Nation 2021

DOI: 10.1002/tesj.
564
CONCEPTUAL OR THEORETICAL
F E AT U R E A RT I C L E
Is it worth teaching vocabulary?
Paul Nation
Victoria University of Wellington

Abstract
Correspondence Most teachers are concerned about the teaching of vo-
Paul Nation, Victoria University of cabulary. However, it is much more effective to focus on
Wellington
Email: Paul.Nation@vuw.ac.nz the ways in which vocabulary can be learned. This article
looks at the jobs of the teacher, which include, in order
of importance, (1) designing a balanced course, (2) or-
ganizing classroom work and homework, (3) training the
learners in how to learn, (4) testing, and (5) teaching vo-
cabulary. These jobs apply to the learning of vocabulary
through independent study and learning through language
use. There is a brief description of the author’s ideal vo-
cabulary learning program, which includes a balance of
learning opportunities.
1 | IN T RO D U C T ION
Vocabulary can be learned in two major ways: by deliberately giving it attention and by meeting it in
message-focused language use. The principle of the four strands (Nation, 2007; Nation, 2013b) clas-
sifies the opportunities for meeting in use into learning through meaning-focused input (listening and
reading), meaning-focused output (speaking and writing), and fluency development in each of the four
skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The strand of language-focused learning involves
opportunities for teaching and deliberate study. In this classification of language learning opportuni-
ties, teaching is defined very narrowly and is seen as being part of language-focused learning and not
part of the three other strands. Each of the four strands should be of roughly equal size.
With this narrow view of teaching, this article takes a predominantly negative view of the
teaching of vocabulary. It does this for several reasons. First, the teacher has many more im-
portant jobs than teaching. Second, as we saw in the first paragraph, across a balanced range of
opportunities that are needed to support learning, teaching has only a small role to play—one
part of one strand. Third, research shows that teaching is only moderately efficient, with only a
small proportion of words that are taught actually being retained. Note that although this article
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argues against the importance of vocabulary teaching, it strongly supports the deliberate learn-
ing of vocabulary.
2 | T H E J O B S OF T H E T E ACHER
The jobs of the teacher are to plan, organize, train, test, and teach. These are ranked in order of im-
portance for learning.
Planning involves making sure that vocabulary learning occurs across the four roughly equal
strands and making sure that learners are focused on the most useful vocabulary for them. Table 1
lists the 20 most useful language teaching techniques classified into the four strands. Descriptions of
these techniques can be found in Nation (2013b), and short videos showing them in use can be found
at https://tinyurl.com/Language-Teaching-Techniques
The second job, organizing, involves making sure that classroom work and homework run well.
It involves making sure that largely independent activities such as extensive listening and extensive
reading run well. It involves making sure that pair and group activities are carried out well, with the
right mix of learners in each pair and group and with the proper seating arrangement to support the
most appropriate flow of information (Nation, 1989). Organizing also involves making sure that the
conditions that favour vocabulary learning have a chance to occur.
These conditions include repetition, noticing, retrieval, meeting and using words in varied
contexts, elaboration, and deliberate attention. These conditions need to occur in activities such
as extensive reading, problem-solving speaking, extensive listening, linked skills activities, learn-
ing using word cards, writing with feedback, reading fluency development, and speaking fluency
TABLE 1 The 20 most useful language teaching techniques
Skill area Technique Strand

