Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I was in Aspen about fifteen years ago, sitting in the FBO with at
least ten other crews all doing the same thing: looking at the
overcast. The Obstacle Departure Procedure for the Aspen-Pitkin
County/Sardy Field Airport (KASE) simply says, "use SARDD
DEPARTURE." That departure procedure requires the weather be
at least 400-1 and mandates a climb of at least 460 feet per
nautical mile all the way up to 14,000 feet.
"If we can't see the obstacles," I explained to our lead passenger, "we have to out-climb
them. Our Gulfstream is too heavy to do that so we have to wait until the weather
improves to VFR." Just then all heads in the FBO turned to the runway to see another
Gulfstream take off and disappear into the clouds. Was that crew operating foolishly or
was I being overly cautious? I made it my highest priority to figure this out: what is the
best strategy when dealing with departure obstacles?
Eddie Sez:
If I asked five pilots how to best deal with departure obstacles, I got five different
answers. Even the supposed experts at training centers and commercial vendors
couldn't agree on the basics, much less the solution. The situation isn't much better
today, and no wonder, this is complicated!
Everything here is from the references shown below, with a few comments in orange.
Recommendations — You can use any of these solutions and probably be okay. Of
course if you hit something you will not be okay and the regulatory agencies will find a
way to blame you. You can improve your odds against the obstacles (and the system),
here is my recommendation.
Gray Area — There is one last source of confusion when operating daily without losing
an engine but always being mindful of losing one when obstacles are a factor. If you
lose an engine at V1 you climb out at V2 until the obstacle is beat. Easy. If you don't lose
an engine you might be tempted to accelerate to 250 knots, cleaning up the flaps as
quickly as you can. You are on two engines and you've made sure you can beat the
obstacles with a normal climb. Or have you? And what happens if you lose that engine
after you brought the flaps up? Now V2 has gone out the window. You need to think
about this. Here's my answer.
This can be a very complex subject because there are so many rules from such a
variety of sources. I've tried to simplify things by quoting only the relevant regulatory
passages but I link to more complete coverage of those passages at the bottom of this
page under Source Extracts.
• The ICAO departure procedures are covered in the ICAO Doc 8168 - Aircraft
Operations - Vol II - Construction of Visual and Instrument Flight Procedures,
Procedures for Air Navigation Services §3, ¶1.7.1. (Full extract: ICAO Doc 8168
Vol II, §3, ¶1.7.1.)
The airplane must be accelerated on the ground to VEF, at which point the critical
engine must be made inoperative and remain inoperative for the rest of the
takeoff.
The take-off path shall comprise the ground or water run, initial climb and climb-
out, assuming the critical engine to fail suddenly during the take-off.
Some pilots dismiss 14 CFR 25 and ICAO Annex 8 as not really applicable to
flight operations since they have more to do with aircraft certification than pilot
procedures. True or not, these rules cause aircraft manufacturers to focus only
on OEI data so most aircraft certified under these rules present only OEI takeoff
performance data. This greatly impacts turbine aircraft performance planning,
especially when dealing with takeoff obstacles. This is why the classic, "old
school" method of dealing with departure obstacles is to use engine-out data. (In
most aircraft that is all you have.)
For an airplane certificated after September 30, 1958 (SR422A, 422B), that
allows a net takeoff flight path that clears all obstacles either by a height of at
least 35 feet vertically, or by at least 200 feet horizontally within the airport
boundaries and by at least 300 feet horizontally after passing the boundaries.
• These aren’t very large clearances — basically 35 feet vertically and 300 feet
horizontally — but you do have to clear the obstacles.
• What about non-commercial operators? You still need to avoid hitting anything
because of the so-called "reckless" rule.
The net takeoff flight path data must be determined so that they represent the
actual takeoff flight paths reduced at each point by a gradient of climb equal to—
(1) 0.8 percent for two-engine airplanes;
(2) 0.9 percent for three-engine airplanes; and
(3) 1.0 percent for four-engine airplanes.
