Child and Adolescent

Development
(II-B BSBT)
 INTRODUCTION

The field of psychology may have grown to be respected as

a science. Human development is one of the most popular areas
of interest for those who study psychology. Freud, Erikson and
Piaget are all great theorists with different ideas concerning human
development. Each theorist developed ideas and stages for
human development. Each theory differed on what these stages
were. Freud is known as the father of psychology. Although some
of his work has been dismissed, most of it still holds weight in the
world of psychology. Freud believed that human development was
fueled by inner forces. He believed the most powerful of all inner
forces was our sexual being—to which gave way to the different
aspects that make life.

The study of development concerns the events and the

processes that occur as a single cell becomes a complex
organism. These same processes are also seen as the newly born
or hatched organism matures, as a lost part regenerates, as a
wound heals and even during aging. Furthermore, development
requires growth, differentiation and morphogenesis. During growth,
cells divide, enlarge and divide once again. Differentiation occurs
when cells become specialized in structure and in function. Like
how a muscle cell looks and acts quite differently than a nerve cell.
While morphogenesis occurs when body parts are shaped and
patterned into a certain form. Thus, there is a great deal of
difference between the function of the legs and arms even though
they contain the same type of tissue. Moreover, human
development not only covers the different stages from conception
of offspring to birth, but it as well encompasses the different
factors that determine the initial event before the actual beginning
of life which are reproduction, inheritance and sexual orientation.

Concepts and Terms

Gamete - one of the two types of reproductive cells that join fertilization to form a
zygote.

X-chromosome - Female chromosome

Y chromosome - Male chromosome

Gonads - sex glands; the ovaries in females, and the testes for males

Social context - refers to the psychological position that people react to things
differently depending on their immediate environment.

Context - is a setting, and every child‘s development occurs in numerous contexts

including homes, schools, peer groups, churches, neighborhoods, communities, cities
and countries. Each of these settings is influenced by social and economic factors.
Each may reflect the influence of culture, ethnicity and socioeconomic status.

Culture - encompasses the behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a
particular group that are passed on from generation to generation.

Ethnicity - refers to characteristics that are rooted in cultural heritage, including religion,
nationality, race and language. Ethnicity is central to the development of an ethnic
identity, which is a sense of membership in an ethnic group, based on shared language,
religion, customs, values, history and race. Race and ethnicity are sometimes confused.
Race is a controversial classification of people according to real or imagined biological
characteristics such as skin color and blood group. An individual‘s ethnicity can include
his or her race but also many other characteristics.

Socioeconomic status (SES) - refers to the grouping of people with similar

occupational, educational and economic characteristics. Socioeconomic status implies
certain inequalities. Generally, members of a society have (1) occupations that vary in
prestige and some individuals have more access than others to higher-status
occupations; (2) different levels of educational attainment, and some individuals have
more access than others to better education; (3) different economic resources; and (4)
different degrees of power to influence a community‘s institutions.

Conception- it is the union of the ovum (female) and sperm (male).

Implantation- it is the process by which or stage at which an embryo becomes

embedded in the lining of the womb.
I. CHROMOSOMAL DIFFERENTIATION OF SEX
 When a human egg or sperm cell
is produced, it contains 23
chromosomes. Twenty-two of these are
autosomes that carry most of the genetic
information used by the organism. The
other chromosome is a sex-determining
chromosome. There are two kinds of sex-
determining chromosomes: the X-
chromosome and the Y-chromosome.
The two sex-determining chromosomes,
X and Y, do not carry equivalent amounts
of information, nor do they have equal
functions. X chromosomes carry typical
genetic information about the production
of specific proteins in addition to their
function in determining sex. For example,
the X-chromosome carries information on
blood clotting, color vision and many
other characteristics. The Y
chromosome, however, appears to be
primarily concerned with determining
maleness and has few other genes on it.
When a human sperm cell is
produced, it carries 22 autosomes and a
sex-determining chromosome. Unlike
eggs, which always carry an X-
chromosome, half the sperm cells carry
an X chromosome and the other half
carry a Y-chromosome. If an X-carrying
sperm cell fertilizes an X-containing egg
cell, the resultant embryo will develop
into a female. A typical human female
has an X-chromosome from each
parent. If a Y carrying sperm cell
fertilizes the egg, a male embryo
develops. It is the presence or absence
of the Y chromosome that determines
the sex of the developing individual.
A. Male and Female Fetal Development
 Development of embryonic gonads begins very early during fetal growth.
First, a group of cells begin to differentiate into primitive gonads at about week 5. By
week 7 or 8, these gonads will become testes if a Y-chromosome is present; they
will develop later into ovaries beginning at about week 10 if two X chromosomes are
present.

As soon as the gonad has differentiated into an embryonic testis or ovary it

begins to produce hormones. The ovary produces estrogen and the testis produces
testosterone. These chemical control molecules produced by the ovaries and testes
influence the further development of the embryo, causing it to complete its sexual
differentiation.

B. Sexual Maturation of Young Adults

Following birth, sexuality plays only a small part in physical development for
several years. Culture and environment shape the responses that the individual will
come to recognize as normal behavior. During puberty, normally between 12 and 14
years of age, increasing production of sex hormones causes major changes as the
individual reaches sexual maturity. Generally, females reach puberty six months to a
year before males. After puberty, humans are sexually mature and have the capacity
to produce offspring.

A. PRODUCTION OF SEX CELLS

1) SPERMATOGENESIS

2) OOGENESIS
 GERMINAL STAGE
(Conception to implantation)
 The egg and the sperm.

Millions of sperm enters the fallopian tube

seeking for the egg.

As the sperm reaches the egg, it attaches

itself and penetrates the membrane

As it penetrates the membrane, the tail

disengages to the head and penetrates
the nucleus.

As the head of the sperm enters the

nucleus, it forms into a zygote. The
zygote divides into two.
 And after the zygote divides into two, it
divides into four and so forth.

Until it becomes a hallow ball of cells

called blastula.

Then after that the blastula, implants itself

to the uterine wall and other
developments occur.
 EMBRYONIC STAGE
(3 to 8 Weeks After Conception)

MONTH 1 : (4TH,5TH,6TH,7THWEEK)
As the fertilized egg grows, a water sac forms around it,
gradually filling with fluid called amniotic sac , in which the baby
floats and helps cushion the growing embryo.
The placenta also develops. The placenta is a round, flat
organ that transfers nutrients from the mother to the baby.
At about 4 weeks , the baby‘s heart starts beating at a
normal rate of 65 times per minute.
And at the end of the first month, the baby is about ¼ inch
long-smaller than a grain of rice.

FETAL STAGE
(9th week to birth)

MONTH 2 : (8TH,9TH,10TH,11TH,12TH WEEK)

Baby‘s facial features continue to develop. Ear begins as a
little fold of skin at the side of head.
Tiny buds that eventually forms into arms and legs starts to
develop. Fingers, toes and eyes are also forming.
Neural tube (where the brain, spinal cord and other neural
tissue is connected to the central nervous system) is well formed.
Digestive tract and sensory organs begin to develop.
Head is large in proportion to the body.
And at the end of the month the baby is about1 inch long
and 1/30 of an ounce.

MONTH 3 : (13TH,14TH,15TH,16TH WEEK)

Baby‘s arms, hands, fingers, feet and toes are fully formed.
Baby can open its fists and mouth.
Fingernails and toenails begins to develop
The ears are fairly complete.
Reproductive organs also develop, but it is hard to
distinguish the gender of the baby.
The circulatory and urinary systems are working and liver
produces bile.
The baby is about 3 inches long and weighs an ounce.
MONTH 4 (17TH,18TH,19TH,20TH WEEK)
Baby‘s heartbeat can be heard though the use of the
instrument called Doppler.
Fingers and toes are well defined.
Eyelids,eyebrows,eyelashes,nails are formed.
Cartilage starts to condense and be replaced by bones.
Baby can suck his/her thumb,yawn,stretch and make
faces.
Hair growth begins; fetus is very human looking at this age.
The nervous is starting to function.
The reproductive organs and genitalia are now fully formed.
Baby‘s gender can be determined
By the end of the month, the baby is about 6 inch long and
weighs about 4 ounces.

MONTH 5 (21ST,22ND,23RD,24TH WEEK)

By this month you may feel the baby is moving. He/she is

developing his/her muscles and exercising it.
Baby‘s shoulders, back and temples are covered by a soft
fine hair called laguno. This hair protects the baby and is usually
shed at the end of the baby‘sfirst week of life.
Baby‘s skin is covered with whitish coating called vernix
caseosa. This cheesy substance protects the baby‘s skin in its
long exposure to amniotic fluid.
By the end of the month, the baby is about 10 inches long
and weighs ½ to 1 pound.

MONTH 6 (25TH,26TH,27TH,28TH,29TH WEEK)

The baby‘s skin is reddish in color. Veins are visible
because of translucent skin.
The baby matures and develop reserves of body fat
Baby‘s finger prints and toe prints are visible.
Baby responds to stimulus by moving. You may also notice
jerking motions if baby hiccups.
Nervous system, blood and breathing systems are
functioning.
By the end of the month the baby is about 12 inches long
and weighs about 2 pounds.
MONTH 7 (30TH,31ST,32ND,33RD WEEK).

Baby‘s hearing is fully developed.

Responds to stimuli by moving and change position.
The amniotic fluid begins to diminish.
By the end of the month the baby is about 15 inches long
and weighs about 2 to 4 pounds.

MONTH 8 (34TH,35TH,36TH WEEK)

The baby continues to mature and develop.

The baby is kicking more.
Baby‘s brain is developing rapidly at this time.
Baby can see and hear.
Most internal systems are well developed but lungs may
still be immature.
By the end of the month the baby is about 18 inches
long and weighs as much as 5 pounds.

MONTH 9 (37TH,38TH,39TH,40TH WEEK)

Baby‘s lungs are nearly matured.

Baby‘s reflexes are coordinated he/she can blink, close
the eyes, turn the head ,grasp firmly and responds to sounds,
light and touch.
Moves less because of tight space.
Baby‘s position changes to prepare for labor and
delivery
The baby drops down to the pelvis and its head is
down to the birth canal.
By the end of the month the baby is about 18 to 20
inches long and weighs about 7 pounds.
II. BIRTH
Birth normally begins 266 days after the conception and occurs in 3 stages:

1. Dilation of the cervix

2. Descent and emergence of the baby, and
3. Expulsion of the placenta and the umbilical cord

The First Stage

 During the first stage, the uterus contracts and the cervix flatten and dilate to
allow the fetus to pass through.
 This stage can last from about 2- 16 hours, or even longer; it tends to be longer
with the first child.
 When the contraction starts, they usually come at approximately 15- 20 minute
intervals and are generally mild.
 Near the end of this stage, the contraction will change and become more difficult,
longer and more frequent.
 The most difficult part of labor is called ‗transition‘
 By the end of this stage, the cervix is dilated to about 10 centimeters and
contractions occur every minute or so.
The Second Stage

 Involves the actual delivery of the baby

 The expulsion stage is quite variable and can last anywhere from 2-60 minutes or
more.
 In the average delivery, the baby‘s head appears first, an event referred to as
‗crowning‘
 The rest of the body soon follows

The Third Stage

 Involves the delivery of the placenta and fetal membranes.

 Mild contraction continue for some time
 Contraction helps decrease the blood flow to the uterus and reduce the uterus to
normal size.
 HISTORY OF PREPARED CHILDHOOD
Before the 1920‘s, birth took place, for most part, at home and were attended to
by the doctors or midwives. In those times, women flocked to hospitals for the ‗new‘
modern methods of painless childbirth. This consists of:

 Separating the mother from the rest of the family, using drugs to make her
oblivious to what was happening.
 Breast- feeding was discouraged and replaced with ‗modern‘ infant formulas and
baby bottles.
 The father and the mother had absolutely no control over their childbirth
experience, everything was orchestrated by the doctor.
Dr. Grantley Dick-Read of England saw the beauty in participatory childbirth. He
noticed that women who had someone with them to explain events had
significantly less pain. He wrote Birth Without Fear

LAMAZE METHOD

-Collection of techniques designed to manage discomfort and facilitate birth so

that the use of painkilling drugs can be avoided or minimized

In the late 1940‘s Fernand Lamaze, a French obstetrician, studied Russian

techniques of conditioned responses to reduce childbirth pain. His techniques were
embraced by French women who felt American drugs were dangerous and expensive.
His theory was rejected. However an American woman who gave birth to her first child
and Elizabeth Bing started a movement promoting Lamaze Method.

How is the Lamaze Method done?

1. Lamaze method explain the whole birth process to expectant mothers to ease
their fears and anxieties in child bearing
2. Expectant mothers learn the methods of breathing and muscular control that
reduces pain.
3. The father, a partner or a friend is trained to give emotional support the mother
during childbirth.

Childbirth Techniques in Lamaze method

• Controlled deep breathing
• Light massage of the abdomen
• Concentrating on a focal point (e.g picture, flower etc.)
• The coach is very much involved
• Allows the woman to have control over her body and helps with her labor
management
 The Lamaze Method of Delivery can help reduce the pain of labor and birth.
Relaxation is the cornerstone or comfort during labor. The theory of Lamaze Method
is that a woman in labor can condition her responses to contractions through
breathing and imagery to minimize her pain.

THE LEBOYER METHOD

―Frederick Leboyer‖ -wrote ―Birth Without Violence”

This method encourages the mothers to:

 Take up Indian chanting and thus to transform pregnancy and childbirth into
spiritual experience.
 Breathe deeply and slowly from the belly
 Chant a loud pure sound on the outbreath and with the contractions.

Leboyer believes that when a woman is giving birth, she is reborn herself.

“Birth is not something sweet. It is the most intense experience a woman can
go through.”

A controversial method called gentle birth involves delivering babies in quiet,

dimly lit delivery rooms, without forceps and with only local anesthetic. The umbilical
cord is not clamped immediately, nor is the new born slapped to initiate breathing.
Instead, the infant is bathed in warm water and placed on mother‘s belly right after
birth.

THE BRADLEY METHOD

 This method feels that there is danger in current obstetrical procedures.

 They encourage the use of midwives rather than ‗technical oriented‘ doctors.
 Parents should take the responsibility for the birth place, procedures and
emergency back up.

THE KITZINGER METHOD

-Uses mental imagery to enhance relaxation

 The use of touch, massage and visualization helps the woman flow with the
contraction rather than ignore or breath it away
 The mother is encouraged to labor in any positions that is comfortable for her.
 Pushing is done when the body tells you.
 Between pushes, short breaths are taken
THE GAMPER METHOD

 Self-determination and confidence given by the instructor in the ability to work

and cooperate with the natural forces of childbirth
 Classes begin early in pregnancy so that the fear-tension-pain cycle can be
broken and new self-confidence instilled early

THE SIMKINS METHOD

 Elizabeth Noble‘s technique involves relaxation of the pelvic floor muscles and
learning ways to relax them. Her gently pushing or breathing baby out technique
is how incorporated in many classes. Her approach emphasizes on women
listening to their body

THE ORDENT METHOD

 Places the mother and baby both in water.

 When some women are reluctant to leave at the time of delivery, they were
delivered submerged, without drowning the baby since the baby lived in fluid for
9 months.

KINDS OF BIRTH
A. Spontaneous or Normal Birth
- The position of the fetus and its size in relation to the mother‘s reproductive
organs allow it to emerge in the normal, head first position.

The head is born and rotates back to its The right shoulder, and then
the left is born.
previous position. The shoulder rotates
to pass through the pelvis.
 The baby breathes spontaneously The placenta is delivered within
30 minutes
Mucus is cleaned from its air passages. of the baby.
The umbilical cord is clamped

B. Breech Birth
- The buttocks of the fetus appear first, flowed by the legs, the arms and finally
the head. Instruments like forceps are used to aid the delivery
Transverse Presentation

- The fetus lies crosswise in the mother‘s uterus, so that if this portion cannot
be changed before birth process, instrument must be used to aid the delivery.

C. Instrument Birth
o When the fetus s too large to emerge spontaneously or when its
position makes normal birth impossible, instruments must be used to
aid the delivery.

D. Caesarean Section
If the fetus is too big to pass through the birth canal without a prolonged
and difficult labor, even when instruments are used, it is delivered
surgically by making a slit in the maternal abdominal wall.
 Issues, Problems & Concerns
A. Chromosomal Defect

The evidence that the Y-chromosome controls male development comes as a result of
studying individuals who have an abnormal number of chromosomes. An abnormal
meiotic division that results in sex cells with too many or too few chromosomes is called
nondisjunction.

 Turner‘s Syndrome
If nondisjuncton affects the X and Y
chromosomes, a gamete might be produced
that has only 22 chromosomes and lacks a
sex-determining chromosome, or it might
have 24, with the two sex-determining
chromosomes. If a cell with too few or too
many sex chromosomes is fertilized, an
abnormal embryo develops. If a normal egg
cell is fertilized by a sperm with no sex
chromosome, the offspring will have only
one X chromosome. These people are
designated as XO. An individual with this
condition is female, is short for her age, and
fails to mature sexually, resulting in sterility.
 Klinefelter‘s Syndrome
A person with Klinefelter‘s syndrome
is an individual who has XXY chromosomes
and is basically male. The symptoms include
sterility because of small testes that do not
usually produce viable sperm, lack of facial
hair, and occasional breast tissue
development. Although they are sterile, men
with this condition have normal sexual
function.
B. PROBLEMS IN PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
 Diseases of a mother
 Rubella Rubella (German Measles)
A contagious disease of short
duration, caused by virus infection. The
disease is characterized by a rose-
colored rash and frequently by other mild
symptoms, such as a slight fever, sore
throat, and swelling of the lymph glands
behind the ears. The rash, which lasts
from one to four days, first appears on
the face and spreads rapidly to the
chest, limbs, and abdomen. German
measles is most common among teenagers and young adults and
rarely occurs in infants or in adults over the age of 40. It has an
incubation period of 14 to 21 days, more commonly 17 or 18 days. An
attack of the disease usually confers lifelong immunity. In the United
States, some 360 cases of German measles are reported each year.
German measles can have severe consequences for women in the
first three months of pregnancy. The newborn child may be afflicted
with various congenital abnormalities, including heart defects, mental
retardation, deafness, and cataracts.
 AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
HIV can be transmitted from an infected mother to her baby while the
baby is still in the woman‘s uterus or, more commonly, during
childbirth. The virus can also be transmitted through the mother‘s
breast milk during breast-feeding. Mother-to-child transmission
accounts for 90 percent of all cases of AIDS in children. Mother-to-
child transmission is particularly prevalent in Africa. Aids weaken the
immune system.

