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Burgess, T.M. & Webster, R. 1980. Optimal interpolation

and isarithmic mapping of soil properties. I. The semi-
variogram and punctual krigi....

Article  in  European Journal of Soil Science · January 2019

DOI: 10.1111/ejss.12749

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 OPTIMAL INTERPOLATION AND ISARITHMIC MAPPING
OF SOIL PROPERTIES
I1 BLOCK KRIGING

T. M. BURGESS and R. WEBSTER

(Department of Agricultural Scimce, University of Oxford.

and

Rothamsted Experimental Stcrtion. Harpenden, Herts.1

Summary
Soil properties mapped in two intensive surveys had large nugget variances, leading
to large estimation variances and erratic isarithms when mapped by punctual kriging. I t
i s likely that both surveyors and survey clients are interested in average values of soil
properties over areas rather than point values, and such values can be obtained by
block kriging. Estimation variances are very much smaller, and maps of sodium and stone
content at Plas Gogerddan, Central Wales, kriged over blocks 920m’. and thickness of
cover loam at Hole Farm, Norfolk, kriged over blocks o f 400mZ. are much smoother
than the punctually kriged maps. The map of Hole Farm has a distinct and meaningful
regional pattern.

In Part I of this paper (Burgess and Webster, 1980) we introduced the

semi-variogram as a representation of spatial dependence in a soil
property. We showed that in general the average semi-variance between
points a given distance apart consists of two components, a structual
component or variance, c, that depends on the separating distance, plus a
component, co known as the nugget variance, the limiting variance between
sampling points as their separating distance approaches zero. We also
showed how the semi-variogram could be used to estimate values of the
property by interpolation at unrecorded points and also provide a value of
the estimation variance by a procedure known as kriging. The procedure is
optimal in the sense that estimates are unbiased and the estimation
variance is a minimum. Finally we presented isarithmic maps of three soil
properties in two areas made by ‘contouring’ dense grids of interpolated
values,
Table 1 summarizes one of the principal features of those results. In all
three cases the nugget variances constitute a large proportion of the total
variance, and make quite the largest contributions to the estimation
variances even at points mid-way between sampling points. They are yet
further examples of a most general phenomenon. Interpolation surfaces are
‘Communications regarding this paper should be addressed to R. Wcbster, Rothamsted
Experimental Station, Harpenden. Herts. ALS 2 5 0 .

Journal of Soil Science, IY80.31. 333-341

334 T. M. BURGESS and R. WEBSTER
TABLE 1
Nugget variances, approximate estimation variances for points on the
mapping grids and total variances for soil properties at Plas Gogerddan and
Hole Farm
Approx.
estimation
Nugget variance for Total variance
Property and placr variance interpolated grid in sample

Sodium content 8.7 10.7 15.3

(Plas Gogerddan)
(meq/lO kg)*
Stone content 10.0 12.8 79.3
(Plas Gogerddan)
(per cent)*
Thickness of cover loam 187.0 320.0 786.7
(Hole farm)
cm2

therefore erratic, and isarithmic maps have marked discontinuities near

data points.
We now consider whether these results are really the ones we want.
Firstly, although we may speak of ‘punctual’ kriging the points at which we
make estimates are actually volumes with the same size and shape as the
volumes of soil on which the original descriptions were recorded. For
example, if observations are derived from 10 cm diameter cores then the
points estimated are strictly cylinders 10 cm in diameter. If, as at Plas
Gogerddan, the observations are made on soil bulked from ten 2.5 cm
diameter cores then the estimated values refer in principle to similar
bulked material. So the results depend to some extent on the tools and
method that happened to be convenient for sampling. Although surveyors
may have to sample this way for reasons of time or money they or their
clients will more often wish to know average values over larger areas.
When during survey a surveyor inspects the soil by auger or in a pit at
some place he usually intends that observation to represent the area
surrounding it, perhaps specifically the region nearer to it than to any
other observation point. When interpolating he may similarly wish to
interpolate an average value for an area or block many times larger than
the cross-sectional area of the volumes actually observed.
Secondly, although a map drawn from point estimates is the most
accurate isarithmic map that can be made using a set of point data, local
discontinuity can seriously obscure longer range trends. Further, the
positions of the discontinuities depend on the locations of the particular
data points. A shift in the origin or orientation of an observation grid
could result in a substantially different map. This is a sampling effect that
is clearly undesirable.
In many circumstances these features of punctual kriging may be seen as
shortcomings. They can be avoided by kriging over areas, a procedure
known as block kriging, resulting in smaller estimation variances and
smoother maps.
 ISARITHMIC MAPPING I1 335
Equations for block kriging
In Part I we stated that the interpolated value of a property 2 at any
point xl, is a weighted average of the observed values in that
neighbourhood, thus
-
it, = dIZ(X,) + dZZ(X2) + . * + d,lz(X,l) (1)
The weights di, i = 1, 2 , . . . ,n , and a Lagrange parameter p are obtained
by solving