• This is misunderstood by many as "test pilot versus real pilot" rules. That is
completely wrong. The "gross path" is what the airplane actually does with you at
the controls. In fact, you would be better off if you replaced the word "gross" with
the word "actual" when it comes to takeoff climb performance. The regulations
and your flight manual are based on the actual numbers minus the shown
reductions. You can consider this a "safety pad." You and the airplane produce
gross (actual) numbers, the books are based on net numbers.
• Does that mean you can simply add the net reduction back in and call it good?
Or just subtract it from the obstacle departure procedure gradient? Why not just
subtract 0.8 percent from the required climb gradient in a two-engine airplane?
That gains you (0.008)(6076) = 48 feet every nautical mile! But what about
winds? What about an aircraft that might not be as clean as the day it was
certified? What about pilot technique? In my opinion, it is foolish to give up this
margin.
There are those who argue that you don't really need to follow anything in a departure
procedure if you are flying under Part 91. The rules, after all, are for the commercial
guys. The shortest regulation in the book tells us otherwise . . .
[15 CFR 97, §97.1]
(a) This part prescribes standard instrument approach procedures to civil airports in the
United States and the weather minimums that apply to landings under IFR at those
airports.
(b) This part also prescribes obstacle departure procedures (ODPs) for certain civil
airports in the United States and the weather minimums that apply to takeoffs under IFR
at civil airports in the United States.
In the United States, every instrument approach, arrival, and departure procedure is
regulatory. If you are flying under instrument flight rules, you have to obey everything on
that plate.
• When flying a TERPS-designed ODP, you are given a minimum Climb Gradient
(CG) of 200 feet per nautical mile and a minimum Required Obstacle Clearance
(ROC) of 48 feet per nautical mile. These values of CG and ROC remain so long
as no obstacles (with an exception to be covered later) penetrate an Obstacle
Clearance Surface (OCS) derived as 152 feet per nautical mile. If an obstacle
does penetrate the OCS (other than the exception to be covered shortly), the CG
and ROC are increased to maintain at least a 24 percent buffer between the flight
path and the obstacle. These rules in TERPS are covered in Volume 1, ¶203.
(Full extract: TERPS, Volume 1, ¶203.)
For TERPS purposes, the MINIMUM climb gradient that will provide adequate
ROC in the climb segment is 200 ft/NM.
The vertical distance between the climbing flight path and the OCS is ROC. ROC
for a climbing segment is defined as ROC = 0.24 CG . This concept is often
called the 24 percent rule.
Where an obstruction penetrates the OCS, a nonstandard climb gradient (greater
than 200 ft/NM) is required to provide adequate ROC.
The nonstandard ROC expressed in ft/NM can be calculated using the formula:
(0.24 h) ÷ (0.76d) where "h" is the height of the obstacle above the altitude from
which the climb is initiated, and "d" is the distance in NM from the initiation of
climb to the obstacle.
• Note that the ROC is defined as being 24 percent of the CG. The minimum ROC
comes to 48 feet at 1 nautical mile because (0.24)(200) = 48 feet. If the CG
increases, the ROC increases too. So, for example, if you have a 300 feet per
nautical mile climb gradient, your ROC at 1 nautical mile will be (0.24)(300) = 72
feet.
• This is the simplest and narrowest of the possible departure procedures; the
lateral margins increase with turns and can vary with available course guidance.
Having to out-climb an obstacle that is over two miles away laterally would seem
nonsensical. U.S. rules recognized this with the adoption of Advisory Circular
120-91.
• If you operate using the guidance of AC 120-91, you can narrow your lateral
margins from nearly 3 miles down to only 3,000 feet of each wing tip. In other
words, you no longer have to restrict your takeoff weight to out-climb that
obstacle sitting over a half-mile to one side.
• If you are flying an obstacle departure procedure designed under ICAO rules,
you are given a 0.8 percent margin between the Procedure Design Gradient
(PDG) and the obstacle. This margin is the Minimum Obstacle Clearance (MOC),
akin to the TERPS Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC) but smaller.
