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flight pattern

Yasin ހ
ohret

Abstract
Energy demand associated with energy consumption (commonly fossil fuels) has increased in line
with the rise in world population and this has led to a number of complications. The best known
and most prominent issue induced by fossil fuel utilization is unavoidable greenhouse gas emis-
sions released as a result of the combustion of fuels. Emitted greenhouse gases from various
sources, such as industrial plants, power plants, transportation services, residential utilization and
so on, are largely responsible for global warming and climate change. According to latest reports,
the share of the transportation sector in total energy-related CO2 emissions is approximately
23%. As a result of a detailed investigation and dissemination of transportation-induced emis-
sions, air transportation is found to be responsible for approximately 3–4% of total energy-
related CO2 emissions. The current study introduces a different perspective in the evaluation
of aircraft greenhouse gas emissions. In this manner, a thermodynamic evaluation on the basis of
the first and second laws of thermodynamics and a cost evaluation of greenhouse gases emitted
from domestic flights in the UK are presented in the current paper, in addition to an environ-
mental impact assessment.

Keywords
Aviation, air transportation, emissions, environmental impact, energy, exergy, cost

Department of Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance, School of Civil Aviation, Süleyman Demirel University,
Isparta, Turkey
Corresponding author:
Yasin ހ
ohret, Department of Airframe and Powerplant Maintenance, School of Civil Aviation, Süleyman Demirel
University, TR-32700 Keciborlu, Isparta, Turkey.
Email: ysohret@gmail.com
2 Energy & Environment 0(0)

Introduction
Energy demand associated with energy consumption (commonly fossil fuels) has increased
in line with the rise in world population and this has led to a number of complications. The
best known and most prominent issue induced by fossil fuel utilization is unavoidable
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions released as a result of the combustion of fuels. Emitted
GHGs from various sources, such as industrial plants, power plants, transportation services,
residential utilization and so on, are largely responsible for global warming and climate
change. From this perspective, carbon dioxide emissions are believed to be responsible for
climate change, global warming and other environmental issues.1–4 According to the
latest report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change,5 the share of the trans-
portation sector in total energy-related CO2 emissions is approximately 23% with a value
of 6.7 GtCO2. As a result of a detailed investigation and dissemination of transportation-
induced emissions, air transportation is found to be responsible for approximately 3–4% of
total energy-related CO2 emissions.5–7 According to forecasts, the rise in traveler numbers
preferring air transportation and the growth of aircraft fleets throughout the world will lead
to an increasing share of GHG emissions by the air transportation industry.5,6,8
The role of air transportation in GHG emissions and environmental issues have attracted
the attention of many researchers to study this important topic. The global warming poten-
tial of different airports in Turkey is introduced in Altuntas.6 The researcher benefited from
flight data and records from the national inventory and the ICAO aircraft emissions inven-
tory during this study. In another paper,7 environmental damage and fuel consumption of a
turbofan engine were investigated for cases of burning conventional aviation fuel and liq-
uefied hydrogen. At the end of the research, the lowest environmental impact occurring
under flight conditions of a high altitude and low Mach speed aircraft is determined. In
another research,9 environmental life cycle assessment of an A320 passenger aircraft was
presented according to ISO 14040/44. In this framework, each phase of aircraft life including
manufacturing and overall service life is evaluated. At the end of the study, manufacturing
process was found to have a low impact on emission generation of the aircraft through its
life. Alonso et al.10 discuss the relationship between air traffic distribution in Europe and
carbon dioxide emissions. Within this framework, flights among EU countries are consid-
ered along with flights from non-EU countries to EU countries and flights to non-EU
countries from EU countries. At the end of the study, a high concentration of traffic in
France, Germany, Italy, Spain and UK is revealed. Additionally, a direct relationship
between carbon dioxide emissions and numerous variables, such as number of flights, pas-
senger numbers, fuel consumption and so on, is identified. In González and Hosoda,11 the
growing impact of aircraft fleets in Japan on the environment is evaluated. Researchers
conclude that fuel taxes play a vital role on reduction of carbon dioxide emissions from
aircraft. In another paper,12 aircraft-induced nitrogen oxide emissions are evaluated. In this
regard, the effect of nitrogen oxide emissions from aircraft on radiative forcing is highlight-
ed. Therefore, six different emissions inventories are used to develop a model for estimation,
with uncertainties being determined. Vichi et al.13 studied the air quality at two international
airports in Rome from 2008 to 2012. Within this framework, emissions data are measured
and then analyzed statistically. At the end of the study, statistical analyses are reported.
Scotti and Volta14 present an evaluation of carbon dioxide emissions emitted from
European aircraft fleets from 2000 to 2010. It is concluded that aircraft size and load
factor affect emissions production positively. Budd and Suau-Sanchez15 evaluated the
ހohret 3

