Emerson Process Management - CSI

DoctorKnow® Application Paper

Title: Reduction of the Ski Slope Effect When Integrating from Acceleration to Velocity
Source/Author: Roger I. Lemieux
Product: General, Accessories for Data Collector
Technology: Vibration
Classification:

REDUCTION of the SKI SLOPE EFFECT

WHEN INTEGRATING from ACCELERATION TO VELOCITY
By
Roger I. Lemieux
Senior Mechanical Engineer
Industrial Monitoring Instrumentation division of PCB Piezotronics, Inc.
Depew, New York

ABSTRACT:

Advancements in Manufacturing Technology today, have prompted many companies to adopt some type of preventative
maintenance program. These programs involve bearing health, mass unbalance, misalignment of shafts, mechanical
looseness, etc. In many of the applications, acceleration output sensors or accelerometers are used to document the
condition of the machinery. Commonly, the acceleration output signal provided from this type of sensor is integrated to
velocity and in some cases double integrated to displacement.

Viewing frequency response plots in relation to velocity (in/sec), is popular when conducting bearing health diagnostics
on machinery. Today's standards in accuracy, have brought about a new generation of vibration sensors and data
acquisition systems that require higher resolution measurements. Sensor manufacturers have provided families of sensors
addressing this requirement. A vibration sensor is a tool. Like most common tools, it should be selected for a specific
need. The understanding of the application and the type of measurements that are required by the end user will greatly
reduce error in the selection of sensor type, thus reducing error in their measurements.
In cases were the output of an accelerometer is integrated to velocity, high frequency noise can raise the overall noise
floor of the sensor and greatly enhance the ski slope effect. The overall values recorded by the accelerometer generally are
unbelievable in relationship to the condition of the machinery. Certain applications such as bearing vibration monitoring
in spindles tends to produce this type of problem. Accelerometer manufactures knowing the application can provide the
sensor with a low pass filter internal to the sensor that can eliminate this problem. A mechanical filter or some type of
damping material internal or external to the sensor can also be utilized to attenuate this high frequency noise. The
advantages and disadvantages to both is the topic covered by this paper.

PREFACE:
● About the author

Roger I. Lemieux is the Senior Mechanical Engineer of the Industrial Monitoring Instrumentation Division of PCB
Piezotronics, Inc. in Depew, New York. Roger started his career with PCB Piezotronics, Inc. 11 years ago in research and
development of standard and special products. He had 7 years at that position before starting with the IMI division.
Currently he is a member of the local chapter of the Vibration Institute in Buffalo, NY. Mr. Lemieux earned a Bachelor of
Science in Mechanical Engineering Technology from Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York.

INTRODUCTION:
● What is the ski slope effect?

A phenomenon commonly referred to as the "ski slope effect", generally appears when conducting digital integration.
During FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) processing of vibration data with an accelerometer from time domain (time wave
form) to frequency domain (bearing signature), excessive vibration amplitudes develop at the lower end of the scale. The
magnitude of the frequencies exponentially decays or appears to settle with increasing frequency. These excessive
amplitudes can conceal the frequencies of interest (Figure 1).

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

This problem can be attributed to several conditions:

● Poor mounting of the accelerometer

● Weak cable / connector connection

● Low resolution of the accelerometer

● Noisy environment (High frequency noise)

● Noise added during Signal Processing (1 / f noise)

There are a couple of different approaches to this problem. One solution is directly associated with modifications which
can be made to the standard accelerometer. One modification is by electrically adding a Low Pass Filter within the sensor.
A second is by mounting the sensor on a Mechanical Filter. The third would be adding an Analog Integration Circuit
internal to the sensor. Whether it is a modification internal or external to the existing accelerometer, it is important to
realize that no ideal sensor exists today, that can provide all the means to ensure a quality measurement. There is
advantages and disadvantages to each.

MAIN DISCUSSION:
●What is an accelerometer?

Accelerometers in general, are considered to be one of the most universal tools in the vibration analysis market.
Comprising of two components, an element and amplifier (ICP®, integrated circuit piezoelectric), an accelerometer is an
example of a spring mass system. An accelerometer coverts mechanical energy in the form of vibration into an electrical
output. The electrical output is proportional to the magnitude of the vibration it picks up. The output of an accelerometer
will read in millivolts/g (typically 100mV/g). Many of the data acquisition systems commercially available today will
interface with ICP® type accelerometers. Simplistic in design, they provide the best dynamic range for the dollar.
Accelerometers can be configured for most industrial applications to measure LOW (18 CPM) and High (1,200,000 CPM)
frequencies. Broader frequencies can be achieved but without limitations to size, weight and complexity in the sensor
design. As in the audio / stereo market where speakers are categorized as woofer, mid-range and tweeter; sensor size and
performance characteristics can follow the same type of relationship.
● What is the relationship of acceleration vs. velocity?