Listening Extensive listening through techniques such as Meaning-focused input
listening to stories, and speed-controlled listening Meaning-focused input
Read and listen Language-focused learning
Dictation
Speaking Problem-solving Meaning-focused output
Pair conversation Meaning-focused output
Prepared talks Meaning-focused output
Same or different (pronunciation) Language-focused learning
Identifying (pronunciation) Language-focused learning
4/3/2 Fluency development
Reading Extensive reading Meaning-focused input
Paired reading Meaning-focused input
Intensive reading Language-focused learning
Speed reading Fluency development
Writing Writing with feedback Meaning-focused output
Information transfer Meaning-focused output
Substitution tables Language-focused learning
10-minute writing Fluency development
General purpose Linked skills Meaning-focused strands
Issue logs (project work) Meaning-focused strands
Word cards or flash card programs Language-focused learning
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NATION 3 of 9
development. The skill with which the teacher designs and runs these activities can have a major
effect on the learning conditions that occur and thus on the vocabulary learning that occurs. Webb
and Nation (2017, Chapters 4 and 5) provide a detailed analysis of the conditions and how to max-
imize them in a wide range of language learning techniques. Organizing also includes motivating
learners.
The teacher’s third job, training, involves helping learners become proficient in the most useful
vocabulary learning strategies of guessing from context, using word cards and flash cards (Nakata,
2011), using word parts (Wei & Nation, 2013), and using a dictionary. These strategies can be used
with thousands of words and thus easily justify the amount of time spent on learning how to use them.
Strategy development needs to occur over a reasonably long period of time until learners find it easier
to use a strategy than to not use it.
Training also involves metacognitive knowledge and the development of autonomy in learning.
Teachers need to know about the following things (Barker, 2007):
1. They need to know where to access sources of information about word frequency and lists
of useful words.
2. They need an understanding of the nature of word frequency.
3. They need practice in considering personal language needs.
4. They should be aware of the importance of knowing roughly how many words a learner knows and
what a reasonable learning goal should be in terms of number of words.
They should also know how to work out the ease or difficulty in learning a particular word, and
they should be familiar with a range of options for dealing with vocabulary. Where appropriate, teach-
ers should convey some of this knowledge to learners.
The fourth job, testing, is important because it is difficult to plan a good vocabulary program
without knowing your learners’ vocabulary sizes (see the recent vocabulary levels tests [McLean
& Kramer, 2015; Webb, Sasao, & Ballance, 2017] on my website). Testing is also an important
way of getting and giving feedback on progress. The four jobs of planning, organizing, training,
and testing should occupy most of the teacher’s time.
The fifth job is teaching. The definition of teaching used in this article is a rather narrow one:
Teaching occurs when the teacher is the source of information, the teacher is the focus of atten-
tion, and the teacher determines the pace of the learning. It includes both the teacher explaining
words and the learners doing vocabulary exercises from a course book. It should only occupy a
small part of the language-focused learning strand, sharing that time allocation with learner train-
ing, using word cards, intensive reading, spelling, and a deliberate focus on aspects of listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. Let us now look in detail at why vocabulary teaching is of limited
usefulness.
3 | T H E IN EF F IC IE NC Y OF VOCABULARY TEACHING
3.1 | The size of the task
Vocabulary size is measured in thousands of words, so any teaching is likely to be able to deal with
only a very small part of what needs to be learnt. The high-frequency and mid-frequency words of
the language needed to reach 98% coverage of written text consist of the 9,000 most frequent word
families (Nation, 2006), and teaching could not possibly cover all of these.
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3.2 | The rate of teaching
To affect learning there needs to be rich instruction with a reasonable amount of time spent
on each word. At a minimum this is probably somewhere between 3 to 5 minutes per word.
Some published studies of vocabulary teaching show that this can be a very time-consuming
process.
3.3 | The amount of learning
Typically, on immediate posttests of receptive knowledge following vocabulary instruction, less than
50% of the words taught are actually remembered. Most studies testing the involvement load hypoth-
esis, for example, show learning of around 50% on receptive measures and closer to 30% on produc-
tive measures.
3.4 | The efficiency of word card learning
Learning using word cards, or flash card programs, typically results in close to 100% learning, be-
cause the nature of the procedure aims at such a high level of learning. Such learning does not require
any teaching beyond training in the strategy of using word cards.
Vocabulary teaching has a role to play in a language course, but its role is limited and teachers
need to acknowledge that vocabulary learning can and does occur mainly through other means. Where
English is taught as a second language, vocabulary teaching needs to focus on items of immediate use
to the learners. For recent low-proficiency immigrants, this means quickly learning a survival list of
useful words and phrases (Nation & Crabbe, 1991). For learners in the school system who already
know the high-frequency words, this means focusing on topic-related and subject-related vocabulary.
For learners preparing for academic study, this means learning academic vocabulary and technical vo-
cabulary. Where English is taught as a foreign language, the focus of teaching needs to be initially on
the high-frequency vocabulary. Learners need encouragement to take control of their own learning of
the mid-frequency vocabulary, because this group of several thousand words is too large for teaching
to have any significant effect.
4 | L E A R N ING VO CA B U LA RY THROUGH
I N D EP EN D E N T ST U DY
If teaching has such a small role to play in vocabulary learning (and in other aspects of language
learning), how can learners learn? One important and highly effective way is the use of word cards or
flash card programs for deliberate decontextualized learning. Learning vocabulary using word cards
or flash cards has to be seen as just one of the first steps in learning a word. There are several reasons
for this:
1. There is more to knowing a word than knowing its translation.