Children show a susceptibility to more bacterial and viral infections

than adults. More than 20 percent of HIV-infected children develop
serious, recurring bacterial infections, including meningitis and
pneumonia. Some HIV-infected children suffer from repeated bouts of
viral infections, such as chicken pox. Healthy children generally
develop immunity to these viral illnesses after an initial infection.
 Herpes
Name applied to several types of skin
eruptions characterized by formation of
blisters. The term embraces primarily two
distinct disorders, herpes simplex and
herpes zoster, both caused by types of
herpes viruses. Other herpes viruses
include Epstein-Barr virus, the cause of
infectious mononucleosis and
cytomegalovirus, which can lead to birth
defects when the virus invades pregnant
women. Together, these viruses are
estimated to cause more human illnesses
than any other group of viruses.
Genital herpes can be transmitted through delivery when the mother‘s
herpes is active that time. If it is active other complications may occur
like the menigoencephalitis that may affect the brain and spinal cord.

 Drugs taken by the mother

 Smoking
infants of mothers who smoke are on average about half a pound
lighter at birth than are of infants of nonsmoking mothers. Nicotine
constricts the blood vessels, which reduces blood flow to the placenta,
in turn reducing nutrition to the fetus. In the long term, such nutritional
deprivation seems to increase slightly the risk of learning problems or
poor attention span on school age. There are also some signs of
higher rates of behavior problems.
 Drinking
The effects of alcohol on the developing fetus range from mild to
severe. At the extreme end of the continuum are children who exhibit a
syndrome called Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.
The effects of it to the fetus, they are generally smaller than normal,
with smaller brains. They frequently have heart defects and their faces
are distinctively different. They have mild mental retardation.
 Cocaine
Some mothers who take illegal drugs may have a big possibility to
have a baby that is below the normal weight. Some developing fetuses
that are exposed to cocaine are born prematurely. And also they are
more likely to be the same as the alcohol exposed babies because
 they have small head circumference. Some exposed babies also show
withdrawal symptoms after birth. Such as irritability, restlessness, shrill
crying, and tremors.

 Other influences on Prenatal Development

 Diet.
if there is malnutrition during pregnancy, there is a high risk of having a
baby with low birth weight and infant death in its first year of life. If the
baby have survived its first year and the following years there is still a
high risk of having a child with low IQ.
 Mother‘s Age.
Current researches shows that mothers over 30 have a high risk of
having complications like miscarriages, complications of pregnancy
such as high blood pressure or bleeding and death during pregnancy
or delivery.
And also early pregnancy in the ages 15 to 18, can cause many risk
like low birth weight and other complications like miscarriages because
of not so matured uterus
 Mother‘s emotional state.
Exposure to heat, light, noise, shock and stress may lead to low birth
weight and miscarriages.

 GENETIC ERRORS
 -Huntington’s disease

Huntington‘s Disease (HD), also known as

Huntington‘s chorea, hereditary,
progressive disease of the nervous system
characterized by involuntary twitching
movements of the arms, legs, face, and
body. Patients with HD also develop
concentration, memory, and emotional
problems that eventually prevent them from
participating in everyday activities and
caring for themselves. People with HD are born with an abnormal
gene, but actual symptoms of the disease usually do not begin until
middle age. According to the Huntington‘s disease Society of America,
approximately 30,000 people in the United States have the disease. An
additional 150,000 people are said to be at risk for HD— they have an
affected parent or sibling and may have inherited the disease
themselves, but have not yet developed symptoms.
  Down syndrome

The most common

chromosomal disorder, the
down syndrome, affects about
1 in 800 newborns. People with
Down syndrome
characteristically have three
copies of the autosomal
chromosome known as number
21 instead of the normal pair of
number 21 chromosomes. For
this reason, Down syndrome is
commonly called trisomy 21.
People with Down syndrome usually have mild to severe learning
disabilities and physical symptoms that include a small skull, an extra
fold of skin at the inner corner of each eye, and a flattened bridge of
the nose. They also may have heart defects and other serious health
problems.

o Klinefelter’s Syndrome, genetic disease affecting 1 in 850 males. It

occurs when a male inherits an extra X, or female, sex chromosome that
interferes with the development of male characteristics. Klinefelter‘s
syndrome is characterized by enlarged breasts (gynecomastia), little or no
facial and body hair, a small penis and testes, reduced sex drive, and the
inability to produce sperm. Although a child with the condition is not
developmentally disabled, he may learn to speak later than other children
and have difficulty learning to read and write.

o Turner Syndrome, relatively common genetic disorder that causes

abnormal growth development and infertility in females. Turner syndrome
is characterized by certain physical features, including short stature, loose
folds of skin on the neck, a small jaw, and a higher incidence of heart,
kidney, and thyroid problems. Some individuals with the disease
experience learning difficulties. There is no cure for Turner syndrome, but
early diagnosis of the disease and continuous medical treatment
throughout life can promote growth and effectively manage related
medical conditions.

Turner Syndrome occurs in about 1 out of every 2,000 live female births.
Girls with the disorder do not develop secondary sexual characteristics,
the body changes, such as breast development, that occur during puberty.
They typically have underdeveloped ovaries, which prevents the onset of
menstruation and also contributes to infertility later in life.
Turner syndrome is caused by a partially or completely missing sex
chromosome. Chromosomes are gene-carrying structures found within the
nuclei of cells. In the human body, all cells except for sperm and egg cells
contain 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. Of these, 22 of the pairs
each consist of chromosomes that are almost identical, while the 23rd pair
contains special chromosomes that determine the sex of the individual.
The sex chromosome pair in healthy males contains an X and a Y
chromosome, while the sex chromosome pair in females contains two X
chromosomes. In a female born with Turner syndrome, part or all of one X
chromosome in her sex chromosome pair is absent. Scientists do not
know what causes this chromosomal abnormality—it apparently occurs
randomly and is not linked to factors known to increase the risk of a birth
defect, such as a pregnant woman‘s exposure to drugs, radiation, or
disease-causing viruses or bacteria.

 Tay - Sachs disease

Tay-Sachs Disease (TSD), rare genetic disorder of the central nervous
system that leads to progressive brain deterioration and death. Babies
born with TSD appear to develop normally for about six months but
then develop signs of rapid deterioration of physical and mental
functions that lead to blindness, seizures, mental retardation, inability
to swallow, respiratory problems, and paralysis. There is no cure for
TSD—even with the best of care, children with the disease die in early
childhood, usually by the age of five. An estimated 20 cases of TSD
are diagnosed in the United States each year.

TSD is caused by a defective gene that is unable to produce the

enzyme hexosaminidase A (hex A). This enzyme is necessary to break
down GM2 ganglioside, a fatty substance in the nerve cells of the
brain. Children with TSD have no hex A; as a result, GM2 ganglioside
builds up in their brain cells, causing the cells to degenerate and die.
Although this process begins in the fetus early in the mother‘s
pregnancy, the TSD symptoms are not apparent until GM2 ganglioside
has built up to toxic levels in the brain.
Childbirth
is an inherently dangerous and risky activity,
subject to many complications. The "natural"
mortality rate of childbirth—where nothing is
done to avert maternal death—has been estimated at 1500 deaths per 100,000 births.
Modern medicine has greatly alleviated the risk of childbirth. In modern Western
countries, such as the United States and Sweden, the current maternal mortality rate is
around 10 deaths per 100,000 births. As of June 2011, about one third of American
births have some complications, "many of which are directly related to the mother's
health. Birthing complications may be maternal or fetal, and long term or short term.

Pre-term

Newborn mortality at 37 weeks may be 2.5 times the number at 40 weeks, and
was elevated compared to 38 weeks of gestation. These ―early term‖ births were also
associated with increased death during infancy, compared to those occurring at 39 to 41
weeks ("full term").Researchers found benefits to going full term and ―no adverse
effects‖ in the health of the mothers or babies.

Medical researchers find that neonates born before 39 weeks experienced

significantly more complications (2.5 times more in one study) compared with those
delivered at 39 to 40 weeks. Health problems among babies delivered "pre-term"
included respiratory distress, jaundice and low blood sugar. The American College of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists and medical policy makers review research studies
and find increased incidence of suspected or proven sepsis, RDS, Hypoglycemia, need
for respiratory support, need for NICU admission, and need for hospitalization > 4 – 5
days. In the case of cesarean sections, rates of respiratory death were 14 times higher
in pre-labour at 37 compared with 40 weeks gestation, and 8.2 times higher for pre-
labour cesarean at 38 weeks. In this review, no studies found decreased neonatal
morbidity due to non-medically indicated (elective) delivery before 39 weeks.

Labor complications

The second stage of labor may be delayed or lengthy due to:

 malpresentation (breech birth (i.e. buttocks or feet first), face, brow, or other)
 failure of descent of the fetal head through the pelvic brim or the interspinous
diameter
 poor uterine contraction strength
 active phase arrest
 cephalo-pelvic disproportion (CPD)
 shoulder dystocia

Secondary changes may be observed: swelling of the tissues, maternal exhaustion,

fetal heart rate abnormalities. Left untreated, severe complications include death of
mother and/or baby, and genitovaginalfistula.
Dystocia (obstructed labor)

Dystocia- is an abnormal or difficult childbirth or labour. Approximately one fifth of

human labours have dystocia. Dystocia may arise due to incoordinate uterine activity,
abnormal fetal lie or presentation, absolute or relative cephalopelvic disproportion, or
(rarely) a massive fetal tumor such as a sacrococcygealteratoma. Oxytocin is commonly
used to treat incoordinate uterine activity, but pregnancies complicated by dystocia
often end with assisted deliveries, including forceps, ventouse or, commonly, caesarean
section. Recognized complications of dystocia include fetal death, respiratory
depression, hypoxic ischaemic encephalopathy (HIE), and brachial nerve damage. A
prolonged interval between pregnancies, primigravid birth, and multiple birth have also
been associated with increased risk for labor dystocia.
Shoulder dystocia is a dystocia in which the anterior shoulder of the infant cannot
pass below the pubic symphysis or requires significant manipulation to pass below it. It
can also be described as delivery requiring additional manoeuvres after gentle
downward traction on the head has failed to deliver the shoulders.
A prolonged second stage of labour is another type of dystocia whereby the fetus
has not been delivered within three hours in a nulliparous woman, or two hours in
multiparous woman, after her cervix has become fully dilated.

Maternal complications

Vaginal birth injury

With visible tears or episiotomies are common. Internal tissue tearing as well as
nerve damage to the pelvic structures lead in a proportion of women to problems with
prolapse, incontinence of stool or urine and sexual dysfunction. Fifteen percent of
women become incontinent, to some degree, of stool or urine after normal delivery, this
number rising considerably after these women reach menopause. Vaginal birth injury is
a necessary, but not sufficient, cause of all non hysterectomy related prolapse in later
life. Risk factors for significant vaginal birth injury include:

 A baby weighing more than 9 pounds.

 The use of forceps or vacuum for delivery. These markers are more likely to be
signals for other abnormalities as forceps or vacuum are not used in normal
deliveries.
 The need to repair large tears after delivery.

Pelvic girdle pain- Hormones and enzymes work together to produce ligamentous
relaxation and widening of the symphysis pubis during the last trimester of pregnancy.
Most girdle pain occurs before birthing, and is known as diastasis of the pubic
symphysis. Predisposing factors for girdle pain include maternal obesity.

Infection- remains a major cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in the developing
world. The work of IgnazSemmelweis was seminal in the pathophysiology and
treatment of puerperal fever and saved many lives.
Hemorrhage, or heavy blood loss, is still the leading cause of death of birthing mothers
in the world today, especially in the developing world. Heavy blood loss leads to
hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated.
Blood transfusion may be lifesaving. Rare sequelae include HypopituitarismSheehan's
syndrome.

The maternal mortality rate (MMR) varies from 9 per 100,000 live births in the US
and Europe to 900 per 100,000 live births in Sub-Saharan Africa. Every year, more than
half a million women die in pregnancy or childbirth.

Fetal complications

Mechanical fetal injury

Risk factors for fetal birth injury include fetal macrosomia (big baby), maternal
obesity, the need for instrumental delivery, and an inexperienced attendant. Specific
situations that can contribute to birth injury include breech presentation and shoulder
dystocia. Most fetal birth injuries resolve without long term harm, but brachial plexus
injury may lead to Erb's palsy or Klumpke's paralysis.

Neonatal infection
Disability-adjusted life year for neonatal infections and other (perinatal) conditions
per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004. Excludes prematurity and low birth weight, birth
asphyxia and birth trauma which have their own maps/data.

Neonates are prone to infection in the first month of life. Some organisms such as S.
agalactiae (Group B Streptococcus) or (GBS) are more prone to cause these
occasionally fatal infections. Risk factors for GBS infection include:

 prematurity (birth before 37 weeks gestation)

 a sibling who has had a GBS infection
 prolonged labour or rupture of membranes

Untreated sexually transmitted infections are associated with congenital and

perinatal infections in neonates, particularly in the areas where rates of infection remain
high. The overall perinatal mortality rate associated with untreated syphilis, for example,
approached 40%.

Neonatal death
Infant deaths (neonatal deaths from birth to 28 days, or perinatal deaths if
including fetal deaths at 28 weeks gestation and later) are around 1% in modernized
countries.
The most important factors affecting mortality in childbirth are adequate nutrition
and access to quality medical care ("access" is affected both by the cost of available
care, and distance from health services).
Intrapartum asphyxia
Intrapartum asphyxia is the impairment of the delivery of oxygen to the brain and
vital tissues during the progress of labour. This may exist in a pregnancy already
impaired by maternal or fetal disease, or may rarely arise de novo in labour. This can be
termed fetal distress, but this term may be emotive and misleading. True intrapartum
asphyxia is not as common as previously believed, and is usually accompanied by
multiple other symptoms during the immediate period after delivery. Monitoring might
show up problems during birthing, but the interpretation and use of monitoring devices
is complex and prone to misinterpretation. Intrapartum asphyxia can cause long-term
impairment, particularly when this results in tissue damage through encephalopathy.

References:

Mader, Sylvia S. (1994). Inquiry into Life 7th ed. Wm. C. Brown Communications Inc..
Dubuque, Iowa.
http://www.google.com.ph/?gws_rd=cr#bav=on.2,or.rqf.&fp=2c47a942cd4d814&q=birth
+methods
http://pregnancy.familyeducation.com/labor-and-delivery/medical-
interventions/57540.html
http://www.webmd.com/baby/guide/delivery-methods
http://www.bradleybirth.com/
http://themotherbabycenter.org/during-delivery/childbirth-methods
 Submitted By:

Mia Samantha M. Carungay

Jolina Cambaling

Krizzia Leanne R. Beltran

Lander T. Barrogo

Submitted to:
Prof. Zhanina
Custodio
 Written Report
On
Infancy and Its Development

Submitted by:

IIB-BSBT

CORPORAL, Aziel O.

CUYUGAN, Matthew S.

DEHESA, Joshua Lenoirz

FELIZARTA, Joshua Micole

Submitted to:

Prof. Zhanina Custodio

I. Introduction

1. Baby Shark Dance

The facilitator will ask the students to stand and will introduce to them
the motivational activity entitled ―Baby Shark Dance‖. He/ She will show the
whole class how to perform the ―Baby Shark Dance‖ then afterwards the
students will join him/her in performing the said motivational activity.

2. Facial Expression
This motivational activity will be lead by the facilitator. The students will
need to make faces after the facilitator tell them to show what a person looks
like when feeling a certain emotion.

II. Concepts

TERM MEANING

Canalization self-righting process in which the child catches up in

Cephalocaudal Principle
Cognitive Development
Differential Emotions Theory
Dynamic System Theory
Emotional Development
Empathy
Event-related potential
Habituation
Infancy
Infant
Mass to Specific
growth despite a moderate amount of stress or illness.
growth principle explaining that development begins at
the head and proceeds downwards
Cognitive development is the construction of thought
processes, including remembering, problem solving,
and decision-making, from childhood
through adolescence to adulthood.
theory that neonates show limited number of emotions
that are biologically determined
theory of motor development emphasizing the
interaction between the organism and the environment
The process by which infants and children begin
developing the capacity to experience, express, and
interpret emotions.
The ability to understand and share the feelings of
other
transient changes in the brains' electrical activity that
refelect the activtity of a group of neurons responding
to a stimulus.
process by which an individual spends less and less
time attending to a familiar stimulus
The earliest period of childhood, especially before the
ability to walk has been acquired
refers to the entire first year of life
Principle of muscular development stating that control

Neonates
Primary Emotions
Proximodistal Principle
Saltatory Growth
Secondary Emotion
SIDS
Social Development
Social Referencing
of the mass, or larger muscles, precedes control of the
fine muscles.
baby's first month of life
Emotions that appear early in infancy, are innately
determined, xan be recognized through the facial
expreessions, and reflect a subjective experiences.
growth principle explaining why internal organs
develop faster than the extremities
growth marked by brief spurts and stops
Emotion that begins to appear in the second year of
life and require sophisticated cognitive abilities, for
example envy and pride.
Known as the sudden infant death syndrome. It is the
sudden death of an infant under 1 year of age that
remains unexplained after a thorough investigation
Social development is a process that results in the
transformation of social structures to improve the
capacity of a society in order to fulfil its objectives. It
aims specifically in developing power to elevate
expansion of human activity.
Phenomenon in which a person uses information
received from others to appraise events and regulate
behavior.