emissions and fuel consumption of major low-cost air transportation companies regarding
future environmental regulations. The main finding of the study is estimation of fuel burn
and emission increase related to capacity increase with the new aircraft technology. In
another study,16 researchers investigated the impact of weather conditions and air traffic
on aircraft pollutant emissions and local air quality at an international airport. Dmitrieva
and Grabar17 evaluated carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides and sulfur dioxide emissions induced by domestic flights in Russia within the frame-
work of atmospheric impact. In this regard, global warming potential is employed to mea-
sure the impact of Russian civil aviation on the earth’s climate. Synylo and Duchêne18
modelled the nitrogen oxide emissions of a turbofan-type aircraft engine. The researchers
developed a genuine model, namely TURBOGAS, to clarify the variation of emissions
dependent on numerous factors, such as power setting, fuel flow rate, air temperature
humidity and so on. The developed model is asserted to calculate aircraft emissions inven-
tory precisely, the sanitary-hygienic zone around an airport and provide environmental
sustainability taking operational and metrological conditions into account. Tsague and
Tatietsé19 reveal how emitted nitrogen oxide from aircraft during the cruise phase of a
flight affects the environment. As a result, researchers have developed a model and a specific
nitrogen oxide production parameter with intention of classifying aircraft by means of their
pollutant factors. This methodology is asserted to complete the ICAO regulations for nitro-
gen oxide emissions of commercial aircraft. Agarwal and Zhang20 assessed an existing air-
craft during a flight to review work conducted environmentally. On the other hand, genetic
algorithms are used to optimize the aircraft under investigation. At the end of the study,
maximum possible values of payload and range are found to be unnecessary for a flight with
minimal environmental impact. In another assessment and projection, research study21 on
emissions from air transportation is considered as well as from other transportation sectors.
According to the scenario presented in this paper, aviation will be the major source respon-
sible for radiative forcing by 2030, which is more than double the current status. Turgut22
discusses the impact of ambient temperature on the emissions formation of a turbofan
engine in his study. Collected emissions data from the engine, under test-cell conditions
after overhaul, is used to evaluate the ambient temperature variation from 5.2 to 23.9
C
while the engine power setting is variable between take-off and idle. On completion of the
research, the ambient temperature is found to be proportional to nitrogen oxide emissions,
while it is inversely proportional to carbon monoxide emissions. In research by Abrahamson
et al.,23 a model is presented to predict black carbon mass emissions in cases of conventional
and alternative aviation fuel consumption during ground and flight operations. In Azami
et al.,24 emissions characteristics of alternative fuels are presented in addition to engine
performance analyses. It is concluded from the study that it is possible to reduce the nitro-
gen oxide emissions consumption of pure Jatropha biofuel with regard to conventional
aviation fuel, whereas carbon monoxide emissions are highly dependent on combustor
inlet conditions and phases of flight. The environmental impact and emissions assessment
of an aircraft engine in the area of an airport is presented in Zaporozhets and Synylo.25
Within this scope, the impact of fuel flow rate, operational period, age and maintenance
condition of the engine on emissions production is evaluated while the effect of ambient
temperature is considered. As a result, taking all these factors into account yields a more
precise calculation of emitted gases. Dinc26 aimed to optimize a turbofan engine of an
unmanned aerial vehicle on the basis of equivalent specific fuel consumption and nitrogen
oxide emissions for a typical landing and take-off flight cycle. With the aid of a genuine
4 Energy & Environment 0(0)