• ICAO uses a 3.3 percent line drawn from 5 meters above the departure end of
the runway to construct what they call the Procedure Design Gradient (PDG).
This is identical to the U.S. TERPS 200 feet per nautical mile climb gradient,
since 100 (200 / 6076) = 3.3 percent, except for the matter of how far above the
runway this gradient begins. The Obstacle Identification Surface (OIS) is used to
identify if adjustments are needed to the standard PDG. The OIS has a gradient
of 2.5 percent, which is identical to the U.S. TERPS 152 feet per nautical mile
Obstacle Clearance Surface (OCS), since 100 (152 / 6076) = 2.5 percent
• The ICAO adjusts the PDG upwards to maintain a 0.8 percent Minimum Obstacle
Clearance (MOC) above all obstacles. Unlike the rule in U.S. TERPS, the ICAO
will allow the climb gradient to change back to 3.3 percent once the obstacle has
been passed.
Illustration: Straight departure area without track guidance, from ICAO Doc 8168 Vol II,
figure I-3-3-1.
• ICAO obstacle departure procedures are built with lateral margins that are even
more generous than those found in U.S. TERPS.
• For turbine powered aircraft that weigh more than 5,700 kg (12,566 pounds) the
margins are narrowed considerably, depending on turns and course guidance.
The maximum lateral width is 3,000 feet but can be as little as 1,000 feet.
Adjusting climb gradient for obstacles. If an obstacle, other than a Low, Close-In
Obstacle (more on that later) penetrates the OIS / OCS, the procedure's climb gradient
must be raised to preserve the MOC / ROC.
• Under ICAO, the 0.8 percent MOC is added to the gradient created by the
obstacle. If, for example, a line from the DER to the obstacle is 5 percent, the
Procedure Design Gradient is raised to 5.8 percent.
• Under TERPS, the Climb Gradient is adjusted to the following formula:
Vertical Example
Let's say we have an obstacle that is 1500 feet above and 5 nm (30,380 feet) away from
the DER.
Under ICAO, the obstacle has a gradient of (1500 / 30380) = 0.0494, or 4.94 percent.
The MOC is always 0.8 percent so our PDG is 4.94 + 0.8 = 5.74 percent. Our height
above the obstacle would be (0.0574)(30380) - 1500 = 244 feet.
Under TERPS, the climb gradient is h / (0.76 d), or 1500 / (0.76 x 5) = 395 feet per
nautical mile. (That's 6.5 percent, much higher than the ICAO PDG.) So our ROC =
(0.24) (395) = 95 feet per nautical mile. At 5 nm, our height above the obstacle will be
(5)(95) = 475 feet. You can also derive this by figuring your altitude (5)(395) = 1,975,
subtracting the obstacle height (1,500 feet) to arrive at the same answer, 475 feet.
Is 244 feet (ICAO) or 475 feet (TERPS) a comfortable margin? Keep in mind that if your
multi-engine turbine aircraft was certified under 14 CFR 25, you will also have the net
takeoff flight path margin. A twin-engine aircraft, for example, will be (0.008) (5) (6076) =
243 feet higher than the AFM states, unless there is a tailwind or temperature inversion.
Only you can decide this, but you will need to give it some thought. Chipping away at
this vertical margin is a fundamental step in the techniques to follow.
Lateral
Lateral Example
Figure: 3-D Terrain Model, TERPS, Aft View, from Eddie's notes.
Let's say you are departing in a two-engine aircraft from an airport that leads into a
valley with what looks to be a challenging obstacle departure procedure. The SID says
you need to climb at 400 ft/nm to an altitude that is 4,000 ft above the departure end of
the runway. Looking at the chart you see a number of mountains and it appears the
greatest problem will be around 10 nm after takeoff about 3 nm to the right. The
departure takes you right down the middle of the valley, so can you improve your
situation by keeping to the course centerline better than 3 nautical miles? How high
above the obstacle will you really be?
Figure: 3-D Terrain Model, AC 120-91, Aft View, from Eddie's notes.