II. Characteristics
 Shortest of all developmental stage ( 0 to 2 weeks)
 Time of radical adjustments
 Platue in development
 Preview of later development, and
 Hazardous period

This period is divided into 2

 PERIOD OF PARTUNATE  birth to cutting and tying of umbilical cord

 PERIOD OF NEONATE  from cutting and tying of umbilical cord to the end of 2
weeks

First adaptation

 First breath babies are blue at the moment of birth, but right after the first
breath their skin change into pinkish color.
  CHANGE in temperature  baby‘s body shivers after they were born to warm
themselves
 Burning stored brown fats that is only found in fetuses &
newborn
 Getting used to germs  baby is born with ability to ward all certain types of
infection. Sticky eyes or a sticky discharge from the eyes.
 First feed  breast feeding . colostrums first milk of the mother

Theories related

 Psychosocial – trust vs mistrus

 Psychoanalytic – oral stage
 Cognitive -- sensorimotor

REFLEXES simple automatic reaction to a stimulus

Kinds of reflexes

1. Sucking  when he gets his mouth around something suckable

2. Swallowing  present at birth but not coordinated with breathing
3. Placing  when the backs of the baby‘s feet are drawn against the edge of the
flat surface, the baby withdraws his feet
4. Tonic neckbaby is laid down and he is imitating a fencer‘s position
5. Stepping  when the feet touches the ground he starts to make steps
6. Moro  startle reflex, throws both arms outward and arches his back
7. Darwinian (grasping) baby curls fingers around your hand or other objects
8. Babinsky you stroke the bottom of his foot, splays out his foot and curls them‘
9. Swimming  when baby is placed in water faced down, the baby makes well
coordinated movements
10. Rooting  infant touched in the cheek will turn towards the touch and search for
something to suck
ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

1. Cognitive (Physical Knowledge Activities)

The cognitive development of a child depends on the parents. According
to Burton White (1971), there are three major differences between mothers of
competitive and less competitive infants. Mothers of competent child are able to
understand the meaning of learning through experience. Second, parent
doesn‘t smoother the child with attention, but they are available when needed.
Third, they had firm limits; they are not too permissive or too punishing.
Parents can create an environment conducive for the learning of the
infant. But problem starts to arise if the parent put pressure on their children to
achieve certain abilities too early for their age.

2. Physical/ Motor
Infants grow rapidly. Although some scientists believe that growth is
basically slow but regular process, Lampl et. Al (1992, 1995) suggested that a
pattern of brief spurts and stops in which a child grow as much as 0.5inch a day
and then enter a considerable period of no growth or also known as ―salutatory
growth‖. But according to Heinrich et. Al in 1995, the growth takes place in a
gradual manner.
Child development follows a patter and is governed by principles. One of
which is the cephalocaudal principle. This principle explains that the
development will start from the head down to the feet. Another principle which
explains child development is proximodistal principle. In this principle, organs
nearest to the middle of the organism develop faster than the extremities.
When it comes to muscle development it follows a path from a control of
mass to specific muscles. We develop control over the larger muscles
responsible for major movements. Development is also directional. It moves
from a state of largely involuntary t incomplete control toward one of the
voluntary control.
Another theory of motor development emerged called dynamic systems
theory (thelen & Adolph, 1992; Theleb & Smith, 1998). This theory states that
interaction between the organism and the environment helps in the motor
development of a child.
3. Social
Babies are affected by physical form of communication, like facial
expressions, tone and loudness of voice. This helps them in communicating
with the people around them. The phenomenon in which a person uses
information received from others to appraise events and regulate is called
social referencing.
4. Emotional
 Since infants can‘t talk and tell how they feel, psychologist investigated
the facial gestures, psychological responses, or the sound infants make in
response to some stimulus to understand their emotional development.
Malatesta et. Al (1989) states that young infants possess a limited
number of emotion also called the differential emotions theory. These specific
emotions are innate and include interest, disgust, physical distress, and a
precursor of surprise, called a startle. Primary emotions appear early in life and
they can be easily recognized from facial expressions. Secondary emotions, on
the other hand, appear during the second year of life and requires more
cognitive and, since the infant has no personality (identity), every action is
based upon the pleasure principle.

IV. Theories

Attachment Theory

Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships

between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a
relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional
development to occur normally. Attachment theory explains how much the
parents' relationship with the child influences development.

Infants become attached to individuals who are sensitive and responsive

in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for
some months during the period from about six months to two years of age; this
is known as sensitive responsiveness.

ability.
Learning plays a big part on emotional development thus relating this to
cognitive development. Babies can discriminate different facial expression as
young as 2 or 3 months. They can also distinguish their own cry. We often hear
a baby cry when he/ she is hungry or something pains him/her. Babies can
detect another baby‘s cry and usually when he/ she hear it he/she will respond
with a cry. This way they are able to show empathy to the other baby.

5. Moral
The id dominates, because neither the ego nor the super ego is yet fully
developed,

Psychosexual Development

Oral stage
 The first stage of psychosexual development is the oral stage, spanning
from birth until the age of two years, wherein the infant's mouth is the focus
of libidinal gratification derived from the pleasure of feeding at the mother's
breast, and from the oral exploration of his or her environment, i.e. the
tendency to place objects in the mouth. Nonetheless, the infantile ego is
forming during the oral stage; two factors contribute to its formation: (i) in
developing a body image, he or she is discrete from the external world, e.g. the
child understands pain when it is applied to his or her body, thus identifying the
physical boundaries between body and environment; (ii) experiencing delayed
gratification leads to understanding that specific behaviours satisfy some
needs, e.g. crying gratifies certain needs. Weaning is the key experience in the
infant's oral stage of psychosexual development, his or her first feeling of loss
consequent to losing the physical intimacy of feeding at mother's breast. Yet,
weaning increases the infant's self-awareness that he or she does not control
the environment, and thus learns of delayed gratification, which leads to the
formation of the capacities for independence (awareness of the limits of the
self) and trust (behaviors leading to gratification). Yet, thwarting of the oral-
stage — too much or too little gratification ofdesire — might lead to an oral-
stage fixation, characterised by passivity, gullibility, immaturity, unrealistic
optimism, which is manifested in a manipulative personality consequent to ego
malformation. In the case of too much gratification, the child does not learn that
he or she does not control the environment, and that gratification is not always
immediate, thereby forming an immature personality. In the case of too little
gratification, the infant might become passive upon learning that gratification is
not forthcoming, despite having produced the gratifying behavior.

Psychosocial Development

Trust Vs Mistrust

The trust versus mistrust stage is the first stage of Erik Erikson's theory
of psychosocial development. This stage occurs between birth and
approximately 18 months of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is based on
the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. If a child successfully
develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who
are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of
 mistrust in the children they care for. Failure to develop trust will result in fear
and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.

Cognitive Development

Sensori-motor

The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two
and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the
sensorimotor stage, an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her
sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor
responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they
were born with (such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening) to learn more
about the environment.

Object Permanence:According to Piaget, the development of object

permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor
stage of development. Object permanence is a child's understanding that
objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.

Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will

believe that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act
shocked or startled when the object reappears. Older infants who understand
object permanence will realize that the person or object continues to exist even
when unseen.

Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage: The sensorimotor stage can be

divided into six separate substages that are characterized by the development
of a new skill.

Reflexes (0-1 month): During this substage, the child understands the
environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.

V. Issues

 Eyes—When you get home from the hospital, the baby's eyes may have some
white or yellow discharge caused by irritation from the medicine that was put in at
birth. This should clear up within 5 or 6 days and should not get much worse at
any time. If it does get worse or lasts more than a week, get medical advice
promptly.
 Head Shape—In passing through the birth canal, the head may become molded
into a peculiar shape. It will become more normal in the first several weeks of
life.Body fluid may accumulate under part of the scalp, causing a firm, spongy
lump or "caput." This will disappear in a few weeks. Blood may accumulate on
the surface of one of the bones of the skull, causing a soft squashy lump
"cephalohematoma." This kind of lump may take several months to disappear
completely. A child who always lies on one side may show flattening and loss of
hair on that part of the head. This, too, will disappear as your infant grows older.
None of these conditions will cause any problems later in your child's life.

 The Umbilical Cord and the Navel or Belly Button—The stump of the umbilical
cord, which is cut at birth, usually falls off within 5 to 9 days. The navel then often
shows a slight oozing or bleeding for a few days. If it does, clean it once or twice
a day with soap and water or with alcohol. Bleeding or oozing that lasts more
than 2 or 3 days after the cord falls off should be brought to the attention of a
doctor.

 Older Brothers and Sisters—Older brothers and sisters are often jealous of the
time that you spend with your new baby. Try to find some time to give each of
them special attention. Don't be surprised if a child between ages 2 and 5 starts
thumb sucking, wetting pants, or asking for bottles or diapers in imitation of a
new baby. This child is simply seeking attention. Give as much as you can of the
attention needed but don't encourage such a child to return to baby-like habits. A
child older than 3 1/2 or 4 years can usually understand the arrival of a baby and
help you take care of the newborn.

 Children between ages 1 and 3 1/2 years should never be left alone with the
baby —They are too young to understand the baby. They may pick up and drop,
squeeze too hard, sit on, or put dangerous things in the infant's mouth or crib.
They may hurt the infant with tools, utensils or furniture! This is not because they
are "bad," but because they may be jealous of the new arrival. Give them the
individual attention they need, let them help you and the baby in whatever way
they can when you are with the baby, and NEVER LEAVE THEM ALONE WITH
THE BABY.

 Crying— Babies cry to tell parents that they are in some way not satisfied or
comfortable. Your job is to find out why and, if possible, to do something about it.
Hunger is the most common cause. Loneliness is probably the next most
common cause, especially after the first few months. Some babies cry only
because they are tired. Actual pain from an open diaper pin or from colic is much
less common. The baby's own temperament makes a big difference. Some will
let out a roaring cry at the first sign of hunger or discomfort while others will
become quietly restless and not actually cry for some time. Some will cry
whenever the diaper is wet or soiled; others will ignore the diaper until it causes
enough irritation to cause actual pain. Some will object to baths, to being placed
 in bed, to having the lights put out or to other sudden changes. Excessive
clothing or clothing that is not warm enough may cause discomfort and crying.
But there is always a cause, and usually you should be able to figure out what
the cause is and to do something about it. This does not mean that you can't let a
hungry or wet child wait for several minutes while you finish what you are doing.
But it does mean that no child should be left to cry for any prolonged period of
time without serious attempts to find out what is wrong and to correct it.Many
babies do have a time each day when they are just fussy or crying without any
reason that you can discover. After you have checked for a cause of crying, you
can safely ignore these fussy periods.Most children want attention and handling.
If a baby becomes quiet and content when picked up, it was probably just
loneliness that caused the crying. A few minutes offondling and play, and then
perhaps leaving the baby in the room with you where you can be seen is all that
is needed. If there is actually hunger or pain, the crying will soon start again even
if you are holding or playing with your infant. Don't worry about "spoiling" your
baby. Giving the needed attention during the first year will help build the trust
which will help him or her learn more "grownup" behavior later on.Many infants
rest better if they are firmly wrapped, or swaddled, in a blanket or wrapper.

 Colic —some babies have attacks of crying nearly every evening, usually
between 6:00 and 10:00 p.m. During such attacks, babies frown, their faces
redden, and they draw their legs up. They scream loudly—a cry quite different
from the cries of hunger or loneliness. Crying may continue from 2 to 20 minutes
even when the baby is picked up and comforted. The attack may end suddenly,
or soft crying may last a few minutes after the hard crying stops. Just as the baby
is about to fall asleep, another attack may occur. Gas may rumble in the stomach
and be passed through the rectum.No one knows what causes such attacks.
They often come at the same time every day. At other times of the day the infant
is happy, alert, eats well and gains weight. During an attack, holding the infant
across your knees on his or her stomach often will give some comfort. There is
little you can do except comfort the baby until the attack stops. Be sure the baby
isn't just hungry, wet or lonely, and that no part of the clothing is uncomfortable.
Most importantly, remember that colic does not interfere with your baby's general
health and growth, and that your baby will grow out of it by the time he or she is
12 to 16 weeks old. Colicky babies do annoy their mothers and fathers and
anybody living in the household. Remind everyone that it is not the baby's fault, it
is not your fault, and the baby will get over it. If the colic becomes a real problem,
it is worth a special trip or call to the doctor, who may be able to prescribe a
medicine to make the baby rest more comfortably.

 Babies enjoy using their fingers to feed themselves— Encourage your baby to
eat such "finger foods" as crackers, bits of bread or toast, bits of cheese or meat,
or small bits of banana or peeled apple. Let the baby try drinking from a cup by 5
or 6 months old. Put just a little bit in the bottom of the cup at first, then increase
the amount as your baby learns to drink more skillfully. Encourage your baby to
hold the cup and the bottle during feedings—the sooner your baby learns this,
 the less you will have to help. Let your baby help you handle the spoon during
feedings. If you sit behind your baby during feedings, your infant can hold onto
the spoon or your hand and learn the movements needed to eat without your
help. This may slow you down and make some mess, but your baby will be
eating without your help sooner. By 9 or 10 months old, babies generally are able
to eat most of the things cooked for the rest of the family. You will still have to
mash up some of the vegetables and cut the meat, chicken, or fish into tiny bites.

VI. Problems and Diseases

COMMON PROBLEMS AND DISEASES OF NEWBORN BABIES

 Anemia

What is anemia? Anemia is having too few red blood cells. Red blood cells carry
oxygen to the body.

Why do babies get anemia?

 They may be born with anemia

 If there is loss of blood from the baby before or near the time of delivery.
 If the baby's mother makes antibodies against their red blood cells,
destroying them. This is called ABO or Rh incompatibility.
 Babies may become anemic later because their red blood cells have a
shorter life than red blood cells of adults. This may be exaggerated if the
baby's blood type is different than the mother's. Because they make few
new red blood cells in the first few weeks of life Because blood is taken
from the baby to do necessary laboratory tests.

How is anemia treated?

 Anemia is usually treated by transfusions of red blood cells obtained from

the blood bank. This is the only way to increase the number of red blood
cells rapidly.Anemia can also be treated by erythropoietin. This is a drug
similar to the substance the body normally produces to increase the
number of red blood cells. It works slowly over days to weeks. It is not
useful if the anemia needs to be treated more rapidly.Anemia does not
always need to be treated if it is not severe and if the baby is not sick or
having frequent laboratory tests. Eventually the baby will make more red
blood cells.Later, as the baby grows, s/he may need an additional source
of iron. This may be an iron fortified formula, vitamins with iron, or iron
drops. Iron is needed by the body to make red blood cells.
Can my baby have my blood for transfusions?

 Women who have recently given birth are not usually considered for
blood donation because they have already lost blood with the delivery
of the baby.Blood for a baby must be from someone with a compatible
blood type and it must pass several screens for exposures to certain
viruses. The majority of potential donors are not acceptable for these
reasons. Even if you give blood regularly, your blood may not be
acceptable for your baby.

Apnea and Bradycardia

What is apnea? Apnea is a pause in breathing that has one or more of the
following characteristics:

 lasts more than 15-20 seconds

 is associated with the baby's color changing to pale, purplish or blue
 is associated with bradycardia or a slowing of the heart rate

What is bradycardia? Bradycardia is a slowing of the heart rate, usually to less

than 80 beats per minute for a premature baby. Bradycardia often
follows apnea or periods of very shallow breathing. Sometimes it is due
to a reflex, especially with the placing of a feeding tube or when the
baby is trying to have a stool.

Is all apnea due to prematurity? No, apnea of prematurity is by far the most
common cause of apnea in a premature infant. However, apnea can be
caused or increased by many problems including infection, low blood sugar,
patent ductus arteriosus, seizures, high or low body temperature, brain
injury or insufficient oxygen.

Why do premature babies have apnea? Premature babies have immature

respiratory centers in the brain. Preemies normally have bursts of big
breaths followed by periods of shallow breathing or pauses. Apnea is most
common when the baby is sleeping.

Will apnea of prematurity go away? As your baby gets older, his/her breathing
will become more regular. The time course is variable. Usually apnea of
prematurity markedly improves or goes away by the time the baby nears
his/her due date.

How is apnea treated? Several treatments are possible. Your baby may be
treated with one or more of the following:
  Medications that stimulate breathing. Commonly used drugs include
theophylline, aminophylline, or caffeine.
 CPAP or continuous positive airway pressure. This is air or oxygen
delivered under pressure through little tubes into the baby's nose.
 Mechanical ventilation (breathing machine). If the apnea is severe,
the baby may need a few breaths from the ventilator every minute.
These might be given at regular intervals or only if apnea occurs.

Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia

What is bronchopulmonary dysplasia? Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a

form of longer lasting lung disease. It occurs in term infants who have had
severe lung problems including infection, meconium aspiration or poor lung
development before birth (pulmonary hypoplasia).

What causes BPD? BPD is an imflammatory reaction of the baby's lung to the
lung disease and to the oxygen and mechanical ventilation that were needed
to treat the infants lung disease.

How will I know if my baby has BPD? BPD is usually diagnosed if a baby
continues to have an abnormal chest x-ray and still needs oxygen for a
month or more. However, your baby's doctor may be concerned enough to
treat your baby's continuing lung disease long before this date. A baby with
BPD may also have one or more of the following:

 rapid breathing
 more difficult breathing
 wheezing or noisy breathing
 wet or crackling sound to the lungs heard with a stethoscope
 more difficult time growing

How is BPD treated? A baby with BPD needs extra oxygen for a long period of
time. This may be several weeks or months, occasionally for more than a
year. Babies with BPD may be discharged on home oxygen. Some babies
are treated with other medications. These might include:

 Steroids - drugs to decrease the body's reaction to oxygen

 Diuretics - drugs to help the body to get rid of extra water
 Drugs to decrease wheezing
 Feeding and Nutrition
VII. Characteristics and traits of a Filipino Infant

Filipino Traits, Traditions & Beliefs: Beliefs on Children

Posted by Carrie B. Yan
If a baby often holds his feet, it means that he wants a younger brother or sister.

· Cutting a baby's eyelashes during her first month will make it grow long and beautiful.

· An infant must not be kissed when he is sleeping because he will become naughty
when he grows up.

· A baby who sucks on her toes means her mother will soon be pregnant again.

· Kissing a baby's feet will result to the child talking back to her parents when she grows
up.

· A breech baby will bring luck to the family. He or she will also have the power to
remove fish spines stuck in another person's throat merely by touching that person's
neck.

· When a baby is baptized, he should be carried by a person with plenty of coins in his
hand or pocket. This brings good luck to the baby.

· A child that cries during his baptism is a sign of prosperity. The harder the child cries,
the richer he will be.

· When a child is ready to walk, put him on the stairs. Have him step on a plate or
anywhere else so long as his feet do not touch the ground first. This is to ensure that he
will always find his way home wherever he may roam.

· If a child's milk tooth falls out, throw it up on the roof of the house so that the rats will
find it. When the new tooth grows in, it will be as strong and as powerful as a rat's tooth.

· Children should not be allowed to play late in the afternoon when the horizon is yellow-
orange in color, because evil spirits roam around that time.