2. Learning a word is usually a cumulative process, not a one-off piece of learning.
3. Words not only have to be known; they have to be readily available for use.
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NATION 5 of 9
However, learning the translation of a new word is a very good step towards knowing that word.
Research on vocabulary learning (Nakata, 2020) provides useful indications of how learning from
vocabulary cards can be done most effectively:
1. Write the word to be learned on one side of the card and its translation on the other
side. This forces retrieval of the item after the first meeting. Each retrieval strengthens the
connection between the form of the word and its meaning. Seeing them both together does
not do this. The more retrievals, the better the learning. It seems that it is not the retrieval
itself that strengthens learning but the effort that goes into making the retrieval.
2. Using a flash card program, like iKnow, Anki, or the program available on English Central
(which applies well-established learning principles) is also a very good idea instead of word
cards.
3. Initially start with small packs of cards—about 15 or 20 words. Difficult items should be learned
in small groups to allow more repetition and more thoughtful processing. As the learning gets
easier, increase the size of the pack—more than 50 seems to be unmanageable simply for keep-
ing the cards together and getting through them all in one session.
4. Space the repetitions. Spacing results in much longer lasting learning than massing the repeti-
tions together into one session of study. In addition, having a big gap (several days) between
learning sessions helps retention. Spacing probably increases the effort required to make the re-
trieval, thus helping learning. There seems to be no advantage in increasingly spacing retrievals,
although having a big gap is important. Increased spacing may help increase the effort needed to
make a retrieval, so it could be useful to use increasing gaps. The most important principle for
word card learning, however, is the use of spaced retrieval.
5. If you are learning words just for listening or reading, do meaning recall (receptive retrieval)
when using the word cards. In a flash card program, multiple-choice items are also useful for this
receptive learning. If you want to use the words in speaking and writing as well, also do form
recall (productive retrieval).
6. Using a core meaning for the translation or meaning helps deal with words with a range of senses
(e.g., sweet, neutral).
7. Don’t put too much information on word cards. Word card learning has limited but very impor-
tant goals, and too much information can distract from the form–meaning learning.
8. For words or phrases that are difficult to learn, use depth-of-processing techniques like the key-
word technique or analysis into word parts. The more associations you can make with an item,
the better it will be remembered.
9. Putting words of similar spelling or of related meaning in the same pack of cards does not help
learning and may make initial learning more difficult.
10. Keep changing the order of the words in the pack. This will avoid serial learning where the
meaning of one word reminds you of the meaning of the next word in the pack.
11. Say the word aloud to yourself. Having a stable pronunciation of a word helps the form enter
long-term memory.
12. Write collocates of the words on the card where this is helpful. This particularly applies to verbs.
Some words are most usefully learned in a phrase.
Learners are typically not aware of the importance of spaced retrieval for learning. Even in learning
sessions, they wrongly consider that massed learning is just as effective or more effective. Performance
in the learning session is not a good predictor of long-term recall. Learning to use the word card strat-
egy should involve deliberate learning of the principles behind the strategy.
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Learning from word cards, when measured in its own terms, can result in very large amounts of
learning (up to 100 words per hour), can result in learning that is well retained over time (60% after
42 days, 50% after 10 years), and does not require a lot of repetition for most words (Nation, 2013a).
There is a mistaken belief that all vocabulary learning needs to occur in context. There is no re-
search evidence to support this belief. It is good to learn vocabulary in context through language use. It
is also good to deliberately learn vocabulary out of context. A well-balanced language course includes
both kinds of learning.
There is now a growing body of research that shows that learning from word cards results in both
explicit knowledge and implicit knowledge (Elgort, 2011). Implicit knowledge is required for normal
language use.
5 | L E A R N ING VO CA B U LA RY THROUGH LANGUAGE USE
Vocabulary learning can occur through extensive listening (Rodgers, 2018) and extensive reading
(Nation & Waring, 2020). The conditions favouring learning through input are form recognition,
the need for meaning retrieval, the spacing of repetitions, and the occurrence of the same words in
different morphological forms and different sentence contexts (varied meetings). The single most ef-
fective change a teacher can make to a language course is to include an extensive reading program.
This change requires minimal teacher training (Elley & Mangubhai, 1981; Nation & Waring, 2020),