In our example, if you lose an engine at V1 and manage to keep the aircraft on the
departure procedure's course centerline, you will be 1,481 feet above (vertically) and 3
nautical miles away (laterally). If you don't lose an engine, you will of course be much
higher.
You have several vertical margins at work: the 35 feet required by 14 CFR 135.379
(which you cannot give up), the net takeoff flight path margin (0.8 percent for a two-
engine aircraft), and the 24 percent Required Obstacle Clearance afforded by TERPS.
Giving up the ROC would still leave you a margin of 35 + (10)(0.008)(6076) = 521 feet
above and abeam the obstacle.
We will shortly examine a method that addresses the vertical margins and another that
addresses the vertical and lateral margins. But first, there is a more immediate problem
with all obstacle departure procedures, regardless of the number of engines operating .
..
Figure: G450 Net Gradient Takeoff Second Segment Chart, KASE, 20 Flaps, 20°C,
from Eddie's notes.
Chasing through the charts it looks like an impossible task. We find the appropriate
charts in G450 AFM, §05-06-00, Figure 3. Our first task is to compute the climb
gradient. The departure tells us we need 460 feet per nautical mile. We know a nautical
mile is 6,076 feet, therefore:
Photo: G450 MCDU Takeoff Data Page 1/3, KASE SARDD Obstacle Limited Page,
from Eddie's aircraft.
Meanwhile your copilot remembers that the aircraft FMS has a performance computer
that can automate those silly spaghetti charts and enters all the appropriate data. With
this FMS you enter climb gradient in feet per nautical mile to a stated elevation (MSL) in
feet.
Photo: G450 MCDU Takeoff Data Page 1/3, KASE SARDD Obstacle Limited Page,
from Eddie's aircraft.
The answer, unfortunately, comes up very close to those spaghetti charts.
Remember that this number assumes you need to avoid all obstacles within very large
vertical and lateral margins. Though the Gulfstream solution immediately gives up
the net takeoff flight path 0.8 percent performance margin, you still have the 24 percent
Required Obstacle Clearance that isn't really required at all if you lose an engine. There
is room for improvement . . .
1. If you lose an engine, you must clear all obstacles by 35 feet vertically and 200, 300,
or up to 3,000 feet laterally depending on your distance from the airport and which
rules apply. (If you've reduced your climb gradient by the MOC or the ROC, you
should be okay since they are designed with this in mind and the net takeoff flight
path margin is still there.)
2. If you lose an engine, you should declare an emergency so ATC knows you will not
be climbing as expected and that they should "clear the way."
3. If you do not lose an engine, you must still make the ODP climb gradient.
So let's say you've figure a new, higher gross weight by reducing the climb gradient by
24 percent on a TERPS departure procedure. Instead of a 400 feet per nautical mile
gradient, for example, you enter your performance computer with (1 - 0.24) 400 = 304
feet per nautical mile. If you lose an engine, you will clear the obstacles and don't have
to worry about the procedure's climb gradient. But if you don't lose the engine, will you
still make the required climb gradient? You are in uncharted territory:
Figure: Meeting the ODP obstacle clearance gradients with OEI, from Eddie's notes.
• If you are flying a two-engine aircraft you are getting half your climb gradient from
each engine. If you lose an engine, your climb gradient decreases by at least 50
percent because you will also have the parasite drag from the wind milling or
seized engine.
• It follows, then, that your all-engine climb gradient will be at least double your
one-engine climb gradient.
• Since you've reduced your target climb gradient by a maximum of 24 percent and
will have double the climb gradient available, you should be okay.
• Since the loss of an engine in a three-engine aircraft results in 33 percent thrust
loss and in a four-engine aircraft results in a 25 percent thrust loss, each
aircraft should be okay since the maximum gradient reduction is 24 percent.