· Stepping over a child while he is asleep will slow down his growth.

References:
Goldenring, J., (2011). Infant reflexes. Retrieved from https://ufhealth.org/infant-reflexes
Mayo Clinic Staff, (2010). Infant and toddler health. Retrieved from
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/infant-development/PR00061.
Yan, C., (2011). Filipino Traits, Traditions & Beliefs: Beliefs on Children. Retrieved from
http://www.globalpinoy.com/gp.topics.v1/viewtopic.php?postid=4e2d1f01e9cf4&channel
Name=4e2d1f01e9cf4.
Gabon, Edward
Geografo, Jasmin
Ginoo, Rick Jofhel
Jovisino, John Michael

II-B BSBT

Toddlerhood/Babyhood
I. Introduction
Who’s that girl/boy?
The group will collect photographs among the class during their
toddlerhood stage. The class will guess or identify who among their
classmates is shown on the picture. Afterwards, this will be used by
describing how they look on their picture during the stage of toddlerhood.
Simpy Describe.
The reporter will present pictures to the class. The class will simply
describe what the picture depicts. Upon describing all of the pictures, the
class now has an idea of a toddler and the most important characteristics
of a toddler.

II. Concepts
Babyhood – This period occupies the first two years of life. There is
gradual but pronounced decrease in helplessness. It means that everday,
week, and month, the individual becomes more independent, so that,
when the babyhood ends with the second birthday, the individual is a quite
different person than when babyhood began.

III. Characteristics

During the first year of life, the baby is labeled lap baby as he is still very
much a helpless individual. During the second year of life, he is labeled as
a toddler. A toddler is a baby who has achieved enough body control to be
relatively independent.

The outstanding characteristics of babyhood which extends from the end

of the second week to the second year of life, are:

1. True foundation age

2. A time of rapid growth and development
3. A time of decreased dependency
4. A time of increased individuality
5. Beginning of socialization
 6. A time of sex role typing and creativity
7. A time that is both appealing and hazardous
8. Development of physiological functions occur at a rapid stage
9. Pre-speech
10. Combination of sensory exploration, motor manipulation
11. Critical period in personality development
12. "terrible two's"

 One-year old Toddler

Physical Development - Toddlers may eat less, but they tend to eat frequently
throughout the day. They get better at feeding themselves, although spills should still be
expected. They may grow less quickly than during infancy. Most walk without support by
14 months. Most walk backward and up steps by 22 months. They can drink from a cup
with help. They can scribble. They can stack blocks.

Social and Emotional Development - Temper tantrums are common. They have
difficulty sharing toys. They may be possessive. They want to do things independently.
They cannot remember rules. They show increasing fears. They have rapid mood shifts.
Their emotions are usually very intense but short-lived. Routines are very important.
They enjoy playing by themselves or beside (not with) other children. They view
themselves as the center of the world. They may continuously ask for their parents.
They become increasingly more self-aware. They begin to express new emotions such
as jealousy, affection, pride and shame.

Intellectual Development - Toddlers name familiar people and objects. Their attention
span is short. They are curious. They use "NO" frequently. They point to objects that
they want. They name body parts and familiar pictures. They imitate animal sounds.
They use pronouns me and mine. They can hold a pencil and scribble. They combine
two words to form a basic sentence. They point to objects that they want. They use
objects for their intended purpose. They begin to include a second person in pretend
play.

 Two-year old Toddler

Physical Development - They stand on tip toes. They throw balls and kick them
forward. They walk, run, climb, walk up and down stairs alone and dig. They jump with
two feet together. They feel discomfort with wet or soiled diapers. They start to show an
interest in toilet training. They take things apart and put them back together. They like to
screw and unscrew lids. Children are generally more active than at any other point in
their lives.
Social and Emotional Development - They try to assert themselves by saying "No."
They like to imitate the behavior of adults and others. They want to help with household
tasks. They begin to play simple pretend games. Their fantasy play is very short and
simple. It does not involve others. They sometimes do the opposite of what is asked.
They are generally very self-centered and sharing is still difficult. They enjoy playing
near other children. They refuse to help. They are more sure of themselves than one-
year-old children. They become frustrated easily. They still need security.

Intellectual Development - They express their feelings and wishes. They follow simple
directions. They still have a very limited attention span. They use three or more words in
combination. They can memorize short rhymes. They use objects to represent other
objects. They can join in simple songs. They have trouble making choices, but they
want to make choices. They begin to think about doing something before doing it.

IV. Theories
 Anal stage – reflects the toddler‘s need for gratification along the rectal area.
During this stage, children must endure the demands of toilet training. For the
first time, outside agents interfere with instructional impulses by insisting that the
child should inhibit the urge to defecate until he has reached a designated place
to do so.
 Trust vs. Mistrust – infants whose needs are met, and who are cuddled, fondled,
and shown genuine affection evolve a sense of the world as a safe and
dependable place. In contrast, when a child is chaotic, unpredictable, and
rejecting, the child approaches the world with fear and suspicion.
 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – as children begin to crawl, walk, climb, and
explore, a new conflict confronts them: whether to assert their wills or not. When
parents are patient, cooperative and encouraging, children acquire a sense of
independence and competence. In contrast, when children are not allowed with
such freedom and overprotected, they develop an excessive sense of shame and
doubt. They too approach the world with fear and suspicion.
 Sensorimotor stage – is determined basically on actual perception of the senses
and the external or physical factors. The first experience develops continuously
on its encounter. How learning takes place depends on what is experienced at
the beginning.

V. Issues

• TODDLERS WHO OVEREAT

Toddlers eat too much and may be on the road toward childhood obesity. Obesity can
cause medical problems such as diabetes, heart disease and early puberty as well as
psychological and self-esteem problems.

• PICKY TODDLERS
ANOTHER FEEDING PROBLEM COMES WHEN TODDLERS ARE HUNGRY AND
WANT TO EAT, BUT THEY ONLY WANT TO EAT CERTAIN FOODS.
 • SWALLOWING PROBLEMS

The condition that children sometimes develop that causes swallowing problems is
called dysphagia. Problems with tooth development, tonsils that are too large for the
throat or a cleft palate, throat tumors, digestive tract deformities, paralyzed vocal chords
and an enlarged tongue also can cause the problems. Children with dysphagia often
take more than 30 minutes to finish a meal.

• Toddlers Toilet Problems

Toilet training a toddler can be a lengthy process that requires patience from
parents. No matter how frustrated you get, you should never force your child to use the
toilet, because your child will lose motivation and the entire training process will be
difficult for you both.

• Speech Delay

Delayed speech can be a problem related to other issues, such as autism or a

hearing difficulty. Other factors like large tonsils, allergies that cause congestion or
having a sibling who does most of the talking can cause a delay.

• Regression
Speech regression occurs when a child stops using words he has used
previously, halting his progression.

VI. Teaching and learning applications

Toddlers limited concentration

In this age toddlers easily break their attention. There are so many
stimulus that may get the child‘s concentration, example of it are sounds and things to
her surroundings. In this situation the focus of the child is so very limited that she may
not get what are you‘re talking or what are you doing to make her improved.

Application

Do a series of activities that caught the interest of your child

Make her surroundings less stimulated, sound resistant room, placing

things in a
cabinet.
Runaway toddlers

In this stage of toddlerhood they‘re often to runaway to their parents

because they want to explore the world independently. They are too eager to
discover the world in their own.

Application

Ask for the Behavior You Want

Give Specific Warnings
Create Consequences
Turn It into a Game

Saying ―no‖
Toddlers want some control in her surroundings so they often say “no” to
you. Saying no is normal to this stage.

Application
Focus on the positive
Give reasons to your request
Encourage imitation
Get her into giggle mode
Reward good behavior

Tantrums
Toddlers‟ common problems are tantrums. There are reasons why
toddlers doing tantrums. First they didn‟t get what they want. Second it was their
way to communicate to you.

Application
Give the child some space
Create diversion
Find out what‟s Really Frustrating the Kid
Hugs

Offer Food or suggest a Little activity

 Give Your Kid Incentive to Behave
Speak Calmly

Toddlers learn how to share

Sharing in this stage is difficult to the toddlers because they always want
their belongings alone with them.

Application
Make all the materials the same to the others.

Early bullies
Biting, hitting, kicking and others are one of the factors that they often
don‟t control in that stage of development.

Applications
Give direct instructions by using your words
Be consistent
Give him an alternative
Know your child's triggers.

References

http://www.babycenter.com/0_potty-training-problems-and-solutions_12439.bc

Dreisbach, Shaun. 10 Ways to Tame Your Kid’s Tantrums. Retrieved from

http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/discipline/tantrum/tame-your-kids-
tantrums/

Hanton, Cynthia. Controlling Hitting, Biting, Pushing, and Shoving. Retrieved from
http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/discipline/improper-behavior/controlling-
toddler-hitting-biting-pushing-shoving/

Rank Lev, Katy. Kid on the Loose: Stop Toddlers from Running Away. Retrieved from
http://www.parents.com/toddlers-preschoolers/development/physical/stop-toddlers-from-
running-away/

http://www.mumsnet.com/toddlers/sleep-problems
 Submitted by:

Jusi, Judy Ann

Lozada, Ma. Rossana Mae D.

Lozada, Shelomith Hope P.

Mazo, John Louelle

II- B BSBST

Submitted to:

Ms. Zhanina Custodio

 OBJECTIVES
 To know how children process concepts, behave, feel, and react at this
stage.

 To understand why is early childhood considered as critical period.

 To know what and how do we address the issues, concerns, and

problems in this period.

INTRODUCTION

Early childhood is a stage in human development. It generally includes

toddlerhood and some time afterwards. Play age is an unspecific designation
approximately within the scope of early childhood.

Early childhood is a time of remarkable physical, cognitive, social and emotional

development. Infants enter the world with a limited range of skills and abilities. Watching
a child develop new motor, cognitive, language and social skills is a source of wonder
for parents and caregivers.

CONCEPTS:

Animistic thinking - It is characterized by the child's belief that inanimate

objects, for example, dolls, possess desires, beliefs, and feelings in a similar
way that the child does.

Autism - is a disorder of neutral development characterized by impaired social

interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication, and by restricted,
repetitive or stereotyped behavior.
Castration Anxiety- boys develop a fear that their father will punish them for
these feelings, such as by castrating them.
Centration – refers to the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation,
problem or object.

Early Childhood – (2 to 6 years old), labeled by parents as the problem, the

troublesome, or the toy age; by educators as the preschool age and by
psychologists as the pre-gang, the exploratory, and the questioning age.

Electra Complex - a girl's sense of competition with her mother for the
affections of her father.

Empathy - a major stimulus for prosocial behavior; the sharing of another's

emotional response.

Fixation- It occurs when certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate
stage.

Imitation- one of the most important ways children learn about the social
world

Memory - the ability to encode information, store it, and retrieve it

Oedipus complex - the boy wishes to possess his mother and replace his
father

Physical development – results from the interaction between individual

factors of heredity and environmental forces

Private Speech – talking aloud to oneself with no intent to communicate with

others
 Prosocial behaviors- behaviors such as altruism, empathy and cooperation
that are common among children

Socialization – the process of acquiring the standards, values and knowledge

of communities

Social and Emotional Development – a two sided process in which children

become increasingly integrated into the larger community as distinct
individuals

CHARACTERISTICS

Physical:

 Extremely active; have good control of their bodies; enjoy activity for itself
 Have inclination toward ―bursts‖ of activity, so they need frequent rest periods
as they often don‘t know they need to slow down.
 They are clumsy especially in skills like typing shoes and buttoning.

Social :

 Play groups tend to be small and too highly organized

 Play patterns vary according to social class, gender, or age.
 Awareness of sex role typing is evident.

Emotional:

 Tend to express their emotions freely and openly; anger outbursts are
frequent.
 Jealousy among classmates is likely to be common because they seek
attention and affection of teachers.
 Cognitive:

 Quite skillful with languages; most like to talk especially in front of groups.
 May stick to own rules in the use of language.

ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT

Physical

 Their weight quadruples and increase height by two-thirds.

 May begin to lose "baby" (deciduous) teeth.
 Body is adult-like in proportion.
 Visual tracking and binocular vision are well developed.
 Boys are on average slightly taller and heavier than girls

Cognitive

 Can builds tower out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes
 Understands concept of same shape, same size.
 Sorts objects on the basis of two dimensions, such as color and form.
 Identifies objects with specified serial position: first, second, last.
 Recognizes numerals from 1 to 10.
 Many children know the alphabet and names of upper- and lowercase letters.
 Can use larger writing instruments such as fat crayons and pen
 Begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding schools
 Start to manipulate clothing
 Children continue to refine eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoon
 Asks innumerable questions: Why? What? Where? When? How?
 Eager to learn new things.
 Start to manipulate clothing

Social and emotional

 Enjoys and often has one or two focus friendships.

 Shows affection and caring towards others especially those ―below‖ them or in
pain
 Generally subservient to parent or caregiver requests.
 Likes entertaining people and making them laugh.
 Boasts about accomplishments.
 Often has an imaginary friend
  Anxious to please; needs and seeks adult approval, reassurance, and praise;
may complain excessively about minor hurts to gain more attention.
 Often can't view the world from another‘s point of view
 Self-perceived failure can make the child easily disappointed and frustrated.
 Does not understand ethical behavior or moral standards especially when doing
things that have not been given rules
 May be increasingly fearful of the unknown like things in the dark, noises, and
animals.

Moral

 Concept of Morality may emerge as a result of interactions with adults and peers.
 Show concern about deviations from the way objects should be and how people

THEORIES

Psychosexual Development Theory

By: Sigmund Freud

Early Childhood stage:

Erogenous Zone: Genitals (3-6 years old)

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this
age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother‘s affections. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to
possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears
that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration
anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience
penis envy.
 Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of
vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis
envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this
stage.

Cognitive Development Theory

By: Jean Piaget

Early Childhood Stage:

Preoperational Stage

During this stage, young children are able to think about things symbolically.
Their language use becomes more mature. They also develop memory and
imagination, which allows them to understand the difference between past and future,
and engage in make-believe.
But their thinking is based on intuition and still not completely logical. They
cannot yet grasp more complex concepts such as cause and effect, time, and
comparison.

PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

By: Erik Erikson

Early Childhood Stage:

Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place

during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process.
However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that of Freud's. Erikson believe
that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of
independence.

Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection.
 Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while
those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.

Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and control over
the world through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack
of initiative.

MORAL DEVELOPMENT
By: Lawrence Kohlberg

Level: Preconventional

Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment Orientation

Kohlberg's stage 1 is similar to Piaget's first stage of moral thought. The child
assumes that powerful authorities hand down a fixed set of rules which he or she must
unquestioningly obey.

 At this stage, children see rules as fixed and absolute.

 Obeying the rules is important because it is a means to avoid punishment.
 The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished.

ISSUES, CONCERNS, AND PROBLEMS

DURING THIS PERIOD

1. Speech and Language Development

Speech and language development issues affect a young child's ability to

articulate well and speak properly. Parents should discuss concerns about their child's
capacity to form sentences, understand receptive language and use expressive
language effectively with an early childhood specialist. Speech services and language
exposure promotes communication development in young children.
  Hearing problems are also commonly related to delayed speech, which is
why a child's hearing should be tested by an audiologist whenever there's
a speech concern. A child who has trouble hearing may have trouble
articulating as well as understanding, imitating, and using language.

 Ear infections, especially chronic infections, can affect hearing ability.

Simple ear infections that have been adequately treated, though, should
have no effect on speech. And, as long as there is normal hearing in at
least one ear, speech and language will develop normally.

2. Physical Development

Physical development issues affect a child's gross motor development and fine
motor skills. Gross motor problems alter a child's ability to walk, run, kick and jump. A
child with physical development delays may have poor muscle tone, lack strength or
suffer from improper quality and range of motions. Fine motor difficulties affects the way
a child holds a pencil, picks up an object or uses his hands. Physical and occupational
therapists can help improve physical development issues in early childhood.

• On average, children are expected to grow at least 2 to 3 inches per year.

• Children should get plenty of exercise and sleep, and eat a balanced diet in order
to continue to develop strong muscles and bones and to maintain a healthy
weight.

• Teaching children about healthy lifestyles and promoting a positive body image is
vitally important at this age.

• Obesity in young children can lead to diabetes, as well as increased risk for
cardiovascular and other serious health problems in adulthood. Young children
who are very overweight may also be teased, bullied, or ignored, which can set
the stage for problems with self-esteem, depression, and other mental illnesses.

• The best way for parents to help children develop healthy lifestyle attitudes and
behaviors toward food and exercise is to educate, to model, and to encourage
appropriate eating and activity patterns. Continuing to provide children with love
and nurturing that builds strong, positive self-images based on attributes other
than appearance (e.g., kindness, trying hard, sharing, and doing well in sports or
school) is also important.
3. Emotional and Social Development

Emotional and social impairments concerns in child development affect coping

ability, social interaction, emotional control and can cause impairments in school. These
children often suffer from frustration when trying to learn new tasks. Adults that interact
with children who suffer from early childhood issues involving emotional and social
development should address the problem through proper role modeling, positive
feedback and praise.

 Autism is a disorder of neutral development characterized by impaired

social interaction and verbal and non-verbal communication, and by
restricted, repetitive or stereotyped behavior.

4. Behavioral Development

Early childhood behavior issues lead to challenging conduct in young children.

These concerns cause difficulty in school and among peers. Often children display
disruptive behavior in response to the way adults interact with them. Therefore, adults
who work with challenging young children should change the way they respond to the
child. Performing an extensive review of the child can help determine effective
interventions.

 Temporary behavior problems due to stress. For example, the birth of a sibling, a
divorce, or a death in the family may cause a child to act out. Behavior disorders
are more serious. They involve a pattern of hostile, aggressive, or disruptive
behaviors for more than 6 months. The behavior is also not appropriate for the
child's age

 Warning signs can include :

 Harming or threatening themselves, other people or pets

 Damaging or destroying property
 Lying or stealing
 Not doing well in school, skipping school
 Early smoking, drinking or drug use
 Early sexual activity
  Frequent tantrums and arguments
 Consistent hostility towards authority figures
 If you see signs of a problem, ask for help. Poor choices can become habits.
Kids who have behavior problems are at higher risk for school failure, mental
health problems, and even suicide. Classes or family therapy may help parents
learn to set and enforce limits. Talk therapy and behavior therapy for your child
can also help.