an increase in resources (graded readers or other suitable books) or spending (for a subscription to an
electronic extensive reading program like Xreading), and an initial allocation of around 20 minutes
per week of class time (Nation, 2014). The learning that occurs from such a program easily justifies
the time and cost.
There is little research on extensive listening programs, but comparisons of vocabulary learning
from listening and reading tend to favour learning from reading (Brown, Waring, & Donkaewbua,
2008) and particularly reading while listening. However, an extensive listening program is still an
essential part of a well-balanced language course, and the use of supported listening activities like
listening while reading as well as viewing can help increase vocabulary learning rates.
Learning through receptive language use can involve reading, listening, reading while listening,
viewing, and viewing while reading captions (Webb, 2020). Because repetition is important for learn-
ing, large amounts of input are needed for substantial vocabulary learning to occur. Because learning
through input requires large amounts of input and is fragile, deliberate learning of vocabulary is a very
useful preparation and supplement to learning from input.
Fluency development in listening and reading can be considered as parts of extensive listening and
extensive reading programs (McLean & Rouault, 2017). Fluency development provides opportunities
for strengthening and enriching vocabulary knowledge and for developing collocational knowledge.
Free speed-reading programs are available at https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/paul-nations-re-
sources/speed-reading-and-listening-fluency.
Meaning-focused output also provides opportunities for vocabulary learning. Spaced repetition
and retrieval through varied meetings and use are important for vocabulary learning. Because of this,
the initial meeting with a word is only a small first step in learning it. This is true even if a word is
deliberately taught or studied or is just met in input. The learning of any word is a cumulative process
involving learning through use and study, and learning through the integration of words into devel-
oping systems of knowledge. When partly known words are used in output, this pushed output can
involve varied use of the word in ways that have not been met in input or tried in previous output. This
varied use helps learning (Joe, 1998).
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NATION 7 of 9
The three meaning-focused strands of meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and flu-
ency development do not have any obvious vocabulary focuses. However, the planning of these strands
can have substantial effects on increasing vocabulary learning, especially if the language-focused
learning strand is related to the other three strands. Table 2 provides guidelines for making sure that
vocabulary learning occurs in a course.
The first recommendation of vocabulary control makes sure that learners’ time is not spent strug-
gling with words that are way beyond their current level of knowledge and that are unlikely to be
repeated in the course. In a well-controlled program, every word is worth learning.
When a language course does not jump from one topic to another but spends considerable time on
a single topic or on closely related topics, there are fewer different words in the course and the words
get many more opportunities for repetition.
Because repetition is so important for learning, having a planned system of coming back to the
same material again makes sure that there is plenty of repetition. Returning to the same material can
be done by simply repeating a task or varying it in some way.
The fourth recommendation is to include word card or flash card learning. This well-proven tech-
nique is so effective and efficient that all learners need to know how to do it well.
TABLE 2 Recommendations for supporting vocabulary learning in a language course
Recommendation Justification
Control the levels of vocabulary in the course to match Vocabulary control ensures that all words met in a
the learners’ current level and needs. course are useful and that time is not wasted on less
useful vocabulary.
Cover the same content in all four strands of a course Integrated content greatly increases the repetition
by using theme-based learning and activities that give of words and provides opportunities for retrievals
repeated attention to the same topic across the same or through varied meetings and varied use. Limitation of
different skills. topic areas reduces the number of different words.
Build repetition into a course by coming back to the Repetition of activities and content increases
same material at least four or five times, sometimes vocabulary repetition.
doing exactly the same activity again and sometimes
varying it.
Include vocabulary learning using word cards or flash Deliberate learning is both efficient and effective and
card programs. provides opportunities for elaboration. Cards involve
retrieval and allow for plenty of repetition.
Run a substantial, well-monitored extensive reading Although learning from meaning-focused input is not
program and a substantial, well-monitored extensive as efficient as deliberate learning, large quantities of
listening program. input provide plenty of opportunities for repetition
and varied meetings.
Teach the most frequent affixes and give plenty of Being able to deal with words as a part of word