Should? There might be something I haven't thought of here. I've tested this in the
simulator in a GIV, GV, G450, and CL-604. See the G450 results here: Departure
Obstacle Avoidance / Takeoff Climb Performance AEO Versus OEI. I encourage you to
do the same. Our results have been very good. If, for example, the OEI climb gradient
was 8 percent our AEO gradient was easily 20 percent. To do this, have the simulator
operator record the aircraft's flight track and depart on an ODP twice, once with an
engine failed at V1 and once with an all-engine aircraft.
• The published climb gradient is 460 feet per nautical mile, which comes to (460 /
6076) = 7.57 percent
• The Departure End of Runway (DER) is 7,680 feet. We will reach 14,000 feet in
(14000 - 7680) / 460 = 13.74 nm
• A theoretical controlling obstacle height can be derived from the TERPS formula:
• From this we derive the obstacle gradient that is controlling our procedure's climb
gradient, it is:
Theoretical Obstacle
Gradient=4804(13.74)(6076)=5.75 %Theoretical Obstacle
Gradient=4804(13.74)(6076)=5.75 %
• Using Google Earth, we can produce a terrain elevation profile for an on course
departure (shown below in blue) and for one deviates to the right inside the
TERPS obstacle clearance area until it is 1 nautical mile to the right (shown in
red). Right of course we see an obstacle at 9,250' MSL, 4.5 nm from the DER.
This obstacle will be 9250 - 7680 = 1,570 feet above the DER. We can compute
its gradient:
• We can repeat this process for what appears to be the most challenging obstacle
if the airplane were to remain precisely on course, a peak of 8,700 feet found 7.2
nm from DER. The peak is 8700 - 7680 = 1,020 feet above DER. The gradient of
this obstacle is:
• Loading your aircraft to the OEI numbers and the AEO climb gradient, your
altitude over the 4.5 nm obstacle will be (4.5) (460) + 7680 = 9,750 feet.
• If you elect to load your aircraft so as to achieve 24 percent less climb, (1 - 0.24)
(460) = 350 ft/nm, your altitude over the obstacle will be (4.5) (350) + 7680 =
9,255.
Just 5 feet vertical clearance! So will you cross the obstacle right at that altitude? No,
remember your net takeoff flight path factor. A two-engine aircraft will actually be (.008)
(4.5) (6076) = 219 feet above the obstacle. This is precisely the solution favored by
some commercial vendors.
Another option would be to apply the smaller ICAO 0.8 percent MOC to the TERPS
procedure. In our example, the aircraft would be loaded to provide for a climb gradient
of 7.57 - 0.8 = 6.77 percent. You will cross the obstacle at (.0677) (4.5) (6076) + 7680 =
9,531 feet, 281 feet above the obstacle. Once you thrown in the net takeoff flight
path factor, you clear the obstacle by 281 + 219 = 500 feet.
Commercial Options
You can easily compute your own reduced climb gradient by going through the charts
and simply starting with a climb gradient reduced by the 24 percent ROC on a TERPS
procedure or the 0.8 percent MOC on an ICAO procedure. You just need to be careful
how you do that:
Pros
There are many advantages to reducing your obstacle climb gradient by the TERPS
Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC) of 24 percent or the ICAO Minimum Obstacle
Clearance (MOC) of 0.8 percent:
1. Reducing the published gradient by the ROC or MOC still provides multi-engine
aircraft with their 14 CFR 25.115 "net takeoff flight path" margin, which is 0.8 percent
for two engine aircraft, 0.9 percent for three engine aircraft, and 1.0 percent for four
engine aircraft.
2. Using a software application can be more accurate than manually chasing a pencil
through hard-to-use charts.
3. Reducing the published gradient by the ROC or MOC will significantly increase the
available payload for departure, and this can mean the difference between going or
not going, or reaching one's destination or having to make a fuel stop.
Cons
The are also disadvantages:
1. Reducing your climb gradient by the ROC or MOC leaves you only with the 14 CFR
25.115 "net takeoff flight path" as a safety margin, and that may not be enough if the
winds change from a headwind on the runway to a tailwind at altitude, or if there is a
temperature inversion. In our Aspen example, eliminating the 24 percent ROC
reduces your margin over the first major obstacle from 500 feet to just 219 feet, the
"net takeoff flight path" margin.