IMPLICATIONS TO TEACHING AND LEARNING

• Provide plenty of opportunities for running, climbing, and jumping but
these should be under control.

• Schedule quiet activities after strenuous ones

• Avoid too many small motor activities such as pasting paper chains;
provide big tools and supplies.

• As much as possible, minimize the need for children to look at small

things. Intervene immediately when blows to the head in games or fights
between children occur and explain why.

• Avoid boy/ girl comparison or competition involving such skills.

• Provide assistance to those who like to be with others but lack the
confidence or ability to join them.

• Determine when silence and sedentary activities are justifiable.

• Determine what type of social behavior each child exhibits and provide
appropriate activities, especially free play ad experimentation.

• Give attention to the variety of play activities, to know what play patterns
most children prefer or should be provided them.

• As much as possible, let the children settle their differences and intervene
only quarrels get out of hand.

• Help children resist forms of sex typing and begin to acquire traits of both
sexes (andrology).
• Let children express their feelings within broad limits so they can
recognize and face their emotions.

• Spread attention as equitably as possible; do most praising in private.

• Provide ―sharing time‖ sessions. At the same time, help them become
good listeners.

• Interact with children often, showing interest in what they do, appreciating
their achievement, and allowing them to investigate and experience many
things independently to certain limits.

REFERENCES:
MandyMac, (2010, November). Supermandymac. Retrieved from
http://www.studymode.com/essays/Supermandymac-485715.html

Fidalgo, Jennifer. Early Childhood Development Issues. Retrieved from

http://www.ehow.com/list_6609209_early-childhood-development-issues.html

Kidshealth. Delayed Speech or Language Development. Retrieved from.

http://kidshealth.org/parent/growth/communication/not_talk.html

U.S. National Library of Medicine, U.S. Department of Health and Human

Services & National Institutes of Health, (2013, August 16). Child Behavior
Disorders. Also called: Conduct disorders. Retrieved from
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childbehaviordisorders.html

Angela Oswalt, MSW (2008, January 16) Early Childhood Physical Development:
Average Growth. Retrieved from
http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=12754
Kendra, Cherry (2013). Freud's Stages of Psychosexual Development. Retrieved
from
http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev_4.htm

WebMD(2012). Piaget Stages of Development. Retrieved from

http://children.webmd.com/piaget-stages-of-development

Kendra, Cherry (2013).Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

Psychosocial Development in Infancy and Early Childhood. Retrieved
fromhttp://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial.htm

W.C. Crain. (1985). Theories of Development. Prentice-Hall. pp. 118-

136.Retrieved from http://faculty.plts.edu/gpence/html/kohlberg.htm
Dr. Helen F. delos Santos & Dr. Conchita O. Manuel. Child and Adolescent
Development.
 MIDDLE
CHILDHOOD
(7-11 YEARS OLD)

Submitted by:
Paule, Marie Anne B.
Piloneo, Roy R.
Quismorio, Ernesto Jr. C.
Ramos, Diana L.
Submitted to:
Miss Zhanina U. Custodio
 MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (7-11 years of age)

Middle childhood brings many changes in a child‘s life. By this time, children can
dress themselves, catch a ball more easily using only their hands, and tie their shoes.
Having independence from family becomes more important now. Events such as
starting school bring children this age into regular contact with the larger world.
Friendships become more and more important. Physical, social, and mental skills
develop quickly at this time. This is a critical time for children to develop confidence in
all areas of life, such as through friends, schoolwork, and sports.

CHARACTERISTICS

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ( 6-9 years old )

Physical Characteristics
 Still extremely active, hence, when restricted, their energy is released
through nervous habits like fidgeting.
 Get fatigued easily because of physical and mental exertion.
 With more superior large-muscle control than fine coordination.
 Many have difficulty focusing on small prints or objects.
 Have excellent control over their bodies, are confident in their skills, and
often underestimate danger.
 Bone growth is not complete yet, so, bones and ligaments can't stand heavy
pressure.

Social Characteristics
 Somewhat more selective in choosing friends and are likely to have a more
or less permanent friends.
 Like organized games in small groups, but may tend to be overly concerned
with rules or get carried away by team spirit.
 Quarrels are still frequent although words are used more often than physical
aggression.

Emotional Characteristics
 Sensitive to criticism and ridicule and may have difficulty in adjusting to
failure.
 Most are eager to please the teacher.
 Beginning to become sensitive to the feelings of others.

Cognitive Characteristics
 Are generally eager to learn; they have built-in motivation for this.
  Have much more facility in speech than in writing.
 Can make generalizations but based only on concrete experiences.

Moral Characteristics
 Have the tendency to tell on their classmates, maybe due to jealousy or
malice or simply to get attention or curry favor.

LATE CHILDHOOD ( 9-11 years old )

Physical Characteristics
 Growth spurt occurs in most girls and starts in early-maturing boys. On the
average girls between 10 and 14 are taller and heavier than boys of the
same age.
 Concern and curiosity about sex are prevalent because these involve drastic
biological adjustments.
 Fine coordination is quite good; manipulation of small objects is easy and
enjoyable.

Social Characteristics
 Peer group becomes powerful and begins to replace adults as basis of
behavior standards and recognition of achievements.
 Increase development of interpersonal reasoning that leads to greater
understanding to others' feelings.

Emotional Characteristics
 Delinquent behavior may be manifested, caused more by disruptive family
relationships, social rejection, and school failure.
 Some may show behavior disorder such as hyperactivity, bed wetting,
antisocial behavior, ties, excessive fears, depression, eating disorder,
anxiety, and withdrawal.

Cognitive Characteristics
 Sex differences in specific abilities decrease in number and magnitude.
 Differences in cognitive styles become apparent.
 May be able to deal with abstraction but may still need to generalize from
concrete experience.

Moral Characteristics
 Emotions concerning pride and guilt become clearly governed by personal
responsibility.
  Ideas about justice.
 Can now follow advance internalized standards.

ASPECTS OF DEVOLOPMENT

A. Physical/ Motor Development

Growth slow in middle childhood and wide differences in height and weight
exist.
Children with retarded growth due to growth hormone deficiency may be given
synthetic growth hormone.
Proper nutrition is essential for normal growth and health.
The permanent teeth arrive in middle childhood. Dental heath has improved, in
part because of use of sealants on chewing surfaces.
Malnutrition can affect all aspects of development.
Concern with body image, especially among girls, may lead to eating
disorders.
Because of improved motor development, boys and girls in middle childhood
can engage in a wide range of motor activities.
About 10 percent of schoolchildren's play, especially among boys, is rough-
and-tumble play.
Many children, mostly boys, go into organized, competitive sports. A sound
physical education program should aim at skill development and fitness for all
children.
Many children, especially girls, do not meet fitness standards.

B. Cognitive Development

 Piagetian Approach: The Concrete Operational Child

A child at about age 7 enters the stage of concrete operations. Children are
less egocentric than before and are more proficient at tasks requiring logical
reasoning, such as spatial thinking, understanding of causality, categorization,
inductive and deductive reasoning, conservation, and working with numbers.
However, their reasoning is largely limited to the here and now.
Cultural experience, as well as neurological development, seems to contribute
to the rate of development of conservation and other Piagetian skills.
According to Piaget, moral development is linked with cognitive maturation and
occurs in two stages as children move from rigid to more flexible thinking.

 Information Processing and Intelligence

Although sensory memory shows little change with age, the capacity of
working memory increases greatly during middle childhood.
The central executive, which controls the flow of information to and from long-
term memory, seems to mature between ages 8 and 10.
 Reaction time, processing speed, selective attention, and concentration also
increase. These gains in information-processing abilities may help explain the
advances Piaget described.
Metamemory, selective attention, and use of memory strategies improve
during these years.

 Language and Literacy

Use of vocabulary, grammar, and syntax become increasingly sophisticated,

but the major area of linguistic growth is in pragmatics.
Despite the popularity of whole-language programs, early phonics training is a
key to reading proficiency.
Metacognition contributes to reading comprehension.
Acquisition of writing skills accompanies development of reading.

C. Social Development

Along with their broadened exposure to adults and peers outside the family,
children of these ages are typically given more freedom, more responsibilities,
and more rights.
They see adults acting in various social roles, and they see different adults
acting in the same role—as teacher or camp counselor, for example.
Increasingly, children spend time with their peers outside the orbit of parental
control.
As children get older, they become sensitive to what matters to other people.
Children are concerned with winning acceptance from their peers, and they
must manage conflicts between the behavior expected of them by adults and
the social goals of the peer group.

D. Self-Concept Development

Children in the age of 7 are optimistic. They will rank themselves near the
top, regardless of their actual performance levels.
By age 10, however, children are typically far less optimistic, and there is a
much stronger relation between their self-ratings and their actual
performance.
Their ability self-concepts and their expectations for success tend to decline
over the years.
Young children's skills improve quite rapidly, so for them it is not unrealistic
to expect to shift from failure to success on any particular task.
Self-esteem which grows out of comparisons with others is extremely
important to success and happiness.

E. Emotional Development
 In middle childhood, the self-conscious emotions of pride and guilt become
clearly integrated by personal responsibility; these feelings are now
experienced in the absence of adult monitoring.
Shame is often felt when violating a standard is not under one's control.
Shame may also be experienced after a controllable breach of standards if
the self-as-a-whole is blamed for it.
Pride motivates children to take on further challenges, and guilt prompts
them to make amends and strive for self-improvement as well.
School-age children's understanding of psychological dispositions means
that they are likely to explain emotion by making reference to internal states
rather than physical events.
These children are also more aware of the diversity of emotional
experiences.
Similarly, school-age children appreciate that emotional reactions need not
reflect a person's true feelings, and they can use information about a
person's past experiences to predict how he or she will feel in a new
situation.
Cognitive and social experience also contributes to a rise in empathy.
Children come up with more ways to handle emotionally arousing situations
as they make rapid gains in emotional self-regulation during middle
childhood.
When the development of emotional self-regulation has gone along well,
school-age children acquire a sense of emotional self-efficacy-a feeling of
being in control of their emotional experience.
Emotionally well-regulated children are generally upbeat in mood, more
empathic and pro-social, and better liked by their peers.

F. Moral Development

As children enter middle childhood, ideas of fairness are based on equality-

children in the early school grades are intent on making sure that each
person gets the same amount of a treasured resource.
Soon children start to view fairness in terms of merit-extra rewards should
be given to someone who has worked especially hard or otherwise
performed in an exceptional way.
Around age 8, children can reason on the basis of benevolence-they
recognize that special consideration should be given to those in a condition
of disadvantage.
Parental advice and encouragement support these developing standards of
justice, but the give and-take of peer interaction is especially important.
As their ideas about justice advance, children clarify and create linkages
between moral rules and social conventions.
Culture influences the extent to which children separate moral rules from
social conventions.

THEORIES
 A. Piaget's Cognitive Theory

Middle childhood is talked about in Jean Piaget's Cognitive Theory. The concrete
operational stage in his theory spans the years from 7 to 11; during this period thought
is more logical, flexible, and organized than it was during early childhood.

According to Piaget, children of this stage are characterized by the following:

 Conservation (Objects stay the same even if their form changes.). The ability to
pass conservation tasks provides clear evidence of operations-mental actions
that obey logical rules.
 Decentration is the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem at once and
relate to them.
 Reversibility is the ability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem
and then reverse the direction, returning to the starting point.
 Seriation is the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as
length or weight.
 Transitive inference is the ability to perform seriation mentally.
 Piaget found that school-age children have a more accurate understanding of
space than they did earlier.
 Middle childhood brings improved understanding of distance.
 By the early school years, children understand that a filled-up space has the
same value as an empty space.
 Between 7 and 8 years, children start to perform mental rotations, in which they
align the self's frame to match that of a person in a different orientation. As a
result, they can identify left and right for positions they do not occupy.
 Around 8 to 10 years, children can give clear, well-organized directions for how
to get from one place to another by using a "mental walk" strategy in which they
imagine another person's movement along a route.
 They can now group objects into hierarchies of classes and subclasses.
 Collections become common in middle childhood.

Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought

 Children think in an organized, logical fashion only when dealing with concrete
information that they can perceive directly.
 Their mental operations work poorly when applied to abstract ideas.
 Horizontal decal age is gradual development that occurs within a Piagetian
stage. For example, children usually grasp conservation problems in a certain
order: first number; then length, mass, and liquid; and finally area and weight.

The Impact of Culture and Schooling

According to Piaget, brain maturation combined with experience in a rich and varied
world should lead children in every culture to reach the concrete operational stage.
Research indicates that conservation is often delayed in non-Western societies. For
children to master conservation and other Piagetian concepts, they must take part in
everyday activities that promote this way of thinking. Some researchers believe that the
forms of logic required by Piagetian tasks are socially generated by practical activities in
particular cultures.

B. Erik Erikson‘s Psychosocial Theory

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the Middle School age, Erikson believes that recognition is a big asset to a
child's life. He sees that children start to new skills and start to master skills that adults,
such as parents, should give recognition to their kids. For example when they complete
projects or accomplish athletic or artistic performances children want to see
acknowledgment in their work. When they start to realize they are good with something
they will continue to repeat this skill or also move on to other challenging skills to better
themselves in life. The pattern of your child working hard and mastering lengthening a
certain task is known as industry. Inferiority on the other hand is, when children feel they
are punished for their hard work or efforts and when they understand they cannot meet
their parental or adult needs they develop inferiority.

As a parent, it is important to encourage your child at this age to try new activities, such
as sports or arts. While they are accomplishing a new task, parents need to recognize
that and continue to praise and encourage their child. At this age, children need to feel
they are accomplishing activities that adults do, it is an important strategy as a parent to
remember their child wants to be accepted.

C. Morality

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to the question of whether
Heinz was wrong or right, but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. The
responses were then classified into various stages of reasoning in his theory of moral
development.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality

 Stage 1 - Obedience and Punishment

The earliest stage of moral development is especially common in young children,
but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage,
children see rules as fixed and absolute. Obeying the rules is important because
it is a means to avoid punishment.
  Stage 2 - Individualism and Exchange
At this stage of moral development, children account for individual points of view
and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best-
served Heinz‘s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development,
but only if it serves one's own interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

 Stage 3 - Interpersonal Relationships

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of moral
development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles. There is an
emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices
influence relationships.
 Stage 4 - Maintaining Social Order
At this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as a whole
when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and order by following
the rules, doing one‘s duty and respecting authority.

Issues, concerns, and problems during this period

Developmental Milestones

Child‘s growing independence from the family and interest in friends might be obvious
by now. Healthy friendships are very important to child‘s development, but peer
pressure can become strong during this time. Children who feel good about themselves
are more able to resist negative peer pressure and make better choices for themselves.
This is an important time for children to gain a sense of responsibility along with their
growing independence. Also, physical changes of puberty might be showing by now,
especially for girls. Another big change children need to prepare for during this time is
starting middle or junior high school.

Here is some information on how children develop during middle childhood:

Emotional/Social Changes

Children in this age group might:

 Start to form stronger, more complex friendships and peer relationships. It

becomes more emotionally important to have friends, especially of the same sex.
 Experience more peer pressure.
 Become more aware of his or her body as puberty approaches. Body image and
eating problems sometimes start around this age.
Emerging Issues in Early and Middle Childhood

The keys to understanding early and middle childhood health are recognizing the
important role these periods play in adult health and well-being and focusing on
conditions and illnesses that can seriously limit children‘s abilities to learn, grow, play,
and become healthy adults.

Emerging issues in early and middle childhood include implementing and evaluating
multidisciplinary public health interventions that address social determinants of health
by:

 Fostering knowledgeable and nurturing families, parents, and caregivers.

 Creating supportive and safe environments in schools, communities, and homes.
 Increasing access to high-quality health care.

A stronger and more robust surveillance system is needed to provide the data to
understand and plan for the health and well-being of children.

Issues to consider in understanding the results

 Mastery and competence

Eric Erikson characterized middle childhood as the stage when children are most
challenged by the issues of mastery and competence. This time of life coincides
with the child's increasing experience in the social arena. Middle childhood is
marked by the transition from the world of the family to the world of peers and
school. With children's increased exposure to others, they encounter new
comparisons and judgements. This combination of factors leads to the
development of a critical self, with self-esteem and identity based on a mixture of
subjective, personalized opinions and objective opinions received from the
external world. Whereas family and experience shape certain values and
attitudes, others are influenced by society. From grades to clothes, others' ideas
affect children's perceptions of themselves and their areas of competence.

 Adult influence: sprawl

In many ways these children demonstrate that middle childhood is an age of
enlightenment. Cognitively, children this age are more capable of understanding
the complex adult world, no longer able to retreat with blinders to an age of
innocence. Confronted with adult concerns, these enlightened children may be
overwhelmed, and may not yet have developed effective coping tools. Although
some results are consistent with developmental expectations, more distressing
are other results suggesting that (1) sex role stereotyping in academic and social
areas is being reinforced by society and that (2) attitudes and anxieties are being
shaped by the adult world.

 Adult influence: protective factors

Children in these middle years yearn for, and when given the chance, capitalize
 on age appropriate resources: they seek comfort from adults. When allowed to
choose anyone in their world for specific roles, "real" people rather than
celebrities prove to be crucial in a child's world. Parents and other adults in a
child's life are most likely underestimating their influence. In fact, parent-family
connectedness and perceived school connectedness repeatedly have been
found protective against various health risk behaviors such as emotional distress,
suicidal thoughts, violence, use of cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana, and age of
first sexual encounter for children.

 Media
Media are ubiquitous in life today. Consider that in 1950 only about 9% of
American homes had TV sets, by 1955 the figure increased to 65% and by 1985
it reached 98%. Add to this the number of homes with a CD player (90%), with a
personal computer or video-game equipment (89%) and homes with children
having a VCR (97%) and media has a clear presence in family life. Interestingly,
these results uphold gender differences within this media sphere, with boys
prizing electronics more than do girls. Known differences between boys and girls
are also reflected in their use of media. From an early age, girls tend to use more
emotionally toned language and have relationships based on closeness whereas
boys' relationships are based more on sameness and activity. Thus it is not
surprising that girls use the internet for e-mail forms of communication and boys
for games.