code, the engine of the unmanned aerial vehicle is optimized to reduce nitrogen oxide
emissions by 26.6%, while the equivalent specific fuel consumption is decreased 9.5%
from its baseline. Cox et al.27 discussed the environmental aspect of Swiss airlines. At the
end of the study, it was concluded that reduction of exhaust emission from aircraft may be
achieved whereas the main cause of many environmental impacts caused by air transport
will be due to upstream impacts of kerosene production.
A short overview of relevant studies addresses the necessity for more research dealing
with the impact of aircraft on the environment. Contrary to previous studies, the current
study intends to propound a different perspective on the evaluation of aircraft GHG emis-
sions. In this manner, a thermodynamic evaluation, on the basis of the first and second laws
of thermodynamics, and a cost evaluation of greenhouse gases emitted from domestic flights
in UK are presented in the current paper in addition to an environmental impact assessment
with the aid of a global warming potential parameter.

Materials and methods

An overview of aviation in the UK
The aviation sector in the UK has been growing along with those of many other countries
throughout the world. In line with this growth of the sector, the number of airports, number
of aircraft in fleets and passenger numbers using air transportation has increased over the
last decade. As shown in Figure 1, there are currently 55 airports in the UK, with 30 of these
being open to international flight operations.
The comfort and the time-saving opportunity offered by air transportation leads people
throughout the world to choose it, ahead of road and rail transportation, for long distance
travel. Reflecting this, the number of air transport passengers in the UK has been increasing
in recent years. According to recent reports and released statistics,30,31 passenger numbers to
the end of 2016 have increased by 27.1% since the end of 2010, while aircraft movements
have grown nationally by 10%. The variation in air passenger numbers is plotted in Figure 2
for the last 10 years.
At the end of 2016, the total number of aircraft in airline fleets is reported to be 1035. If
the number of aircraft in service with UK airlines is examined, according to data available at
the end of 2016, the most common aircraft type is determined to be the A321-200 from the
Airbus family, numbering 166. The composition of aircraft families is illustrated in Figure 3
for a clearer understanding. However, the most preferred Boeing aircraft type is found to be
the B737–800, numbering 56, as shown in Table 1.31

Domestic flights causing greenhouse gas emissions in the UK

According to the latest up-to-date data of the Department for Business, Energy & Industrial
Strategy,32 GHG emissions have been decreasing with each passing year. As shown in
Figure 4, total GHG emissions reduced by 18.18% in 2015 compared to 2010. While
total GHG emissions decrease the amount of emitted GHGs from transportation remains.
Thus, the percentage of the transportation increases. In Figure 5, total greenhouse emissions
relating to 2015 are split into parts. From this, we see that the transportation sector is
understood be responsible for 23.53% of the total emitted GHGs behind the energy
supply sector, which leads emissions with a rate of 27.03%. Integrated consideration of
ހohret 5

Figure 1. Localization of airports in the UK included in the IATA confirmed list.28,29

6 Energy & Environment 0(0)

Figure 2. Variation in air passenger numbers in the UK from 1996 to 201631.

Figure 3. Distribution of aircraft families in UK fleets31.

Figures 2, 4 and 5 provides insight into the projection of the Department for Business,
Energy & Industrial Strategy.32 For the year 2016, total GHG emissions are predicted to
be 466 Mt CO2e, whereas the percentage of the transportation sector is projected to
be 25.71%.
An in-depth analysis of the transportation sector, particularly domestic air transportation,
shows that GHG emissions have reduced year by year since 2005. However, a slight increase
in domestic flight-induced GHG emissions can be noticed for 2013 related to a dramatic rise
in domestic air traffic in the same year. Figure 6 is plotted for a clearer understanding of the
trend in GHG emissions from domestic flights in the UK. It is obvious from the graphs that
ހohret 7

Table 1. Decomposition of aircraft type of major market shareholders in UK.31

Airbus family Boeing family

Type Number Type Number

A319-100 45 737-300 34
A318-100 2 737-400 4
A319-100 135 737-800 56
A320-200 79 747-400 47
A321-200 166 757-200 49
A330-200 10 757-300 2
A330-300 10 767-300 30
A340-600 8 777-200 46
A380-800 12 787-8 18
787-9 28

Figure 4. A sectoral decomposition of greenhouse gas sources in the UK32.

the variance of three GHG emissions, namely nitrogen oxide, unburned hydrocarbon and
carbon dioxide, is approximately the same.