2. Chasing through the spaghetti charts can induce critical errors that are large enough
to eliminate the remaining safety margin. Using computer software can also be
subject to errors, since it is up to the user to input the correct gradient. Available
software does not include a database of the correct procedure gradients.
3. This method does nothing to ensure low, close-in obstacles are addressed.
4. It is up to you to ensure you can still meet the ODP climb gradient if you don't lose an
engine; your AFM may not be of much help here. (I don't think this is really a problem
but can't make that decision for you and your aircraft. For my technique for dealing
with this, see: Ensuring All-Engine-Operating (AEO) Performance at Higher Weights.)
5. The reduced gradient is still based on the wider lateral area of the obstacle departure
procedure construction (TERPS or ICAO Doc 8168). The increase in payload is often
insufficient to make a difference in a go / no-go decision.
Recommendation
I've used this method for many years after studying terrain charts and ensuring I fully
understood where the threat was and even then, only if I had reasonable confidence the
winds at altitude were not reversed. The best candidates were places in a large valley
where I knew I would be able to navigate away from the terrain no matter the weather.
There was an accident many years ago, where an Air Force turboprop was unable to
out-climb a mountain as result of a temperature inversion; so I added that to my list of
things to worry about. Nevertheless, I continued to use the method until something
better came along. And that leads us to . . .
Figure: G450 Net gradient second segment climb, flaps 20, 2.33 percent, from Eddie's
notes.
For the purpose of illustration, if we assume there are no obstacles higher than those
found on course within 3,000 feet left or right of course, we can chase through the chart
to see our takeoff grossweight goes way up to over 70,000 lbs. I've done this only to
illustrate the potential. It would take a very large database of all obstacles and a very
capable computer to compare each of these to our route of flight to do the job properly.
Fortunately there are commercial vendors who have just this capability.
Figure: Example APG KASE special departure procedures 33DP, runway 33, G450,
flaps 20, 30 Jan 2016.
Reading the verbiage provided with the APG data, we see these instructions precisely
mimic the SARDD THREE procedure. (Shown at the top of this page.) In fact, it is more
precise, offering bank angles, a turn based on position and not altitude, and a specific
time to begin flap retraction and acceleration. We can, as a result, have confidence that
we can load our G450 to 69,279 lbs. and:
1. be able to stay clear of all obstacles in the event of an engine failure if we stay within
3,000 feet of our filed and planned course,
2. not have to worry about changing departure procedures in the event of an engine
failure,
3. be able to meet our obstacle departure procedure climb gradient if we don't have an
engine failure (because we've checked the "double the thrust" theory in the simulator,
see Ensuring All-Engine-Operating (AEO) Performance at Higher Weights),
4. have enough fuel to make it to our destination on the east coast, and
5. avoid all low, close-in obstacles.
Note, however, that there are more special procedures listed than just the DP1 that
follows the ground track of the SARDD THREE . . .
Figure: Example APG KASE special departure procedures 33DP5, runway 33, G450,
flaps 20, 30 Jan 2016.
It is unclear why you would select the special procedure 33DP5 other than, perhaps,
being able to fly from waypoint to waypoint is appealing. This flight track is not
duplicated by any of the airport's published procedures and it is doubtful you could file it
as a matter of normal operations. I suppose that once you've lost the engine and
declared an emergency you can fly any track you want and in some cases these APG
hybrid procedures will result in further increased departure grossweight. (It does not in
our Aspen example.) But if you plan using one of these unpublished procedures there is
something you need to factor into the equation . . .
Figure: Comparing the KASE SARDD THREE to the APG KASE 33DP5, from Eddie's
notes (using Google earth).
The ground track of this procedure is different than the published SARDD THREE and
you will not be able to file it for your planned departure. That leaves you in the situation
where your FMS, ATC, and your departure briefing are all based on one thing (the
SARDD THREE) and your plan in the event of an engine failure is another thing entirely.