 Fears
Certain identified fears are expected, such as those of bugs and the dark. But the
preponderance of fears about violence raises questions about both the cause
and effect of these fears. Put in a developmental context, by age 9 or 10, children
have a mature concept of death, understand its cause and significance, and can
imagine the reality of their own or another's death. Thus the study findings
regarding fear are reflective of an age-appropriate sensitivity to fears of death.
However, the expressed concern about guns and violence are likely out of
proportion to the reality for many children. Distinguishing between realistic and
perceived fear is difficult. Whether realistic or not, adults must still grapple with
the stress caused by a child's fears. The effect of the media on perception of
danger can not be dismissed. Whereas the homicide rate decreased 33% from
1990 to 1998, network coverage increased almost 500%. Since 1975 the
scientific community has become confident in the link between violence in the
media and aggression yet the news is reporting a weak link.

 Children's work: play

Children's concern for the environment was represented by concern about the
viability of play spaces - parks, black top for basketball games. This speaks to
two different issues, one, a child's need for play and two, the long-range
sensitivity to improving the world. Engaging in imaginative and creative play has
always been important for development. Play allows children the opportunity to
be self-reliant, to work through problems, and re-charge. Concern about an at-
risk environment suggests children are attentive to accumulated ecological
 hazards faced by society. Stepped-up efforts to educate children about
everything from the greenhouse effect to recycling seem to be having a positive
impact on children and their worry about the future. Concern about the loss of
play spaces could also symbolize the potential loss of avenues of recreation -
perhaps representing the fear of diminished playtime as children get older and
the limited leisure time used by adults.

Characteristics of Filipino in Middle

Childhood

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

Seven and eight-year-old children are in a stage of development often called middle
childhood. They attend school and they enjoy mastering lots
of new physical skills. They learn rapidly in school. The opinions of their classmates
matter more than ever before, and they begin to feel the effects of peer pressure.

Review the rules and limits with the children. Let them help set the limits and rules.
Change them when necessary. Let them help plan some activities. They can help solve
their own problems.

Seven and eight-year-old children need adults who care about them and will talk and
play with them. These can be exciting years for the children and you. You can help
them prepare to be healthy teens and adults. Remember that two children of the same
age may be at different stages of development. Every child is an individual with different
strengths and weaknesses. Each child needs to feel special and cared about.

PHYSICAL Characteristis

 Large muscles in arms and legs are more developed than small muscles.
Children can bounce a ball and run, but it is difficult to do both at the same time.
 There may be quite a difference in the size and abilities of children. This will
affect the way they get along with others, how they feel about
themselves, and what they do. Seven to nine-year-old children are learning to
use their small muscle skills (printing with a pencil) and their large muscle skills
(catching a fly ball).
 Even though children are tired, they may not want to rest. You will need to plan
time for them to rest.
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL Characteristics

 Children want to do things by and for themselves, yet they need adults who will
help when asked or when needed.
 Seven to nine-year-old children of the same age and sex help each other:
o have fun and excitement by playing together,
o learn by watching and talking to each other,
o in time of trouble by banning together,
o by giving support in time of stress, and
o understand how they feel about themselves.
 Children need guidance, rules, and limits.
 They need help in solving problems.
 They are beginning to see things from another child's point of view, but they still
have trouble understanding the feelings and needs of other people.
 Many children need help to express their feelings in appropriate ways when they
are upset or worried.
 They need more love, attention, and approval from parents and you than
criticism.

INTELLECTUAL Characteristics

 With an increased ability to remember and pay attention, their ability to speak
and express ideas can grow rapidly.
 Things tend to be black or white, right or wrong, great or disgusting, fun or boring
to them. There is very little middle ground.
 They are learning to plan ahead and evaluate what they do.
 With increased ability to think and reason, they enjoy different types of activities,
such as clubs, games with rules, and collecting things.
 When you suggest something, they may say, "That's dumb," or, "I don't want to
do it."
 They are still very self-centered although they are beginning to think of others.
 They often say, "That's not fair!" Often, they do not accept rules that they did not
help make.

ACTIVITIES TO DO WITH CHILDREN

 Children learn best by doing. Try to demonstrate instructions for activities or

projects.
 Do projects, games, crafts, or activities in which children use large and small
muscles together. Use craft projects that beginners can complete. Do not expect
perfection from the children.
  Encourage cooperative rather than competitive games. Children like to play both
cooperative and competitive games. They both help children prepare of the adult
world. Help all children feel like winners.
 Encourage children to collect things like shells, stamps, or flowers.
 Encourage pretend play because it is still an important learning experience.
 Make time for running, hopping, skipping, jumping, and climbing.
 Encourage children to dance or skip to music.
 Encourage children to talk about their feelings while working or playing together.

CLASSROOM IMPLICATIONS

For Six to Nine Years Old

 Avoid rules that require them to stay quiet for long periods; have frequent breaks;
provide active class work.
 Schedule quiet and/or relaxing activities after periods of mental concentration.
 Avoid scheduling too much at one time.
 Try not to require too much reading at one stretch. Prepare materials with large
prints.
 Encourage participation in essentially safe games.
 Encourage competition involving coordinated skills.
 Sociograms may be used to gain insight into friendships, give some assistance to
children who have difficulty in making friends.
 Promote the idea that games should be fun and not excessively competitive.
 Try to give children a chance to work out their own situation to disagreements as
social conflict is effective in spurring cognitive growth.
 Give frequent praise and recognition and other positive reinforcement especially
for academic behavior.
 Assign "jobs" on a rotating basis.
 Be alert about the group pastime of increased teasing a particular child so much
that it may make a tremendous effect on the attitude towards school of the victim.
 Sustain their eagerness to learn.
 Control participation so that they speak up only when called upon.

For Nine to Twelve Years Old

 Conflicts between physical and sex roles might arise, try to explain that things will
eventually even out and to persuade pupils that being male or female not in itself
determine what a person does.
  Try to give accurate and unemotional answers to question about sex.
 Provide arts and crafts and musical and related creative activities.
 Keep in mind the pupils' growing independence and their need for understanding
and limit setting rather than punishment, provide cooperative activities.
 Try to play down comparisons between best and worst learners.
 Encourage pupils to participate in rule setting.
 Keep students constructively busy.
 May need provisions for counseling and parent training and mastery of basic
academic skills.
 Report unusual and repeated episodes to parents and school counselor.
 Provide opportunities for both sexes to further lessen differences.
 Use varied teaching methods and approaches.

References:

http://psychology.about.com/od/early-child-development/a/social-emotional-
development-in-middle-childhood.htm
http://www.sevencounties.org/poc/center_index.php?cn=1272
http://psychology.about.com/od/psychosocialtheories/a/psychosocial_2.htm
http://psych.ku.edu/dennisk/CP333/Emotional_Mid_Child.pdf
http://psych.ku.edu/dennisk/CP333/Physical_Middle_C.pdf
http://psychology.about.com/od/early-child-development/a/cognitive-development-in-
middle-childhood.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/positiveparenting/middle2.html
http://www.nncc.org/Child.dev/mid.dev.html
NNCC Middle Childhoodwww.nncc.org
Let Reviewer
 Introduction
The period of adolescence is considered as crucial and significant period of an
individual‟s life. Psychologically, adolescence is the age when the individual
becomes integrated into the society of the adults. It is the stage when the child no
longer feels that he is below the level of his elders but rather an equal with them, at
least in rights. This integration into the adult society has many aspects, more or less
linked with puberty. It also includes profound intellectual changes. These intellectual
transformations, typical of an adolescent‟s thinking, enable him to achieve his
integration into the social relationships of the adults. This is the most general
characteristic of this period of development.

It is the period which begins with puberty and ends with the general cessation of
the physical growth. It emerges from later childhood stage and merges into
adulthood. It is difficult to assign definite years to it because they differ from country
to country and culture to culture. Chronologically, age ranges are from 12/13 years
to 18/19 years in India. In case of girls it begins about 1 year earlier than the boys.

Our discussion on the stages of human development will continue in this unit
also. Here, we will discuss adolescence, which is the most crucial period of human
development. In this stage, the children become sexually mature and reach the age
of legal maturity. It is the period of rapid and revolutionary changes in the individual‟s
physical, mental, moral, emotional, spiritual, sexual and social outlook. Human
personality develops new dimensions.

The word „adolescence‟ comes from the Latin word „adolescere‟ which means „to
grow‟. So the essence of the word adolescence is growth and it is in this sense that
adolescence represents a period of intensive growth and change in nearly all
aspects of a child‟s physical, mental, social and emotional life. Adolescence has
been described by Stanley Hall as „the period of storm and stress of human life‟. It is
a very crucial period of one‟s life which covers roughly from 12-18/19+ years. The
most important fact about adolescence is that it is a period of transition from
childhood to adulthood. Transition from one period to another always is associated
with some problems. Adolescence is not an exception and it is also associated with
some problems.

The purpose of this unit is to familiarise us with the Adolescence stage, the
concepts, its important characteristics, the theories about adolescence stage, issues
concerning on the Filipino adolescents and the teaching and learning implication of
such topic.
 Concepts

Adolescence (from Latin: adolescere meaning "to grow up")- is a transitional stage of
physical and psychological human development generally occurring during the period
from puberty to legal adulthood (age of majority).

Biogenetic- The supposed recurrence of the evolutionary stages of a species during

the embryonic development and differentiation of a member of that species.

Commitment- refers to the degree of personal investment the individual expresses in

an occupation or belief

Crisis - refers to times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively
involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs.

Foreclosure- when a commitment is made without exploring alternatives. Often these

commitments are based on parental ideas and beliefs that are accepted without
question.

Geistesswissenschaftliche Psychologie- humanistic psychology

Identity Achievement- status of individuals who have typically experienced a crisis,

undergone identity explorations and made commitments.

Identity Diffusion -adolescents unable to face the necessity of identity development

avoid exploring or making commitments by remaining in an amorphous state of identity
diffusion, something which may produce social isolation.

Masturbation- is the sexual stimulation of one's own genitals, usually to the point of
orgasm. The stimulation can be performed using the hands, fingers, everyday objects,
or dedicated sex toys.

Menarche- (/mɨˈnɑrkiː/ mə-nar-kee; Greek: μήν mēn "moon" + ἀρχή arkhē "beginning")-
is the first menstrual cycle, or first menstrual bleeding, in female humans. From both
social and medical perspectives, it is often considered the central event of female
puberty, as it signals the possibility of fertility.
Menstruation- is the periodic discharge of blood and mucosal tissue (the endometrium)
from the uterus and vagina. It starts at menarche at or before sexual maturity
(maturation), in females of certain mammalian species, and ceases at or near
menopause (commonly considered the end of a female's reproductive life).

Moratorium- is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis, whose
commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined, but who are actively
exploring alternatives.

Nocturnal Emission or wet dream- is a type of spontaneous orgasm, involving either

erection and/or ejaculation during sleep for a male, or lubrication of the vagina for a
female.
Postpubescent- occurring in or pertaining to the period following puberty.

Prepubescent- before puberty; pertaining to the period of accelerated growth preceding

gonadal maturity.

Psychoanalysis- is a psychological and psychotherapeutic theory which has its roots in

the ideas of the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud.

Puberty- is the process of physical changes by which a child's body matures into an
adult body capable of sexual reproduction to enable fertilisation. It is initiated by
hormonal signals from the brain to the gonads; the ovaries in a girl, the testes in a boy.

Pubescence- The quality or state of being pubescent, or of having arrived at puberty.

Secondary sex characteristics- are features that distinguish the two sexes of a
species, but that are not directly part of the reproductive system. They are believed to
be the product of sexual selection for traits which give an individual an advantage over
its rivals in courtship and aggressive interactions.

Somatopsychology- is the study of the psychological impact of a disease or disability."

Spermarche refers to the beginning of development of sperm in boys' testicles at

puberty. The first ejaculatory experience of boys is termed semenarche; it contrasts with
menarche in girls.

Sturm and Drang (literally, storm and stress) - refers to how a teenager has conflicts
with their parents, participates in risky behavior, and mood swings.
Characteristics
Of Adolescence
period
 Cognitive (Changes in thinking; Formal operations)

 Physical/ Motor (Biological Changes; Changes in Appearance)

 Social (Change in Nature of Friendship; Dating; Sexual Activity)

 Emotional (Changes in Self- Concept)

 Moral (Moral Reasoning)

 Cognitive (Changes in thinking;
Formal operations)

Adolescence marks the beginning development of

more complex thinking processes (also called
formal logical operations) including abstract
thinking (thinking about possibilities), the ability to
reason from known principles (form own new ideas
or questions), the ability to consider many points of
view according to varying criteria (compare or
debate ideas or opinions), and the ability to think
about the process of thinking.

 They start to think differently.

 The biggest cognitive leap forward is that teens will begin thinking abstractly
about things in ways that children simply cannot do. Because they can start to
think abstractly, teens will begin to be able to consider multiple points of view,
conduct reasoning from principles and ponder a full range of possibilities.
 On a practical level, this means that teens will start to challenge adults more as
they begin to learn to reason, argue and respond. They should also become
better able to forecast and consider the consequences of actions before those
actions occur.
 Teens have these new problem-solving capabilities without life experience or
context. So while teens can better understand and try to forecast consequences,
they likely don‘t have enough experience to forecast them accurately yet.
 Teens‘ abilities to question and ponder will also lead them to start to question
their own identity.
 They will begin to understand that they play different roles to different people,
such as child, sibling, student, athlete, etc. Testing out new identities is a typical
and necessary part of adolescence.
 In early adolescence, you‘ll notice teens begin to question authority and express
personal opinions about their own life.
 Once in the middle of adolescence, teens will then begin start to think about the
future, start making goals and become more involved in forging their identity.
 In late adolescence, teens will start forming firm opinions about external issues,
often quite idealistically. Their lack of context and experience will tend to make
them fairly intolerant of opposing views.
  They will also begin to explore what their identity will be once they reach
adulthood.

Physical/ Motor (Biological Changes;

Changes in Appearance)

When children hit puberty, their bodies produce

certain hormones which cause physical changes. Some
of these changes include an increase in height and
weight, and the development of hair under the arms and
around the genitals, pimples and even body odour. These
physical changes are caused by hormones produced by
the body, such as oestrogen and testosterone. However,
because of the different levels of testosterone and
oestrogen found in the two genders – more testosterone
in boys and more oestrogen in girls – boys and girls
undergo different physical changes.

Females:

 Skin becomes oily, sometimes with pimples and acne

 Hair grows under arms, pubic area, legs
 Breasts grow
 Hips broaden, weight and height increase, hands, feet, arms, and legs become
larger
 Perspiration increases and body odour may appear
 Voice deepens
 Menstruation begins, more wetness in the vaginal area.
 Menarche

Males
 Skin becomes oily, sometimes with pimples and acne
 Hair grows under arms, pubic areas, legs, chest, face
 Muscles especially in legs and arms get bigger and stronger
 Shoulders and chest broaden, weight and height increase, hands, feet, arms and
legs become larger
 Perspiration increases and body odour may appear
 Voice cracks and then deepens
 Penis and testicles grow and begin to hang down
 Wet dreams and erection occur frequently
 Ejaculation occurs during sexual climax.
 Spermarche

Social (Change in Nature of

Friendship; Dating; Sexual Activity)

Adolescence is a time of rapid emotional and

social change. Many adolescents have concerns
about whether or not their experiences are normal.
Each person has his or her own "maturation
schedule," which is normal for him or her. Families
and communities can provide the information and
support adolescents need to make a successful
transition from childhood to adulthood.
Because adolescence is a critical time of
emotional and social development, adolescents
have an opportunity to learn crucial interpersonal
skills. Alcohol and other drugs, which impair the
developmental process, should be avoided by
adolescents.

 Feelings are strong and change quickly.

 Friendships become more important.
 They have stronger feelings of wanting to be liked and to "fit in."
 They sometimes feel lonely and confused.
 They want more independence.
 They become more interested in sex.
 Being interested in a boyfriend or girlfriend.
 Concern for the future increases.
 Concerns about appearance increase.
 Intense self-focus. (Worrying about what others think about them. Increased
desire for privacy and sensitivity about body.)
 Frequent mood swings with changes in activities and contexts. Too much time
spent alone can contribute to moodiness.
 Height of forgetfulness.
 For some, increased ability to empathize with others; greater vulnerability to
worrying, depression, and concern for others, especially among girls.
 Many show an increase in responsible behaviors.
 Emotional (Changes in Self-
Concept)

As adolescents grow physically they

also think and feel differently. Some of these
changes in the way they think are a
consequence of growing older and learning
more about the world and the way other people
think and behave. But changes in the way they
feel are more likely to be a consequence of the
hormonal changes in their bodies. These
changed feelings can often be a source of
confusion and unhappiness.

EARLY ADOLESCENCE (ages 11-14)

 Self-image can be challenged by body changes during puberty and social
comparisons.
 Youth begin long-term process of establishing own identity separate from family.
 With the onset of puberty, many girls experience pressure to conform to gender
stereotypes, might show less interest in math and science.
 With puberty, normal increases in girls' body fat can impact body image and self-
concept negatively for many. Both boys and girls might be concerned with skin
problems, height, weight, and overall appearance.

MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (ages 15-18)

 Process of identity formation is intense. Experimentation with different roles:
looks, sexuality, values, friendships, ethnicity, and especially occupations.
 Some girls might experience obsessive dieting or eating disorders, especially
those who have higher body fat, are chronically depressed, or who have highly
conflicted family relationships.
 Minority youths might explore several patterns of identity formation:
* a strong ethnic identity
* bi-cultural identity
 * assimilation into the majority culture
* alienation from the majority culture

Moral Development (Moral

Reasoning)

Moral development in adolescents

includes both a nurturing facet and a nature
facet. Some of the moral development occurs
as the adolescent watches others around him.
However, a nurturing environment can still
yield an adolescent who is lacking in moral
development. This is because a child's own
autonomy plays a large role in moral
development.

EARLY ADOLESCENCE (ages 11-14)

 Continuing egocentrism. Often believes self to be invulnerable to negative
events.

 Increasing ability to take perspective of others into account with own perspective.

 In addition to concern about gaining social approval, morals begin to be based on

respect for the social order and agreements between people: "law and order"
morality.

 Begins to question social conventions and re-examine own values and

moral/ethical principles, sometimes resulting in conflicts with parents.

MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (ages 15-18)

 Less egocentric with age. Increased emphasis on abstract values and moral
principles.
  Increased ability (for some) to take another's perspective; can see the bigger
societal picture and might value moral principles over laws: "principled" morality.

