Theories of Reading

So far, there are three main theories which explain the nature of learning to read. First, the traditional
theory, or bottom-up processing, which focused on the printed form of a text. (2) the cognitive view or
top-down processing enhanced the role of background knowledge in addition to what appeared on
the printed page. Third, the metacognitive view, which is based on the control and manipulation that a
reader can have on the act of comprehending a text, and thus, emphasizes the involvement of the
reader’s thinking about what he is doing while reading.

1. The traditional BOTTOM-UP view

The traditional bottom-up approach to reading was influenced by behaviorist psychology of the 1950s,
which claimed learning was based upon “habit formation, brought about by the repeated association
of a stimulus with a response” and language learning was characterized as a “response system that
humans acquire through automatic conditioning processes,” where “some patterns of language are
reinforced (rewarded) and others are not,” and “only those patterns reinforced by the community of
language users will persist” (Omaggio 1993, 45-46). Behaviorism became the basis of the audio-
lingual method, which sought to form second language “habits” through drilling, repetition, and error
correction.

The bottom-up model describes information flow as a series of stages that transforms the input and
passes it to the next stage without any feedback or possibility of later stages of the process
influencing earlier stages (Stanovich, 1980). In other words, language is viewed as a code and the
reader’s main task is to identify graphemes and convert them into phonemes. Consequently, readers
are regarded as passive recipients of information in the text. Meaning resides in the text and the
reader has to reproduce it.

2. The Cognitive View (TOP-DOWN processing)

In the 1960s a paradigm shift occurred in the cognitive sciences. Behaviorism became somewhat
discredited as the new cognitive theory represented the mind’s innate capacity for learning, which
gave new explanatory power to how humans acquired their first language; this also had a tremendous
impact on the field of ESL/EFL as psycholinguists explained “how such internal representations of the
foreign language develop within the learner’s mind” (Omaggio, 1993: 57).

These new cognitive and top-down processing approaches revolutionized the conception of the way
students learn to read (Smith, 1994). In this view, reading is not just extracting meaning from a text
but a process of connecting information in the text with the knowledge the reader brings to the act of
reading. In this sense, reading is a dialogue between the reader and the text which involves an active
cognitive process in which the reader’s background knowledge plays a key role in the creation of
meaning (Tierney and Pearson, 1994). Reading is not a passive mechanical activity but purposeful
and rational, dependent on the prior knowledge and expectations of the reader. It is not merely a
matter of decoding print to sound but also a matter of making sense of written language (Smith, 1994:
2). Goodman (as cited in Paran, 1996), accentuated that reading is “a psycholinguistic guessing
game, a process in which readers sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, make
new hypotheses, and so forth.”

3. The METACOGNITIVE view

According to Block (1992), there is now no more debate on “whether reading is a bottom-up,
language-based process or a top-down, knowledge-based process.” It is also no more problematic to
accept the influence of background knowledge on readers. Research has gone even further to define
the control executed by readers on their trial to understand a text. This control is what Block has
referred to as meta-cognition.

In the context of reading, meta-cognition involves thinking about what one is doing while reading.
Strategic readers do not only sample the text, make hypotheses, confirm or reject them, and make
new hypotheses while reading. They also involve many activities along the process of reading, whose
stages can be divided into three, i.e. before reading, while reading, and after reading. The activities
the readers involve before reading are to identify the purpose of the reading, identify the form or type
of the text. In the second stage (while reading), they think about the general character and features of
the form or type of the text—such as trying to locate a topic sentence and follow supporting details
toward a conclusion, project the author’s purpose for writing the text, choose, scan, or read in detail,
make continuous predictions about what will occur next based on information obtained earlier, prior
knowledge, and conclusions obtained within the previous stages. Finally, in the last stage, they
attempt to form a summary, conclude, or make an inference of what was read.

The Top-Down Reading Model Theory

Reading is one of the core components of early childhood education. From identifying letters to
working on speech patterns, language acquisition in young children is dedicated to getting them to
understand how spoken sounds and written words relate to each other and to cultivate a
comprehension of reading.

What Is the Top-Down Reading Model?

For current adults, recollections of their early years as students attempting to learn to read probably
calls to mind memories of tracing letters, of sounding out letters, of beginning to sound out words and
eventually reading books of increasing size, density and abstract content.

This is the traditional model of teaching reading. In many ways, it is effective, but as research into
cognitive processes continues to develop and teachers seek ways to engage all learning styles, a
number of other reading models have been introduced to the classroom.

What Is the Bottom-Up Theory of Reading?

However good at creating actively engaged readers, the top-down approach in reading does not work
solely on its own. Students still need to have a grasp of phonics, spelling and the alphabet to engage
with any text. This is where the bottom-up theory comes into play. While the top-down approach in
reading has been shown to have significant benefits, it cannot succeed alone.

The bottom-up reading model is what most parents of children are familiar with: learning the alphabet,
learning what sounds the letters make, beginning to string the sounds together while getting an
understanding of phonics and then eventually approaching a text. The top-down model incorporates
much of this work into its approach. By choosing a real text with which to engage, the student begins
to feel an imperative to decode the words.

The bottom-up model helps the top-down model to do what it does so well. Students begin to
recognize words, which increases their speed and begins to give them the chance to use context to
figure out what new words are. The context is also supplied by the theme or content of the work in
question. Readers are not passive recipients of information but are active contributors to the meaning
of the text.

Bottom-Up Theories of the Reading Process

Learning to read is one of the most critical skills students must obtain during early childhood
education. Reading skills set the foundation for overall academic success. There are several ways to
approach reading instruction, and educators often rely on several reading theories.

Students in grades kindergarten through third grade are learning to read. From fourth grade on,
students make a significant shift, and they are then reading to learn. In order for students to be
successful in the middle through high school grades, it’s important for them to have a solid foundation
of reading skills.

One effective way to ensure students have the necessary reading skills is for teachers to know if
students are below level or on level for their age group. Additionally, to better differentiate reading
instruction, teachers also need to know three additional levels for each student: instructional level,
frustration level and independent reading level.

Components of Reading

The complete process of reading has five main components. In order for students to become fully
literate, the following concepts must be mastered:

Phonics – Understanding the sounds that correspond with each letter of the alphabet. This includes
long and short vowels and other phonetic rules and involves connecting the concept that letters make
sounds and sounds make words.

Phonemic Awareness – Understanding the sounds of letter combinations, such as consonant blends,
syllables and complete words.

Vocabulary – Understanding what words mean and being able to use them appropriately.

Fluency – The ability to read with proper speed and expression without errors. Fluent readers read in
the way that they speak.

Reading Comprehension – The ability to recall events, characters and the main idea of a story or
passage after it is read.

Bottom-Up Theory in Reading

The bottom-up theory says that reading is a skill in which students learn to read in a step-by-step
way. This approach utilizes a building-block approach starting with the foundation of phonics and
phonemic awareness. The theory recognizes that students must first learn the basics in order to fully
understand the more complex components, such as comprehension and inferences.

The bottom-up theory is widely used because of its sequential approach. This theory recognizes
reading as a development process that is best learned in a way that starts with a foundation and
builds with complexity.