Thermodynamic evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions

In classical thermodynamics, the first and second laws are the best-known and are preferred
ahead of the third and fourth in engineering systems evaluation. The first law of thermo-
dynamics deals with the energy balance of a system, whereas the maximum achievable
performance under actual conditions is the subject of the second law. Even if a thermody-
namic or engineering system is not evaluated in the current study, GHGs have an energy
8 Energy & Environment 0(0)

Figure 5. Sectoral decomposition of greenhouse gas emissions in 201532.

Figure 6. Time varying emitted greenhouse gases from UK domestic flights33.

ހohret 9

and exergy just as any other substance on earth. To find the energy and exergy amount of
GHG emissions, the values shown in Table 2 are employed in calculations. Therefore,
unburned hydrocarbon emissions are assumed to be in the chemical form of methane. On
the other hand, energy values indicate the formation enthalpy of each gas. It should be
noted that the formation of carbon dioxide and methane are exothermic reactions, while the
formation of nitrogen oxide is an endothermic reaction. As a result, the energy and exergy of
GHG emissions can be calculated by

X
i¼n
EGHG ¼ mi ei (1)
i

X
i¼n
EXGHG ¼ mi exi (2)
i

In equation (1), E, mi , Mi and ei represent energy, mass, molar weight and molar energy
rate whereas EX, mi , Mi and exi denote exergy, mass, molar weight and molar exergy rate in
equation (2). Thermodynamic evaluation of emitted GHGs shows us the wasted energy
amount and wasted potential useful power.

Environmental evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions

In order to evaluate the environmental impact of emitted GHGs from domestic flights in the
UK, a global warming potential is used in the current study. Within this framework, the con-
version factors given in Table 3 are utilized to calculate the global warming potential of GHGs.

X
i¼n
GWPGHG ¼ mi GWPi (3)
i

Table 2. Energy and exergy of greenhouse gases.34,35

GHG Chemical formula Energy (kJ/mol) Exergy (kJ/mol)

Carbon dioxide CO2 –394.389 19.87

Unburned hydrocarbon CH4 –74.873 831.65
Nitrogen oxide NO 90.291 88.90
GHG: greenhouse gas.

Table 3. Global warming potential of greenhouse gases.6

GHG Chemical formula Global warming potential

Carbon dioxide CO2 1

Unburned hydrocarbon CH4 21
Nitrogen oxide NO 310
GHG: greenhouse gas.
10 Energy & Environment 0(0)

Cost evaluation of greenhouse gas emissions

Two approaches are introduced for the cost evaluation of GHGs in the current paper.
The first depends on energy evaluation. According to the first assertion, each GHG has a
specific energy, either molar basis or mass basis. If the energy of the cumulative amount of
emitted GHGs is found, it is possible to calculate the total cost of GHGs with the aid of the
price of energy in the UK market. As mentioned earlier, the most up-to-date accessible
emissions data have been released for the year 2015. Therefore, the price of electrical energy
in the UK market for December is implemented as 0.002638 GBP/kJ within the framework
of the first approach.36 The cost of greenhouse gases, according to the first approach, can be
found by

X
i¼k
CGHG ¼ 0:002638 mi ei (4)
i

The second approach considers the carbon taxes of GHGs. In this regard, carbon tax is
0.01251 GBP/kg for any petroleum gas or other gaseous hydrocarbon in a liquid state which
includes conventional aviation fuel into petroleum derived fuels.37 To perform this calcu-
lation, the carbon dioxide equivalent of total GHGs should be calculated. Additionally, the
carbon dioxide formation of unit mass of a conventional aviation fuel is assumed to be 3 kg.
As result, the unit mass of emitted carbon dioxide costs 0.00417 GBP/kg. Next, equation (5)
is obtained to calculate the cost of GHGs according to the second approach

CGHG ¼ 0:00417 CO2 eGHG (5)