Are you going to have the presence of mind to make these changes after an engine
failure? Even if all that is involved is changing the active flight plan in the FMS and
making a radio call, you may have your hands full and this is just an unneeded
nuisance.
Pros
There are many advantages to using a computer application that melds a digital
obstacle file and terrain maps to narrow the obstacle clearance area with aircraft
performance data to produce a climb gradient reduced by the TERPS Required
Obstacle Clearance (ROC) of 24 percent or the ICAO Minimum Obstacle Clearance
(MOC) of 8 percent:
1. Reducing the published gradient by the ROC or MOC still provides multi-engine
aircraft with their "net takeoff flight path" margins, which are 0.8 percent for two
engine aircraft, 0.9 percent for three engine aircraft, and 1.0 percent for four engine
aircraft.
2. Narrowing the obstacle clearance area to no more than 3,000 feet laterally accounts
for all obstacles the aircraft is likely to encounter with modern navigation capability.
3. Accounting for all low, close-in obstacles allows the computed grossweight to out-
climb these obstacles if possible, or identify needed procedures to avoid them
laterally.
4. Reducing the published gradient by the ROC or MOC and narrowing the obstacle
clearance area will significantly increase the available payload for departure, and this
can mean the difference between going or not going, or reaching one's destination or
having to make a fuel stop.
Cons
The are two disadvantages that I can think of:
Recommendation
I've been using APG data for over 10 years now and have had several issues, not the
least of which are those unpublished procedures. But I've become comfortable using it
and allow members of my flight department to use it provided they understand the
trade-offs and follow the precautions which I am about the outline right now . . .
Recommendations
You can safely use all three of these methods, provided you take the right precautions
and understand the trade-offs. My preference is as follows:
1. The "High Tech Strategy" (terrain data base and obstacle analysis software) — I
always default to running an APG analysis at any airport I am going to for the first
time.
o If the resulting numbers default to the aircraft's climb limit, I know there isn't an
obstacle problem and I can then count on my aircraft's FMS performance
computer to keep me safe. If the numbers are reduced because of obstacles, I
use only published procedures and ensure I load my aircraft to a weight less
than or equal to the APG stated limit.
o In either case, I know I've solved the low, close-in obstacle problem as well.
o I also check the weather to ensure there is no chance of a tailwind during the
departure procedure or a significant temperature inversion.
o I will brief the crew that we are reducing our vertical and lateral safety margins
and the need to navigate within a half-mile is critical. Because of this, we need
to ensure our GPS RAIM is good, we need to set the RNP alert value on our
avionics to 0.25 to give us ample warning if we are about to venture out of the
3,000 feet lateral protection area, and we need to do a check of all this just
prior to takeoff.
o If I didn't have access to a program like APG's runway analysis, I would move
on to the next option . . .
2. The "Old School Strategy" (using One-Engine-Inoperative performance against the
published All-Engines-Operative obstacle departure procedure) — My next choice
would be to revert to using OEI performance against the AEO procedure with one
extra allowance. If flying a TERPS procedure, I will allow the G450 performance
computer's default 0.8 percent net takeoff flight path gradient reduction to determine
a lower gradient. This gives me a little extra vertical margin. If I have reduced my
vertical margin, I take the following precautions:
o I will try to understand the low, close-in obstacle problem by studying the
airport notes and if they are a threat, I will reduce my grossweight to a point
that guarantees I will cross the DER at least 200' above the DER. That
eliminates the problem. (Here's how to do that: How to out-climb all low, close-
in obstacles.)
o I also check the weather to ensure there is no chance of a tailwind during the
departure procedure or a significant temperature inversion.
o I will brief the crew that we are flying with a reduced vertical margin. Because
of this, we need to ensure our GPS RAIM is good, we need to set the RNP
alert value on our avionics to 0.25 to give us ample warning if we are about to
venture out of the 3,000 feet lateral protection area, and we need to do a
check of all this just prior to takeoff.
o If I was flying an airplane without the G450's ability to automate this process, I
would move on to the next option . . .