 Different rates of cognitive and emotional development. For example, often

advocates for specific values and violates them at the same time.

Theories
on
Adolescence
Adolescence is a developmental transition between childhood and
adulthood. It is the period from puberty until full adult status has been
attained. In our society, adolescence is a luxury. It is reported that the real
reason there is the developmental period of adolescence was to delay
young people from going into the workforce, due to the scarcity of jobs.
There are also varying views on the actual time line of adolescence-
especially about when it ends. Typically, we view adolescence beginning
at puberty and ending at 18 or 21 years. Others suggest that there is a
period of late adolescence that extends well into what is now known as the
period of young adulthood.
 G. Stanley Hall's
Biogenetic Psychology of
Adolescence

Founder: Granville Stanley Hall (February 1, 1844 – April 24, 1924)

-a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on
childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the
American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University. He was
the first psychologist to advance a psychology of adolescence in its own right and to use
scientific methods to study them. He defined this period to begin at puberty at about 12
or 13 years, and end late, between 22 years to 25 years of age.

Idea:
 Begin at puberty at about 12 or 13 years, and end late, between 22 years to 25
years of age.
 Adolescence as a period of Sturm und Drang," -- storm and stress."
 According to Hall's analogy and expansion of Darwin's concept of biological
"evolution." into a psychological theory of recapitulation, adolescence
corresponds to a time when the human race was in a turbulent transitional stage.
(Muuss, 1975, pp.33-35) In this theory, Hall stated that the experiential history of
the human species had become part of the genetic structure of each individual.
 Energy, exaltation, and supernatural activity are followed by indifference,
lethargy, and loathing.
 Exuberant gaiety, laughter, and euphoria make place for dysphoria. depressive
gloom, and melancholy.
 Egoism, vanity, and conceit are just as characteristic of this period of life as are
abasement, humiliation, and bashfulness.
 Adolescent characteristics contained both the remnants of an uninhibited childish
selfishness and an increasing idealistic altruism. The qualities of goodness and
virtue are never so pure, but never again does temptation preoccupy the
adolescent's thinking. Hall described the adolescenct as wanting solitude and
seclusion, while he finds himself entangled in crushes and friendships.
 During this stage of development, there also is a yearning for idols and authority
that does not exclude a revolutionary radicalism directed against any kind of
authority.
  In late adolescence, according to Hall, the individual recapitulates the state of the
beginning of modern civilization. This stage corresponds to the end of the
developmental process: maturity. Hall's genetic psychology did not see the
human being as the final and finished product of the developmental process; it
allowed for indefinite further development (Muuss, 1975, p.35-36).

Sigmund Freud and the

Psychoanalytic Theory of
Adolescent Development

Founder: Sigmund Freud (Born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23

September 1939)
An Austrian neurologist who became known as the founding father of
psychoanalysis. Freud paid relatively little attention to adolescent development only to
discuss it in terms of psychosexual development. He shared a common idea with that of
Hall's evolutionary theory : that the period of adolescence could be seen as
phylogenetic.

Idea:
 According to Freud and psychoanalytic theory, the stages of psychosexual
development are genetically determined and are relatively independent of
environmental factors (Muuss, 1975, p.38).
 Freud believed that adolescence was a universal phenomenon and included
behavioral, social and emotional changes; not to mention the relationships
between the physiological and psychological changes, and the influences on the
self-image.
 He also stated that the physiological changes are related to emotional changes,
especially an increase in negative emotions, such as moodiness, anxiety,
loathing, tension and other forms of adolescent behavior.
 Freud believed that adolescence is fraught with internal struggle. He viewed the
pre-adolescent "latency" period as a time when the child develops a balance
between the ego and id. Upon entering the "genital" phase of adolescence, the
child is bombarded with instinctual impulses that disrupt this balance. The ego is
torn between the strong impulses of the id and the restrictions of the superego.
This conflict makes adolescence a time of tremendous stress and turmoil.

Opposition:
 Karl Popper, who argued that all proper scientific theories must be potentially
falsifiable, claimed that Freud's psychoanalytic theories were presented in
unfalsifiable form, meaning that no experiment could ever disprove them.Adolf
Grünbaum has maintained, in opposition to Popper, that many of Freud's
 theories are empirically testable. Whilst in agreement with Grünbaum regarding
Popper, Donald Levy rejects Grünbaum's argument that therapeutic success is
the empirical basis on which Freud‘s theories stand or fall in that it rests on a
―false dichotomy between intra- and extraclinical evidence‖.In his wider
consideration of and response to philosophical critics of Freud‘s scientific
credibility Levy argues for the importance of clinical case material and the
concepts related to it, notably resistance and transference, in establishing the
evidentiary status of Freud's work.

Anna Freud's Theory of

Adolescent Defense
Mechanism

Founder: Ana Freud

Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of
Sigmund Freud and Martha Bernays. Born in Vienna, she followed the path of her father
and contributed to the newly born field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Melanie Klein, she
may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology: as her father put it,
child analysis 'had received a powerful impetus through "the work of Frau Melanie Klein
and of my daughter, Anna Freud"'.Compared to her father, her work emphasized the
importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially.

Idea:

 She believes that the physiological process of sexual maturation, beginning with
the functioning of the sexual glands, plays a critical role in influencing the
psychological realm. This interaction results in the instinctual reawakening of the
libidinal forces, which, in turn, can bring about psychological disequilibrium. The
painfully established balance between ego and id during the latency period is
disturbed by puberty, and internal conflict results. Thus, one aspect of puberty,
the puberty conflict, is the endeavor to regain equilibrium (Muuss, 1975, p.43).
 Among the many defense mechanisms the ego can use, Freud considered two
as typical of pubescence: asceticism and intellectualization. Asceticism is due to
a generalized mistrust of all instinctual wishes. This mistrust goes far beyond
sexuality and includes eating, sleeping, and dressing habits. The increase in
intellectual interests and the change from concrete to abstract interests are
accounted for in terms of a defense mechanism against the libido. This naturally
brings about a crippling of the instinctual tendencies in adult life, and again the
situation is "permanently injurious to the individual" (A. Freud, 1948, p.164).
 Anna Freud believes the factors involved in adolescent conflict are:

 The strength of the id impulse, which is determined by physiological and

endocrinological processes during pubescence.
  The ego's ability to cope with or to yield to the instinctual forces. This in turn
depends on the character training and superego development of the child during
the latency period.

 The effectiveness and nature of the defense mechanism at the disposal of the
ego.

Otto Rank's Emphasis on the

Adolescent Need for
Independence

Founder: Otto Rank (April 22, 1884 – October 31, 1939)

An Austrian psychoanalyst, writer, and teacher. Born in Vienna as Otto
Rosenfeld, he was one of Sigmund Freud's closest colleagues for 20 years, a prolific
writer on psychoanalytic themes, an editor of the two most important analytic journals,
managing director of Freud's publishing house and a creative theorist and therapist. In
1926, Otto Rank left Vienna for Paris. For the remaining 14 years of his life, Rank had a
successful career as a lecturer, writer and therapist in France and the U.S. (Lieberman
& Kramer, 2012).

Idea:

 Rank saw human nature not as repressed and neurotic, but as creative and
productive. He criticized Freud's emphasis on the unconscious as a storehouse
for past experiences and impulses. Rank pointed out that the past is of
importance only to the degree that it acts in the present to influence behavior.
He also places less emphasis on instinctual forces and instinctual behavior. He
believed that Freud actually neglected the role of the ego and gave value to it
only as a repressive force. Rank wanted to restore the balance of power in the
psychic realm (Muuss, 1975, p.47).

 Rank stated that there must be an examination of the place that adolescent
development has in this psychoanalytic theory based on consciousness and
"will." Sexuality is no longer the strongest determining factor in the
developmental process. It has found its counterpart in "will," which can to some
degree, control sexuality. It is during the shift from childhood to adolescence that
a crucial aspect of personailty development occurs - the change from
dependence to independence (Muuss, 1975, p.47).
  During the latency period, the "will" grows stronger, more independent, and
expands to the point where it turns against any authority not of its own choosing.
The actual origin of the "will" goes further back into the oedipal situation. It is
here that the individual will encounters a social will, represented by parents and
expressed in a moral code centuries old (Muuss, 1975, p 47).

 Rank sees no necessity for external sexual restrictions and inhibitions, since the
struggle is one in which the individual's will strives for independence against
domination by biological needs. (Muuss, 1975, p.48).

Erik Erikson's Theory of

Identity Development

Founder: Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994)

A German-born American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known
for his theory on psychosocial development of human beings. He may be most famous
for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American
sociologist.
Although Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he served as a professor at
prominent institutions such as Harvard and Yale.

Idea:

 The core concept of Erikson's theory is the acquisition of an ego-identity, and the
identity crisis is the most essential characteristic of adolescence. Although a
person's identity is established in ways that differ from culture to culture, the
accomplishment of this developmental task has a common element in all
cultures. In order to acquire a strong and healthy ego-identity the child must
receive consistent and meaningful recognition of his achievements and
accomplishments (Muuss, 1975, p.55).
 Adolescence is described by Erikson as the period during which the individual
must establish a sense of personal identity and avoid the dangers of role
diffusion and identity confusion (Erikson, 1950).
 The search for an identity involves the production of a meaningful self-concept in
which past, present, and future are linked together.
 Pubescence, according to Erikson, is characterized by rapidity of body growth,
genital maturity, and sexual awareness.
 The search for a personal identity also includes the formation of a personal
ideology or a philosophy of life that can serve to orient the individual. Such a
perspective aids in making choices and guiding behavior. A personal identity
influences the adolescent for the rest of their life. If the adolescent bows out and
adopts someone else' identity or ideology, it is often less satisfactory than
 developing their own. The adopted ideology rarely becomes personal and can
lead to foreclosure in adolescent development.
 If the adolescent fails in his search for an identity, he will experience self-doubt,
role diffusion, and role confusion; and the adolescent may indulge in self-
destructive one-sided preoccupation or activity. Such an adolescent may
continue to be morbidly preoccupied with what others think of them, or may
withdraw and no longer care about themselves and others. This leads to ego
diffusion, personality confusion and can be found in the delinquent and in
psychotic personality disorganization. In its most severe cases, according to
Erikson, identity diffusion can lead to suicide or suicide attempts.

James Marcia's Extension of

Erikson's Concept: Identity
Status

Founder: James E. Marcia

A clinical and developmental psychologist. He has held professorships in US and
Canadian universities, and is currently an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Simon
Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada. He is also active in clinical private
practice, clinical psychology supervision, community consultation, and international
clinical-developmental research and teaching.

Idea:
 According to Marcia, the criteria for the attainment of a mature identity are based
on two essential variables: crisis and commitment. "Crisis refers to times during
adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing
among alternative occupations and beliefs." "Commitment refers to the degree of
personal investment the individual expresses in an occupation or belief" (Marcia,
1967, p. 119).
 Marcia interviewed students ages 18 to 22 years about their occupational
choices, religious and political beliefs, and values --all central aspects of identity.

 The four categories of identity statuses as defined by Marcia are as follows:

 Identity diffused or identity confused. Individuals who had not yet

experienced an identity crisis, nor made any commitment to a vocation or
set of beliefs.

 Foreclosure. Individuals who have not experienced crisis, but has made
commitments, however, these commitments are not the result of his own
searching and exploring, but they are handed to him, ready-made, by
others, frequently his parents.
  Moratorium. Individuals who are in an acute state of crisis. They are
exploring and actively searching for alternatives, and struggling to find
their identity; but have not yet made any commitment or have only
developed very temporary kinds of commitment.

 Identity Achieved. Individuals who have experienced crises but have

resolved them on their own terms, and as a result of the resolution of the
crisis had made a personal commitment to an occupation, a religious
belief, a personal value system; and, has resolved their attitude toward
sexuality.

Eduard Spranger's
Geisteswissenschaftliche Theory
of Adolescence

Founder: Eduard Spranger (1882-1963)

A late professor of psychology at the University of Berlin. Geisteswissenschaft is
translated as "cultural science" or "historical humanities." Allport translates it as "mental
science." Spranger used the synonym "philosophy of culture." (Muuss, 1975, p.85).

Idea:

 According to Spranger, the himself does not fully experience the meaning of his
own development. Many of the phenomena of consciousness have a purposeful
meaning only if one learns to understand them as developmental phenomena.
Adolescence is not only the transition period from childhood to physiological
maturity, but - more important - it is the age during which the relatively
undifferentiated mental structure of the child reaches full maturity. During
adolescence a more definite and lasting hierarchy of values is established.
According to him, the "dominant value direction" of the individual is the profound
determiner of personality (Spranger, 1928).

 Spranger describes three developmental patterns:

 The first pattern described by Spranger is experienced as a form of rebirth

in which the individual sees himself as another person when he reaches
maturity. Like G. Stanley Hall, Spranger believes that this is a period of
storm, stress, strain, and crisis, and results in basic personality change. It
has much in common with a religious conversion, also emphasized by
Hall.
  The second pattern is a slow, continuous growth process and a gradual
acquisition of the cultural values and ideas held in the society, without a
basic personality change.

 The third pattern is a growth process in which the individual actively

participates. The youth consciously improves himself and contributes to
his own development, overcoming obstacles and crises by his own
energetic and goal-directed efforts. This pattern is characterized by self-
control and self-discipline, which Spranger related to a personality type
that is striving for power (Muuss, 1975, p.88).

Margaret Mead’s Theory of

Adolescence

Founder: Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 – November 15, 1978)

An American cultural anthropologist, who was frequently a featured writer and
speaker in the mass media throughout the 1960s and 1970s.She earned her bachelor
degree at Barnard College in New York City, and her M.A. and Ph.D. degrees from
Columbia University.

Idea:

 Mead wrote 2 books that relevant to a discussion of adolescence: Coming of

Age in Samoa (1950) and Growing Up in New Guinea (1953). The first book is
devoted entirely to the adolescent period.
 Rapidity of social change, exposure to various secular and religious value
systems, and modern technology make the world appear to the adolescent too
complex, too relativistic, too unpredictable, and too ambiguous to provide him
with a stable frame of reference (Muuss, 1975, p.111).
 In the past, there was a period which both Erikson and Mead called a
"psychological moratorium," an "as if" period during which youth could tentatively
experiment without being asked to show " success" and without final emotional,
economic, or social consequences. The loss of such a period of uncommitted
experimentation, during which youth can find itself makes it difficult to establish
ego-identity. As a substitute, for psychological identity, youth utilizes peer group
symbols to establish a semi-identity of deprived and/or semi criminal groups.
 Mead does advocate greater freedom for the adolescent and less conformity to
family, peer and community expectations to allow the adolescent to realize his
creative potential. She states, "we can attempt to alter out whole culture, and
especially our child-rearing patterns, so as to incorporate within them a greater
freedom for and expectation of variations" (Mead, 1951, p.185 as cited in Muuss,
1975, p.112).
  Mead also criticizes the American family for its too intimate organization and its
crippling effect on the emotional life of the growing youth. She believes that too
strong family ties handicap the individual in his ability to live his own life and
make his own choices.
 Ruth Benedict's theory of continuities and discontinuities in cultural conditioning
has important educational implications according to Muuss (1975). Our
educational practices at home as well as in school should emphasize continuity
in the learning process so that the child becomes conditioned to the same set of
values and behavior in childhood that will be expected from him in adulthood.
The child should be taught nothing that he will have to unlearn in order to
become a mature adult.

Leta Hollingworth's Emphasis

on the Continuity of
Development

Founder: Leta Hollingworth (née Leta Anna Setter 25 May 1886 Dawes County,
Nebraska — 27 November 1939 New York City)
A famous psychologist who conducted pioneering work in the early 20th century.
It is generally agreed upon that Hollingworth made significant contributions in three
areas: psychology of women; clinical psychology; and educational psychology.She is
best known for her work with exceptional children.

Idea:

 An influential theory of development has been espoused by Leta Hollingworth

(1886-1939) in her book, The Psychology of the Adolescent (1928).
 It is reported that she was even more pronounced than were Mead and Benedict
in her attack on Hall's idea of adolescence as a period of "storm and stress." She
dismissed his works as of little scientific or practical value. Her views were
influenced by the work of cultural anthropologists (Muuss, 1975, p.113).

 Hollingworth emphasized the idea of continuity of development and the

gradualness of change during the adolescent period. She indicates that "the
child grows by imperceptible degrees into the adolescent, and the adolescent
turns by gradual degrees into the adult" (Hollingworth, 1928,p.1, as cited in
Muuss, 1975, p.113).
 She challenged the idea that there were distinct stages and sharp dividing lines
among the different "epochs," "stages", and "phases of development."
  She also asserted that the sudden change in social status that results from
puberty initiation rites and ceremonies of primitive people has become confused
with the biological changes of organic development.

 She believed that there is no connection between the biological changes and the
changes in social status. She attributes these changes to social institutions and
ceremonies only (Muuss, 1975, p.114).

Kurt Lewin: Field Theory and

Adolescence

Founder: Kurt Lewin (1890-1947)

A pupil of the early Gestalt school of psychologists at the University of Berlin. He
was influenced by Freud's psychoanalytic theory, specifically as it relates to motivation.
But Lewin's theory on adolescence is conceptually different from other theories. His
theory on adolescent development is explicitly stated in "Field Theory and Experiment in
Social Psychology" (1939). His field theory explains and describes the dynamics of
behavior of the individual adolescent without generalizing about adolescents as a group.
His constructs help to describe and explain, and predict the behavior of a given
individual in a specific situation. In a sense, the field theory of adolescence is
expressed explicitly and stated more formally than other theories of adolescent
development.

Idea:

 Lewin makes explicit his position: "the psychological influence of environment on

the behavior and development of the child is extremely important" (Lewin,
1935,p.94); "psychology in general [is regarded] as a field of biology" (Lewin,
1935, p.35).

 Fundamental to Lewin's theory of development is the view that adolescence is a

period of transition in which the adolescent must change his group membership.

 The adolescent is in a state of "social locomotion," since he is moving into an

unstructured social and psychological field.
  During adolescence changes in body structure, body experience, and new body
sensations and urges are more drastic so that even the well-known life space of
the body image becomes less familiar, unreliable, and unpredictable.

 According to Lewin, there are also cultural differences in adolescent behavior.

He attributes these differences to several factors: the ideologies, attitudes, and
values that are recognized and emphasized; the way in which different activities
are seen as related or unrelated (for example, religion and work are more closely
related in Mennonite society than in American society as a whole); and, the
varying length of the adolescent period from culture to culture and from social
class to social class within a culture.

