Press.

Paradowski, M. B. (2009). Deductive vs. inductive teaching. Sciencebin 1,110-114. Retrieved

from http://sciencebin.wordpress.com/article/deductive-vs-inductive-teaching-2qpvzotrrhys1-23/

Prator, C. H. & Celce-Murcia, M.. (1979). An outline of language teaching approaches." In

Celce-Murcia, Marianne & McIntosh, Lois (Ed.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign
Language. Newbury Ho.

Rivers, W.M (1988). “The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher Chicago; Michigan
University Press.

Tomas Leslie GREEN: "The visual approach to teaching" "A teachers library" London, Oxford
University Press. 1963 Second Edition.

William, D.I (1981), The Holt guide to English”. USA, Holt Rinehart and Wiston.

Online, http://www.encartadictionaries.com

Online, http://www.wikipedia.com

13