3. The "Low Tech Strategy" (reducing the AEO departure procedure by the full value of
0.8 percent MOC on an ICAO procedure or 24 percent ROC on a TERPS procedure)
— My last choice would be to use EFB-Pro because, in my opinion, the program is
not user friendly (and that increases the chance of an input error) and requires the
obstacle departure procedure be entered manually, introducing another opportunity
for error. That being said, I would only use it on a TERPS procedure and then I would
select the ICAO option to increase my vertical margin. From this point the
precautions are identical to Option Two.
I've made these choices because APG is provided at no cost with our flight planning
service provider (ARINCDirect) and the G450 has a very easy to use performance
computer built into the normal performance and takeoff data pages of the FMS. If you
have access to APG but your aircraft does not have a performance computer with this
capability, you may opt to elevate the "low tech" strategy as your Option Two. I can't
answer for you, but these are the choices I have made. No matter your choice, I
recommend you understand what margins you are cutting (vertical and/or lateral), the
need to navigate precisely and make the necessary GPS RAIM or other navigation
accuracy checks, and keep an eye on winds and temperature at altitude. I've used
these techniques for fifteen years now and they have often made the difference
between being able to takeoff or having to wait for the weather to improve.
Gray Area
We often think of gray areas as something with no right or wrong answer, but that isn't
right. I think a gray area is more than likely a problem you haven't thought through. I
often get asked "How can I be sure I'm going to clear an obstacle if I lose an engine
after I've retracted my flaps and have accelerated above V2 to V2+10 when the charts
are based on losing an engine at V1, climbing out with the flaps set at those speeds? It
gets worse. What if you do all that and lose an engine after your flaps are up?
This isn't so much a gray area as a pilot error in understanding what it takes to clear an
obstacle. The only way to assure obstacle clearance is to fly the target speed in the
correct configuration until the obstacles are cleared. Does that mean you need to
subject your passengers to a rocket ship ride even if you don't lose an engine on the
runway? Not necesarily. If you understand where the obstacles are you can adjust your
clean up altitude appropriately.
In our Aspen Example, above, we know the required climb gradient is dictated by two
obstacles at 4.5 and 7.2 nm north of the airport, the higher of which is 9,250' MSL
(1,570' above the departure end of the runway). We should plan on maintaining V 2 to
V2+10 until we've climbed above this altitude, even if we don't lose an engine. Now we
know we can beat the obstacle following an engine failure at V1, at our planned level off
altitude, or anywhere in between.
References
14 CFR 25, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Airworthiness Standards: Transport
Category Airplanes, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 91, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, General Operating and Flight Rules,
Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 97, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Standard Instrument Procedures, Federal
Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 121, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Operating Requirements: Domestic,
Flag, and Supplemental Operations, Federal Aviation Administration, Department of
Transportation
14 CFR 125, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Certification and Operations: Airplanes
Having a Seating Capacity of 20 or More Passengers or a Maximum Payload Capacity
of 6,000 Pounds or More; and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft,
Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 135, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Operating Requirements: Commuter and
On Demand Operations and Rules Governing Persons on Board Such Aircraft, Federal
Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation
14 CFR 139, Title 14: Aeronautics and Space, Certification of Airports
Advisory Circular 120-91, Airport Obstacle Analysis, 5/5/06, U.S. Department of
Transportation
Aeronautical Information Manual
Gulfstream G450 Airplane Flight Manual, Revision 36, December 5, 2013
ICAO Annex 6 - Operation of Aircraft - Part 1 Commercial Aircraft, International
Standards and Recommended Practices, Annex 6 to the Convention on International
Civil Aviation, Part I, July 2010
ICAO Annex 8 - Airworthiness of Aircraft, International Standards and Recommended
Practices, Annex 8 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, July 2010
ICAO Doc 8168 - Aircraft Operations - Vol II - Construction of Visual and Instrument
Flight Procedures, Procedures for Air Navigation Services, International Civil Aviation
Organization, 2006
United States Standard for Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS), Federal Aviation
Administration 8260.3B CHG 25, 03/09/2012