The acceleration of a point is the time rate of change of velocity, or a = d v / dt. Acceleration integration to velocity can be
accomplished in either analog or digital form. Generally, analog integration is achieved internal to the sensor (Velocity
Sensor), though some sensor manufactures will provide this as an option with the ICP® power supply. Digital integration
is a typical option built-in to most data collectors, FFT analyzers and/or supporting data acquisition systems.

Dynamic Signal Analysis (DSA) is analysis that utilizes digital signal processing and the FFT to produce frequency
spectra and time histories. Integration in a DSA is achieved mathematically by dividing the frequency spectrum by jω,
this is equivalent to integrating the corresponding time wave form. To convert magnitude acceleration measurements to
velocity, whereas jω = 2πf and f = the discrete frequency of interest (i.e. I x rpm or running speed). See tables 1 and 2 for
the most common conversions.

Acceleration to Velocity Conversion Factors

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Acceleration to Velocity Conversion Factors ( Metric )

● Why is frequency response data viewed in relation to velocity over acceleration?

Generally, bearing signatures and analysis there of, is viewed in Velocity (in/sec) vs. frequency (cpm, rpm, Hz). Velocity
time wave forms will highlight the lower frequencies (areas of concern), while filtering out (masking) higher frequencies,
excitations or environmental noise. This is especially useful when analyzing bearing conditions on slow rolling machines.
Velocity readings act as the mean value between acceleration and displacement. The graph below (Figure 2, Table 3)
shows the relationship of acceleration and displacement at a constant velocity (1.0 in/sec peak) vs. frequency.

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

● How does the ski slope effect contaminate the readings?

Referenced in the beginning of this paper, five conditions were highlighted as having potential contributions to the "ski
slope effect":

1. Poor mounting of the accelerometer

2. Weak cable and / or connector connection
3. Low resolution of the accelerometer
4. Noisy environment (High frequency noise)
5. Noise added during Signal Processing (1 / f noise)

The first 2 conditions can be corrected at the point of installation and serviced most any time.
1. Poor mounting will create Mechanical Looseness of the mounted sensor which could be avoided by using good
mounting techniques at the point of measurement: spot facing the surface, drilling and tapping to the proper stud size
proportional to the size of the sensor and preloading the sensor by following the manufacturers recommended torque
specifications. Application of a thin film of grease between the contact surfaces with the use of a thread locker type of
adhesive on the mounting threads is recommended.

In the case of a hand probe: rigid contact perpendicular to the surface is good, but a radial contact of the probe tip in a pre-
drilled mounting hole is best (see figure 3).

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Emerson Process Management - CSI

2. A weak cable and / or connector connection can create intermittence during data collection. If data is collected with few
averages erroneous values will be included in the resultant values. Mechanical looseness of a connector can add noise that
is directly picked up by the sensor.
● The next 3 conditions can be avoided by proper selection of a sensor.

3. Low resolution sensors: Sensor manufactures knowing the details of the installation can recommend a sensor type.
Questions raised are: type of equipment in which the sensor(s) are to be installed, running speed(s), the desired
measurement to be taken and environmental conditions. A variety of sensors have been developed to address many of
these conditions. Generally, low frequency measurements are taken with a sensor that has high mechanical gain and low
electrical gain respectfully. This type of sensor could be categorized based on "woofer" type technology. The draw back
with high mechanical gain in the sensor is its low natural frequency. Sensor manufacturers can add a low pass filter to
attenuate the high frequency noise. This can limit the frequency response of the sensor and change its phase relationship.
Mid range to high frequency sensors typically have less of a problem when integrating their signal, due to their high
natural frequency, but lack in resolution.

4. Noisy environments or High Frequency Noise combined with a low natural frequency of the
accelerometer can cause the electronics to go into saturation. Commonly known as "washover" this type of distortion can
appear as an enhanced ski slope. The use of a first order (-6dB / octave) or a second order filter (-12 dB/ octave) can
eliminate the problem. Customization or fine tuning the comer frequency can be achieved for maximizing the sensor
performance.

5. Noise associated with Digital integration in a DSA will be amplified along with the signal. As in sensors internal
amplifiers, the noise added during Signal Processing = I / f noise. At low frequencies, amplifier noise is inversely
proportional to frequency and resembles Schottky (l/f) noise. The higher the accelerometers sensitivity the better the
signal-to-noise ratio by minimizing the effect of the analyzers noise contribution. Higher resolution data can be taken by
increasing the amount of averages and/or the number of lines setup by the analyzer. The down side to this is an increase in
measurement time.

Accelerometers with high output impedance (generally associated with some ceramic based sensors) are more sensitive to
electrical and process noise. Accelerometers with low output impedance will complement most data acquisition systems.

CASE STUDY:
●What improvements can be implemented to the accelerometer to reduce the ski slope effect when integrating from

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acceleration to velocity?