practice in recognizing them. families greatly increases repetitions and quality of
processing through varied meetings.
Train learners in strategy use and understanding of how Knowing why you are doing a particular activity
to learn. increases motivation and focus. Awareness and
strategy use increase elaboration and allow learners to
consciously apply the conditions needed for learning.
Have a strong fluency development component in the Fluency development increases the amount of input
course. and output and thus repetition and varied meetings
and use.
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We have already looked at the importance of extensive reading and extensive listening programs. They
have a wide range of effects, and there is plenty of evidence of their contribution to vocabulary growth.
Being able to use word part knowledge to help recognize members of a word family provides elab-
oration that helps learning and makes each occurrence of a family member become a repetition of the
family, thus greatly increasing the opportunities for repetition and thus learning.
Learners who know how to learn can take control of their own learning, and this can increase the
motivation to learn. It also can make learning more efficient. It is worth spending reasonable amounts
of time on helping learners become autonomous in their learning.
The final recommendation is to include a fluency strand with targeted fluency development activ-
ities for each of the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Learners need to be able to
make the best use of what they already know, and this is the goal of the fluency development strand.
6 | M Y ID E A L VO CA B U LA RY LEARNING PROGRAM
My ideal vocabulary course would involve a balance of the four strands of meaning-focused input,
meaning-focused output, language-focused learning, and fluency development. All of the strands
would cover the same content, and there would be a very limited number of topic themes in the course
that were all related to each other. The course could involve content and language integrated learning
(CLIL; also known as content-based instruction), but the content would need to be relevant to learn-
ers’ needs and would need to be already largely familiar to them.
The course would have a strong learner-training element supporting learners in taking control of
their own learning. This learner training would involve the learning of vocabulary strategies such as
word card use, using word parts, and guessing from context and would also involve understanding
principles of learning such as spaced repetition, quality of processing, time on task, and the four
strands, and their application in activities such as extensive reading, extensive listening, vocabulary
learning, and writing. Principles of learning are dealt with in detail in Macalister and Nation (2020).
The course would involve extensive listening and extensive reading programs, a range of relevant
speaking and writing activities, and a fluency development program focusing on each of the four skills
of listening, speaking, reading, and writing.
The teacher would do small bits of teaching but would largely be involved in planning, organizing, train-
ing, and monitoring. The teaching would include strategy training, intensive reading, feedback on writing
and speaking, pronunciation training, work on dictation, spoken substitution tables and information transfer
diagrams, and occasional vocabulary teaching. A little vocabulary teaching is useful, but vocabulary teach-
ing should account for only a very small proportion of the opportunities to learn vocabulary in a course.
In this article I have looked at the range of opportunities for learning vocabulary. In terms of time,
around three quarters of these opportunities should involve language use. However, a well-balanced
language course also includes opportunities for the deliberate study of vocabulary. The challenge for
the teacher is getting the balance right.
7 | T H E AU T HOR
Paul Nation is emeritus professor of applied linguistics at Victoria University of Wellington, in New
Zealand. His specialist interests are language teaching methodology and vocabulary learning. He has
written many books about language teaching, including What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? and
How Vocabulary Is Learned.
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NATION 9 of 9
ORCID
Paul Nation https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2920-9874
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tening, and listening to stories. Reading in a Foreign Language, 20(2), 136–163.
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How to cite this article: Nation P. Is it worth teaching vocabulary? TESOL J. 2021;12:e564.
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DOI: 10.1002/tesj.

Is it worth teaching vocabulary?

Victoria University of Wellington

TESOL Journal. 2021;12:e564. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/tesj © 2020 TESOL International Association | 1 of 9

TABLE 1 The 20 most useful language teaching techniques

Skill area Technique Strand

3.1 | The size of the task

3.2 | The rate of teaching

3.3 | The amount of learning

3.4 | The efficiency of word card learning

1. There is more to knowing a word than knowing its translation.

5 | L E A R N ING VO CA B U LA RY THROUGH LANGUAGE USE

TABLE 2 Recommendations for supporting vocabulary learning in a language course

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