Results and discussion

In the current paper, GHG emissions from UK domestic air transportation are assessed
from different perspectives: thermodynamics, the environment and financial. Regarding the
numerous studies in the accessible literature, the current paper focuses not only on envi-
ronmental concerns but also on energetic and economic issues. The results obtained from
thermodynamic, environmental and economic evaluations are summarized in Table 4.
The results given in Table 4 indicate that a large amount of energy carried by GHGs is
released into the environment every year. Despite a reduction of wasted energy dependent
on emissions reduction, the level is still considerably high. As seen in Figure 7, wasted
energy was on the increase from the 1990s to 2005 when it peaked with a value of
12.1 EJ. If the heating value of conventional aviation fuel is considered, the wasted
amount of energy is approximately equal to one billion kilograms of fuel. If this comparison
is taken a step further, the wasted energy is approximately equal to the required energy of a
commercial aircraft engine for a non-stop flight over a 7310-year duration. However, recov-
ering this wasted energy is unfortunately impossible using current technology.
While wasting energy by emitting GHGs, which are energy carriers, we also destroy
exergy. As can be seen from Figure 8 and Table 4, wasted exergy or destroyed exergy can
reach a level of 613 GJ. Considering the amount of destroyed exergy, together with the
ambient temperature, we can calculate entropy generation. This huge amount of exergy
ހohret 11

Table 4. Multi-objective evaluation results.

Year Energy (MJ) Exergy (MJ) CO2e (kt) Cost 1 (GBP) Cost 2 (GBP)

1990 6.85E þ 12 3.47E þ 11 1464.465 1.81E þ 13 6.11E þ 06

1991 6.93E þ 12 3.51E þ 11 1480.542 1.83E þ 13 6.17E þ 06
1992 6.94E þ 12 3.51E þ 11 1483.413 1.83E þ 13 6.19E þ 06
1993 6.78E þ 12 3.43E þ 11 1448.246 1.79E þ 13 6.04E þ 06
1994 6.28E þ 12 3.18E þ 11 1340.761 1.66E þ 13 5.59E þ 06
1995 6.63E þ 12 3.35E þ 11 1415.214 1.75E þ 13 5.90E þ 06
1996 7.46E þ 12 3.77E þ 11 1592.239 1.97E þ 13 6.64E þ 06
1997 7.68E þ 12 3.89E þ 11 1640.928 2.03E þ 13 6.84E þ 06
1998 8.24E þ 12 4.17E þ 11 1760.215 2.17E þ 13 7.34E þ 06
1999 9.25E þ 12 4.68E þ 11 1975.16 2.44E þ 13 8.24E þ 06
2000 9.93E þ 12 5.02E þ 11 2120.139 2.62E þ 13 8.84E þ 06
2001 1.04E þ 13 5.24E þ 11 2213.51 2.73E þ 13 9.23E þ 06
2002 1.03E þ 13 5.19E þ 11 2192.522 2.71E þ 13 9.14E þ 06
2003 1.05E þ 13 5.32E þ 11 2245.82 2.78E þ 13 9.37E þ 06
2004 1.10E þ 13 5.56E þ 11 2349.264 2.90E þ 13 9.80E þ 06
2005 1.21E þ 13 6.13E þ 11 2589.727 3.20E þ 13 1.08E þ 07
2006 1.16E þ 13 5.85E þ 11 2470.505 3.05E þ 13 1.03E þ 07
2007 1.09E þ 13 5.50E þ 11 2327.081 2.88E þ 13 9.70E þ 06
2008 1.04E þ 13 5.23E þ 11 2210.165 2.73E þ 13 9.22E þ 06
2009 9.07E þ 12 4.58E þ 11 1936.181 2.39E þ 13 8.07E þ 06
2010 8.38E þ 12 4.23E þ 11 1788.43 2.21E þ 13 7.46E þ 06
2011 8.00E þ 12 4.04E þ 11 1707.233 2.11E þ 13 7.12E þ 06
2012 7.63E þ 12 3.85E þ 11 1627.627 2.01E þ 13 6.79E þ 06
2013 7.77E þ 12 3.92E þ 11 1658.248 2.05E þ 13 6.91E þ 06
2014 7.17E þ 12 3.62E þ 11 1528.895 1.89E þ 13 6.38E þ 06
2015 7.20E þ 12 3.63E þ 11 1536.318 1.90E þ 13 6.41E þ 06

Figure 7. Time varying wasted energy amounts by greenhouse gas emissions from UK domestic flights.
12 Energy & Environment 0(0)

Figure 8. Time varying wasted exergy amount by greenhouse gas emissions from UK domestic flights.