An automotive plant in Detroit, Michigan had installed a number of accelerometers on their box spindles, operating speed
of 2539 CPM (42.3 Hz). The data was collected with a CSI 2110 and the information was analyzed with CSI's
MasterTrend v2.63 b. Spectral displays both in frequency and time domain showed erratic or irregular responses (or
washover). The acceleration output was integrated to velocity and the response displayed the ski slope effect (see Table 4
and figure 3).

Problem: Discrepancies in readings when integrating to velocity.

Electrical Filter advantage/disadvantages.

Electrical Filtering internal to the sensor is the lowest cost approach toward improving the integration process. In most
cases a simple low pass first order filter can be added to the circuit to suppress any high frequency noise. The only
disadvantage to this is that a strong low-pass filter will limit the frequency range and is permanent. In certain cases were

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the user may want to measure gSE (g Spike Energy), it would not be recommended to use a unit of this type. Note in the
frequency response plots below the unit on the left is a standard accelerometer, the unit on the right has additional
filtering. (see figure 4).

Mechanical filter advantage/disadvantages.

In many cases if an on-line system has been installed and the problem is only associated with a few isolated points, a
mechanical filter could be added. To evaluate the effectiveness of the mechanical filter three tests were conducted in a
laboratory environment.

1. Acceleration and Digital Integration Data was recorded by the accelerometer.

2. Additional high frequency excitation was added on top of the discrete frequency and the output was recorded same as
above.

3 The sensor was mounted on the mechanical filter under the same conditions as in 2.
A sensor was selected with high mechanical gain and a low natural frequency (14 kHz). A discrete frequency of 2539 cpm
(42.3 Hz) was set approximately at the same amplitude as in the case study.

1. Standard Frequency Response Plot: Records of the Acceleration output (Top) and Velocity output (bottom)
processed by digital integration. Note the magnitude of the ski slope (≈0.280 in/sec) in the lower trace compared to the
excitation level (0.195 in/sec) at 42.3 Hz. (see figure 5)

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2. High Frequency Excitation was added: Records of the Acceleration output (Top) and Velocity output (bottom)
processed by digital integration. Note the magnitude of the ski slope increased (≈0.875 in/sec) compared to the excitation
(0.194 in/sec) level at 42.3 Hz. (see figure 6)

3. A Mechanical Filter is added: The Velocity output by digital integration was recorded only. Note the magnitude of
the ski slope decreased considerably (≈0.137 in/sec)! Now the ski slope effect is less when compared to the excitation
(0.186 in/sec) at 42.3 Hz. A more accurate overall reading could be recorded. (see figure 7)

The damping effects of a mechanical filter will attenuate the resonant frequency of the sensor and will suppress any high
frequency noise that can cause washover . The disadvantage is in component cost and installation cost. Like sensors,
mechanical filters can have changing characteristics, attributed to changes in temperature. Today's technology with the
wide variety of composite materials may bring about a new breed of sensors with built in mechanical filters, with stable
characteristics.

Due to budgetary reasons this particular plant chose a mix of sensors with mechanical filters and replacements with
electronic filters. The electrical low pass filter was stronger in the new units compared to the standard accelerometer. The
accelerometers were permanently installed on a number of spindles. Since the replacement these accelerometers and
implementation of mechanical filters, their maintenance people have recorded the cleanest and most accurate data.

SUMMARY:

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Driven by cost, durability and ease of use, the usage of accelerometers has increased in popularity in today's Predictive
Maintenance (PM) programs conducted by various industries. As the need for quality Low Frequency Measurements
increase, plus compatibility to interact with various data acquisition systems and in noisy environments, sensor
manufacturers have made adjustments to their products. High resolution accelerometers can provide the same quality
measurements when compared to velocity sensors or velocity coils.

As an end user of accelerometers in a PM program for your company it is important to remember you can minimize error
in data collection by enforcing good collection technique, as in the mounting the sensor or hand probe and mounting of
the cable. Other areas of concern will involve the environmental noise, where there may be washover in data collection
due to some high frequency component, such as: a leaky valve, tooling noise (squeal) or pump cavitation. These
frequencies can mask the frequencies of concern or can add to their overall amplitudes, providing unbelievable values
about the health of a bearing or drive train in a machine. If this problem exists within your data and the appearance of an
exaggerated ski slope adds to unrealistic values derived after integration from acceleration to velocity, the addition of a
mechanical or electrical filter can correct the situation.

Mechanical filters can complement any on-line system in use today. MF's are simple in design, relatively low in cost and
can be added to a system at any stage. As an external entity to the accelerometer, mechanical filters offer a flexible means
in the suppression of high frequency noise. The trade off with MF's, is the limitation in the frequency range and will add
to the overall system cost. Electrical Filters will enhance an accelerometers performance and can be simply added internal
within the sensors ICP® amplifier. EF's add relatively little to the overall sensor manufacturing cost. Due to a wide variety
of electrical components available in the market, EF's offer excellent flexibility in setting the upper comer value. The
down side is once installed inside a sensor they become permanent. Increasing either filters strength will lessen the chance
of high frequency noise getting introduced within your data.

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