[*,] = A-'b

A is a matrix of semi-variances between the data points augmented with 1s

in the last row and column and 0 in the diagonal, equation (1 1) in part 1.
The vector b contains the semi-variances between the data points and the
point to be estimated:

In block kriging, instead of just a point Xo. we consider a region V of area

H, with its centre at x,,. The semi-variances between the data points and
the interpolated point are replaced by the average semi-variances between
the data points and all points in the region. Thus, each y(xi,xo)of Equation

I
(3) is replaced by the integral y(x,, x)p(x) dx, wherep(x) is given as follows.
1
if x belongs to V
(4)
p(x) = 0 otherwise,
and
\p(x) dx = 1. (5)
The coefficients for block kriging are therefore given by

[ :]= A-'s,

where
336 T. M. BURGESS and R. WEBSTER
The estimation variance for the area H, is

Comparison of equation (8) with that for the estimation variance of a point
(Equation (12) of Part I) will show that an additional term, the double
integral on the right, has appeared. This is the average variance between
points within V, the within-block variance of classical statistics.
Examples of block kriging
The above modifications were made to the kriging equations used for
interpolation in Part 11, and the following results obtained.
The sodium content for Cae Rue1 at Plas Gogerddan was estimated for
square regions equal in area to four grid cells, i.e. 100 ft x 100 ft (30.5m
x 30.5m). Sixteen data points were used to interpolate the centre points of
the regions at 25 ft intervals, i.e. on a 7.6m mesh grid, with the linear
semi-variogram
y(h) = 8.7 + 1.69 lhl
for h s 4 units of 50 ft (15.7m) as before. The estimation variances in the
central part of the map were
* 0 *
0.8007 0.8075 0.8007
0 0 0 * observation point
0.8075 0.81 5 1 0.8075 0 additional point
* 0
0.8007 0.8075 0.8007,
and are very much less than those for punctual kriging. Within-block
variance was 10.46, somewhat more than the nugget variance, as is to be
expected. The map of average sodium content is shown in Figure 1, and
should be compared with Figure 3 of Part 1. The fine detail of the latter
has gone, and only a few large patches of high value remain.
Values of stone content were interpolated for the same-sized regions
using the nearest 20 observation points and taking account of the anistropy
in the semi-variances:
y(h) = 10.0 + (8.02 - 6.54 sin2(6 - 2.54)). Ih I
where 8 is the angle in radians between the direction of change and the
orientation of the grid and h is in units of 50 ft (15.2m). The estimation
variances for the central portion of the map were
* 0 *
0.5664 0.615 1 0.5664
0 0 0 * observation points
0.6014 0.5670 0.6014 0 other points
* 0 *
0.5664 0.615 1 0.5664
 ISARITHMIC MAPPING I1 337

f2\
FIG. 1. Map of sodium content at Plas Gogerddan made by block kriging over areas of
920m2. Only the isarithm for 20 meq/lOkg appears.

The within-block variance was 15.09. Figure 2 is the map of average stone
content. Again the fine detail has gone, revealing relatively large patches
where the stone content exceeds 30 per cent, and a general trend to less
stoniness towards the top left.
Block kriging of the thickness of cover loam at Hole Farm was carried
out for squares 40m x 40m, i.e. four grid cells, using 25 observation points
and interpolating values every 6.67m. The semi-variogram was

~ ( h=) 187.0 + 603.8( -

3-l h ' - - (-
Ih1)] forIhIs5.06
2 5.06 2 5.06
y(h) = 187.0 + 603.8 for I h I > 5.06
where h is in units of 20m. The estimation variances for the central portion
of the map were
* 0 0 *
32.88 32.47 32.47 32.88
0 0 0 0

32.47 32.05 32.05 32.47 * observation points

0 0 0 0 0 other points
32.47 32.05 32.05 32.47
* 0 0 *
32.88 32.47 32.47 32.88
338 T. M. BURGESS and R. WEBSTER

FIG. 2. Map of stone content at Plas Gogerddan made by block kriging over areas of Y20m2
with isarithms at intervals of 10 per cent.