Figure 9. Time varying CO2e of greenhouse gas emissions from UK domestic flights.

destruction, as well as the entropy generation, is an indicator of the degree of disorder or

randomness in the earth’s environment. An integrated approach can yield an explanation of
climate change, global warming and all other environmental issues. According to funda-
mental physical laws, nature always tends to be in equilibrium. Therefore, any increase in
disorder or randomness forces the earth and its environment to reach equilibrium once
more. From this perspective, it is more intelligible to comprehend numerous environmental
and ecological issues worldwide.
The CO2e of GHG emissions from UK domestic flights from 1990 to 2015 is shown in
Figure 9 for a clearer understanding. CO2e of GHG emissions experienced a rising trend
until 2005 and then became lower, excluding caprioles in certain years, such as 2013. As
ހohret 13

Figure 10. Time varying cost of greenhouse gas emissions from UK domestic flights (approach 1).

Figure 11. Time varying cost of greenhouse gas emissions from UK domestic flights (approach 2).

mentioned earlier, according to the projections at the time, GHG emissions from UK
domestic flights were expected to increase after 2016 and beyond. Therefore, it can be
predicted to see the CO2e of GHG emissions from UK domestic flights at a level of approx-
imately 1600 kt.
In the current study, two different approaches have been introduced to evaluate the
economic aspect of emitted GHGs from a cost perspective. A first approach considers
energy amount and unit energy cost whereas a second approach is based upon carbon
taxes applied to fuels. If Figures 10 and 11 are viewed together, the results of approach 2
can be seen to be approximately three times the results obtained from approach 1. Even if
14 Energy & Environment 0(0)

the results are found to be so variable, this still makes sense. According to the author’s
knowledge, the difference between the results of the two approaches is due to the discordant
determination of carbon taxes. It is recommended to enact carbon taxes with respect to
energy generation costs and distribution prices. Consequently, the author claims that the
first approach is more sensitive until carbon taxes are regulated regarding energy costs.

Concluding remarks
As a major concern of the modern world in the 21st century, GHG emissions are discussed
in this paper. Emissions released from aircraft fleets of UK domestic airlines, in particular,
are the subject area. In order to evaluate emissions, three different categories and five dif-
ferent methodologies or approaches are employed. At the end of the study, the following
remarks may be addressed to contribute to future studies and the current status:

• Interest in air transportation in the UK, as well as throughout the rest of the world, leads
to an increase in the numbers of air passengers. The growth of aircraft fleets, associated
with the rise in passenger numbers, yields to a rise of emitted GHGs in the UK.
• As explained by comparisons, it is essential to reduce GHG emissions to ensure greater
energy savings and more sustainable transportation.
• Augmentation of current system performances and more attentive scheduling flights may
be potential solutions to the problem of reducing emissions.
• The UK carbon tax policy should be revised, paying attention to energy generation costs
and distribution prices.

Acknowledgements
The author is thankful to the UK Civil Aviation Authority and the founders of the UK National
Atmospheric Emissions Inventory (NAEI) for the public release of relevant data. The author also
thanks the reviewers, as well as the editor, for very thorough reviews and constructive comments on
the article that significantly improved the quality of the paper.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

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Yasin Sohret is currently an assistant professor at Department of Airframe and Powerplant

Maintenance of Suleyman Demirel University. He graduated from Mechanical Engineering
Department of Eskisehir Osmangazi University in 2010. He recieved his PhD degree from
Aircraft Maintenance Department of Anadolu University under supervision of Prof. Dr.
Hikmet Karakoc. Sohret mainly studies on gas turbine engine measurements, combustion
and fuels, energy and exergy analyses of thermal systems.

Appendix

e energy rate
E energy
m mass
ex exergy rate
EX exergy
GWP global warming potential
C cost
CO2 e carbon dioxide equivalent