FIG. 3. lsarithm map of thickness of cover loam in cm at Hole Farm kriged over blocks of
40m*.
 ISARITHMIC MAPPING I1 339
These are only about one tenth of those for punctual kriging. Within-block
variance was 369.2. Figure 3 shows the map of average depth. The short
range ‘noise’ evident in Figure 5 of Part I has been eliminated, and
regional pattern is now clear. The map may be compared with the one
made using SYMAP (Figure 12.8 in Webster, 1977).
Cosmetics
The relative smoothness of maps made by block kriging and the likeness
of such maps to those made by other techniques such as SYMAP raise the
matter of visual appearance. The smoother maps might be thought to look
better. The question will undoubtedly be asked: is it worth going to the
trouble of kriging if a simpler method, perhaps embodied in standard
software, can produce a similar map? The question is largely irrelevant, for
the purpose of block kriging is to provide accurate estimates of soil
properties for blocks of land with known error. The technique is only
incidentally cosmetic.
Error Maps
When maps are compiled from several sources, from a survey of
different intensities, or from air photography of varying quality, it is usual
to present reliability diagrams to accompany them. Similarly estimation
variances can be mapped as an adjunct to kriging. This is valuable where

FIG. 4. Error map of sodium content at Plas Gogerddan for block kriging over areas of
920m2. Isarithms are in units of (meq/tOkg)*, from the innermost 1.0 in steps of 0.2 t o the
outermost, 1.4.
340 T. M. BURGESS and R. WEBSTER
the data points are irregularly scattered (see, for example, Huijbregts,
1975). Error maps from regularly gridded data are not very interesting
since the same pattern is repeated within each cell, and in the case of block
kriging do not vary much throughout the central part of the map.
However, at the edges of a map there are effectively fewer data points
from which to interpolate, and the error increases substantially. Figure 4 is
an example. It is the error map of sodium kriged over lOOft x 1OOft
blocks at Plas Gogerddan.
If values at the edge of a region are to be estimated with the same
confidence as those elsewhere then the observation grid should be
extended somewhat beyond the bounds of the region.

Conclusion
Kriging is clearly an advanced technique. It can involve heavy computing,
especially if the observation points are irregularly scattered. For kriging to
be worthwhile data must be collected at short intervals so that they are
spatially dependent, and sample transects at least must be sampled densely
to provide accurate estimates of the semi-variogram. These are all reasons
why kriging has not been used previously for soil mapping. Now that soil
scientists are aware of the method and of its advantages, and with
computing costs falling rapidly the first two are no longer stumbling blocks.
Only the cost of obtaining sufficient data is just cause for not using these
optimal methods.
However, semi-variograms can be computed from transect data collected
in a reconnaissance stage of survey, and can then be used to estimate the
interpolation error for any given sampling density, and hence cost, in the
subsequent main part of the survey. Armed with semi-variograms those
who commission and plan soil survey can judge what sampling effort to
devote to achieve maps of any given precision, or alternatively what can be
achieved for given effort, or indeed whether they can obtain maps with the
required precision for the cost they can afford.
Planners and surveyors must also consider whether they really want to
predict values of soil properties at points. We believe that they will usually
be interested in average values over areas, and that block kriging is likely
to prove more appropriate than punctual kriging. It remains only to decide
the area of such blocks, and this must depend on the particular
circumstances of each survey.

Acknowledgements
We thank Dr. D. 1. H. Jones and Mr. T. A. Thomas of the Welsh Plant
Breeding Station for the data from their soil survey, and Mr. W. M.
Corbett and Dr. S. Nortcliff who provided the data for Hole Farm used
here and in Part I. We also thank the Natural Environment Research
Council for their award of a CASE studentship to TMB and Dr. P. H.T.
Beckett for his help and interest.
REFERENCES
BURGESS. T. M. and WEBSTER, R. 1980. Optimal interpolation and isarithmic mapping of
soil properties 1 The semi-variogram and punctual kriging. Journal of Soil Science 31,
3 15-331.
 ISARITHMIC MAPPING II 34 1
HUIJBREGTS. C. J. 1975. Regionalized variables and quantitative analysis of spatial data.
In: Disptay and analysis of sparial dara (editors J. C. Davis and M. J . McCullagh),
pp. 38-53, London: Wiley.
WEBSTER, R. 1977. Quanrirativc and numerical merhoh in soil classificurion and survey.
Oxford University Press.

(Received I 1 June 1979)

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