Roger Barker's
Somatopsychological Theory of
Adolescence

Founder: Roger Garlock Barker (1903, Macksburg, Iowa – 1990, Oskaloosa,

Kansas)

A social scientist, a founder of environmental psychology and a leading figure in

the field for decades, perhaps best known for his development of the concept of
behavior settings. Barker earned his PhD from Stanford University and spent two years
studying with Kurt Lewin. In the 1940s Barker and his associate Herbert Wright from the
University of Kansas in Lawrence set up the Midwest Psychological Field Station station
in the nearby town of Oskaloosa, Kansas, a town of fewer than 2000 people. Barker's
team gathered empirical data in Oskaloosa from 1947 through 1972, consistently
disguising the town as 'Midwest, Kansas' for publications like "One Boy's Day" (1952)
and "Midwest and Its Children" (1955).

Idea:

 Roger Barker and others expanded and elaborated Lewin's theory of adolescent
development in "Somatopsychological Significance of Physical Growth in
Adolescence" (1953, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p.130). He uses the field theory to
illustrate the effects of physiological changes on behavior during adolescence.

 According to Barker body dimensions, physique, and endocrinological changes

occur at an accelerated speed during adolescence as compared to the
preadolescent years. As a result, some corresponding psychological situations
occur.
  First, "new psychological situations" arise during adolescence; and second,
experiential psychological situations will take place in which "overlapping of the
psychological field" occurs.

 According to Barker, in the US, the child group is clearly separated from the adult
group, for whom different forms of behavior are accepted.

 Children have a social position equivalent to that of a minority group; this

increases the difficulty of moving from one group to the other.

 The possibility of moving from one social group to the other is determined
informally by one's physique: looking like an adult makes it easier to get adult
privileges (Muuss, 1975, p.132).

Allison Davis: Adolescence and

Socialized Anxiety

Founder: William Boyd Allison Davis (October 14, 1902 – November 21, 1983)
An educator, anthropologist, writer, researcher, and scholar. He was considered
one of the most promising black scholars of his generation, and became the first
African-American to hold a full faculty position at a major white university when he
joined the staff of the University of Chicago in 1942, where he would spend the balance
of his academic life. Among his students during his tenure at the University of Chicago
were anthropologist St. Clair Drake and sociologist Nathan Hare.

Idea:

 Allison Davis defines "socialization" as the process by which an individual learns

and adapts the ways, ideas, beliefs, values, and norms of his culture and makes
them part of his personality. He sees development as a continuous process of
learning socially acceptable behavior by means of reinforcement and
punishment. Acceptable and unacceptable behavior are defined by each
society, or its socializing agents, the subgroups, social classes, or castes.
Cultural behavior is acquired through social learning. Understanding the effects
of social learning on adolescents is the crucial issue in Davis' theory (Muuss,
1975, p. 139).

 Socialized anxiety serves as a motivating and reinforcing agent in the

socialization process: it brings about "anticipation of discomfort" and becomes a
behavior-controlling mechanism. It is Davis' hypothesis that the effective
socialization of adolescent behavior is dependent upon the amount of adaptive
or socialized anxiety that has been implanted in an individual. If an individual's
 socialized anxiety becomes strong enough, it will serve as an impetus toward
mature, responsible, normal behavior. It is implied that if socialized anxiety is too
weak or too strong, the attainment of mature behavior is less likely (Muuss,
1975, p. 140).

 The goals of socialization differ from culture to culture and from social class to
social class within a culture.

 It is the characteristic of middle-class youth that his social anxiety increases with
the onset of adolescence, since he faces new developmental and behavioral
tasks, such as preparation for work and heterosexual adjustment.

Robert Havighurst's
Developmental Tasks of
Adolescence

Founder: Robert James Havighurst (June 5, 1900 in De Pere, Wisconsin – January

31, 1991 in Richmond, Indiana)
A professor, physicist, educator, and aging expert. Both his father, Freeman
Alfred Havighurst, and mother, Winifred Weter Havighurst, had been educators at
Lawrence University. Havighurst worked and published well into his 80s. According to
his family, Havighurst died of Alzheimer's disease at the age of 90.

Idea:

 According to Robert Havighurst, developmental tasks are defined as skills,

knowledge, functions, and attitudes an individual has to acquire at a certain point
in his or her life; they are acquired through physical maturation, social
expectations, and personal efforts. Successful mastery of these tasks will result
in adjustment and will prepare the individual for the harder tasks ahead. Failure
in a given developmental task will result in a lack of adjustment, increased
anxiety, social disapproval, and the inability to handle the more difficulty tasks to
come (Muuss, 1975, p. 141).

 Each task is the prerequisite for the next one. For some of these tasks, there is a
biological basis and consequently, there is a definite time limit within which a
specific task must be accomplished. The inability to master a task within its time
limit may make later learning of that task more difficult, if not impossible.

 The developmental tasks for adolescence (from about 12 to 18 years) are:

  Accepting one's physique and accepting a masculine or feminine role.
 New relations with age-mates of both sexes.
 Emotional independence of parents and other adults.
 Achieving assurance of economic independence.
 Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
 Developing intellectual skills and concepts necessary for civic
competence.
 Desiring and achieving socially responsible behavior.
 Preparing for marriage and family life.
 Building conscious values in harmony with an adequate scientific world-
picture.
(Havighurst, 1951,pp.30-55, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p.142)

Jean Piaget's Cognitive

Theory of Adolescent
Development

Founder: Jean Piaget (French: [ʒɑ pjaʒɛ]; 9 August 1896 – 17 September 1980)
A Swiss developmental psychologist and philosopher known for his
epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and
epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".

Idea:

 Jean Piaget began to look at the period of adolescent development later in his
career with the publication of The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to
Adolescence (with B. Inhelder, 1958).

 Piaget outlines the developmental stages in cognitive development. He

discusses the concept of egocentrism in development. The first and most
pronounced period of egocentrism occurs toward the end of the sensorimotor
stage. The second burst of egocentrism appears toward the end of the
preoperational stage and is reflected in a "lack of differentiation both between
ego's and alter's point of view, between the subjective and the objective.

 "The adolescent not only tries to adapt his ego to his social environment but, just
as emphatically, tries to adjust the environment to his ego" (Inhelder and Piaget,
1958, p.343, as cited in Muuss, 1975,p. 186).
  The adolescent can not only think beyond the present, but can analytically reflect
about their own thinking.

 The adolescent thinker can leave the real objective world behind and enter the
world of ideas. They are able to control events in their mind through logical
deductions of possibilities and consequences. Even the direction of his thought
processes change.

 Formal operations allow the adolescent to combine propositions and to isolate

variables in order to confirm or disprove his hypothesis. He no longer needs to
think in terms of objects or concrete events, but can carry out operations of
symbols in his mind (Muuss, 1975, p.193).

Lawrence Kohlberg's Cognitive-

Developmental Approach to
Adolescent Morality

Founder: Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)

A psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He
served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at
the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University. Even though it was considered
unusual in his era, he decided to study the topic of moral judgment, extending Jean
Piaget's account of children's moral development from twenty-five years earlier. In fact,
it took Kohlberg five years before he was able to publish an article based on his views.
Kohlberg's work reflected and extended not only Piaget's findings but also the theories
of philosophers G.H. Mead and James Mark Baldwin. At the same time he was creating
a new field within psychology: "moral development". Scholars such as Elliot Turiel and
James Rest have responded to Kohlberg's work with their own significant contributions.
In an empirical study by Haggbloom et al. using six criteria, such as citations and
recognition, Kohlberg was found to be the 30th most eminent psychologist of the 20th
century.

Idea:

 For Kohlberg, cognitive development precedes moral development. Morality is an

idea of justice that is primitive, undifferentiated, and social as the adolescent
moves through specific stages of moral thinking.
  In some individuals, it may reach an awareness of universal values and ethical
principles.

 Kohlberg distinguishes three basic levels of moral development: the

preconventional or premoral level; the conventional level; and the
postcoventional or autonomous level.

 Morality is an idea of justice that is primitive, undifferentiated, and egocentric in

young children. This becomes more sophisticated and social as the adolescent
moves through specific stages of moral thinking; it may reach, in some
individuals, an awareness of universal values and ethical principles (Muuss,
1975, p.311).

Social Learning
Perspectives on Adolescent
Development

Founder: Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta, Canada)

A psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social
Science in Psychology at Stanford University. For almost six decades, he has been
responsible for contributions to many fields of psychology, including social cognitive
theory, therapy and personality psychology, and was also influential in the transition
between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social
learning theory and the theory of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential
1961 Bobo doll experiment.

Idea:

 Social learning theory talks about how both environmental and cognitive factors
interact to influence human learning and behavior. It focuses on the learning that
occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another,
including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling
(Abbott, 2007).

 Re: Modeling, Imitation and Identification: As children grow older they tend to
imitate different models from their social environment. The young child usually
identifies with his parents and attempts to imitate their behavior, including
language, gesture, and mannerism, as well as more basic attitudes and values.
Identification with his teacher is not uncommon for the child entering school or for
 the preadolescent. The child imitates speech patterns and mannerisms that he
has observed in the teacher (Muuss, 1975, p. 235).

 Ideas about social or community issues the child expresses in dinner

conversations and that are new to the family are often those of his teacher. With
the onset of adolescence parents and teachers frequently decline as important
models, at least in regard to issues and choices that are of immediate
consequences (Muuss, 1975, 235).

 During adolescence it is the peer group and selected entertainment heroes who
become increasingly important as models, especially if communication between
parents and adolescents break down. The adolescent peer group is particularly
influential as a model in the use of verbal expressions, hair style, clothing, food,
music and entertainment preferences, as well as in regard to decisions related to
rapidly changing social values (Brittain, 1963, as cited in Muuss, 1975, p.236).

Issues,
Concerns and
Problems during
Adolescence
Period
 Filipino Adolescent Sexual Debut and Sexual Practices
  Marriage during Adolescence

 Childbearing during Adolescence

 Contraceptive Use among Adolescents

 Contraception and Religion

 Reproductive Health Problems, Religion and Health Services

Utilization: the Youth Perspective

Filipino Adolescent Sexual

Debut and Sexual Practices

The 1994 YAFS discloses the following findings on the level and
patterns of premarital sex experience among the Filipino youth aged
15-24 years and the relationship between premarital sex and religion
(Raymundo and Berja, 1995; 1996; Xenos, Raymundo and Berja,
1999):

 Around 18 percent of the youth (26 percent of males and 10 percent of females) have
ever engaged in premarital sex;
 Among all females, about 21 percent have had ―serious relationships‖ or intimate
relationships. Among males 38.6 percent have had such relationships (Xenos,
Raymundo and
Berja, 1999: 39-40);
 Unsupervised homes are the most popular venue for sexual debut of the youth;
 Ten percent of first sex was without the girls‘ consent;
 As to timing of first premarital sex:

 At age 18, 22 percent of the boys but 8 percent of the girls have had sex;
 At age 21, 45 percent of the boys but 18 percent of the girls have had sex;

 Boys are more likely to have premarital sex if they are Catholics;
 Girls are more likely to have premarital sex if they are not religious; and
 The majority of the married youth population report that they began their unions either by
living-in or by elopement, still to be considered a premarital period if formal union is the
reference.
 In analyzing the same 1994 YAFS data, the AGI (2000) reveals that many Philippine
youth have sex by age 20 both within and outside of marriage. The rates differ for men and
women and by urban/rural residence.

Marriage during
Adolescence

Based on the 1998 NDS, the AGI (2000) discloses that

nationally, over one in four young women enter their first marriages
before age 20. However, over half of less educated women do so.
Close to half of young women in the Eastern Visayas and Central
Mindanao and Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao (ARMM)
combined also marry before age 20.
Today, fewer women marry in their teens compared to a generation ago whether they
reside in the rural or urban areas or in any of the major islands of the country. Among the less
educated however, there is no difference between the present and older generations. According
to the 1994 YAFS, one out of five Filipinos is married by age 19 and the rate of teen marriage
may be declining slightly from a decade earlier (Balk and Raymundo, 1999).
Childbearing during
Adolescence

Establishing the trend in age-specific fertility rates (ASFRs) for

women aged 15-19 from the 1993 and 1998 NDSs, fertility among
adolescent women declined by about 8 percent in the past five years, from
a rate of 50 per 1,000 women per year in 1993 to a rate of 46 per 1,000
women in 1998 (NSO and MI, 1999, Table 3.3, p. 36). AGI (2000) reveals
that two out of every ten young women have their first birth before age 20,
and four in ten do so among the less educated. More women today delay
childbearing past their teen years compared to a generation ago. The
reverse is true among less-educated women. Young women today
generally want smaller families.
Based on the 1994 YAFS (Balk and Raymundo, 1999), more than one quarter of
all women have begun childbearing by age 20. Rural women start childbearing at younger ages
than urban women. Less-educated women are more likely to bear children in their teenage
years than their better-educated counterparts.

Contraceptive Use
among Adolescents

The 1998 NDS discloses that contraceptive use,

especially of modern methods, is low among Philippine
teenagers irrespective of urban-rural residence, education and
region (AGI, 2000). About two out of five sexually active
adolescent women have an unmet need for contraception, again
irrespective of urban-rural residence, education and region
except Southern Tagalog showing about 60 percent level of unmet need.

Contraception and Religion

On the adolescents‘ attitudes towards the relationship between

contraception and religion, the 1994 YAFS also reveals the following
(Raymundo and Xenos (n.d.):

 The majority of them, including 67 percent of the Catholics,

think that their religion favors contraception;
 A significant portion – close to one third – of the youth in each
religious group also expect their future contraceptive behavior to be
influenced by the teachings of their religion; and
 Over 90 percent of the respondents in every group believe the
government should provide family planning service, and some 80 to
90 percent think it proper that these services also be provided to the youth.

Reproductive Health Problems, Religion

and Health Services Utilization: the Youth
Perspective

The main findings of the 1994 YAFS (Cruz and Berja, 1999:
58-69) on the prevailing reproductive health problems of young
Filipinos, the relationship between reproductive health problems and
religion, and the level of utilization of health services are:

 The majority (57.6 percent) of adolescents report ever experiencing a reproductive

health problem sometime in their life and 24.3 percent had at least one serious
problem;
 Women are more likely to have experienced any form of reproductive health problem
although most of these are not serious such as dysmenorrhea, diminished desire for
sex and irregular menstruation;
 While males are less likely to have reproductive health problems, they are more
likely to have experienced serious ones. The most common problem, affecting about
a fifth of males, is painful urination. This is followed by diminished desire for sex and
itching in the genital area which is indicative of bacterial infection. Other serious
problems reported although less prevalent include genital warts or ulcers, impotence,
and penile discharge. Less serious problems noted include diminished desire for sex,
premature ejaculation, delayed ejaculation, infection from circumcision, and inability
to have orgasm.
 Adolescents who are non-Catholics or more religious reported higher levels of
reproductive health problems;
 Among those who experienced serious reproductive health problems, males with
pre-marital sex (PMS) experience were more likely to utilize health services
 compared with males with no PMS experience. The reverse is true among the
females: those without PMS experience were more likely to utilize health services;
 Premarital sex patterns among Filipino youth generally indicate that once one gets
initiated to premarital sex, a ―repeat‖ either with the same partner or with another, is
most likely;
 Categorizing adolescents in terms of their reproductive health profile shows that less
than a third (31.2 percent) has a clean reproductive bill of health in the sense that
they have not yet experienced any reproductive health problem and have not
engaged in premarital sex. The greatest numbers are exposed to a reproductive
health problem (40.9 percent) which could precipitate the former. Almost one in five
(18.1 percent) reported that they were sexually active and had experienced some
form of reproductive health problem; and
 While at least 18 percent reported having experienced both premarital sex and
reproductive health problems, only five percent of the entire population had in fact
utilized such services.

And while only 1/3 is living healthy lives (i.e. no exposure to sexual activity and
reproductive health problems) almost twice as many (65 percent) claimed not to have
utilized any form of health service.

Teaching
and
Learning
Implications
Adolescence is a distinct stage that marks the transition between
childhood and adulthood. Adolescents are capable of abstract reasoning.
Although you may still include the family in education, adolescents
themselves are a major focus of teaching since they have considerable
independence and are, consequently, in more control of the degree to
which recommendations will be carried out. Adolescents have many
important developmental tasks to achieve. They are in the process of
forming their own identity, separating themselves from parents, and
adapting to rapidly changing bodies. Bodily changes at puberty may cause
a strong interest in bodily functions and appearance. Sexual adjustment
and a strong desire to express sexual urges become important.
Adolescents may have difficulty imagining that they can become sick or
injured. This may contribute to accidents due to risk taking or poor
compliance in following medical recommendations.

Implications to
Teaching

 Engage students in "active" endeavors and

hands-on learning.
 Give students considerable control over
their learning.
 Engage them in meaningful tasks and
encourage them to contribute.
 Students should have meaningful
interaction with adults through their learning
experiences.
 Teachers need to be aware of how outside
expectations, pressures, demands and
experiences affect their students. These outsinde
influences come from home, family, friends,
neighbors, peer groups, and communities. School
best benefits the adolescent when it works in
harmony with these other parts of students' environments.
 Teachers need to be aware of how different learning styles can be used as a way
to measure the "whole person" rather than the small part of intelligence
 represented by IQ tests. Teachers need to address as many of the intelligences
as possible through differentiated teaching.
 Teachers should use interactive methods of teaching such as hands on activities
and group work.
 Teachers should present students with challenges to increase problem solving
abilities.
 Teachers should frequently use a high level of language.
 Teachers should use scaffolding to increase students' cognitive abilities.
 Teachers must learn to interpret students' strengths and weaknesses-all in the
light of their growth process.
 Must determine a student's connection in experience to the new material to be
learned-and use these connections in teaching.
 Must make sure that this knowledge is "experienced" by students instead of
merely "learned."

Implications to
Learning

 Students should have some say in

what and how they learn.
 Students must take charge of their
learning experiences.
 Outside classroom experiences with
the adult world are vital in the learning process.
 Meaningful relationships with adults
will help students gain focus.
 School is one of the several
microsystems (immediate setting in which an
adolescent develops) that impacts the adolescent.
A microsystem enriches an individual when there
is a good balance of power and reciprocity.
Adolescents are also affected by many other
social, cultural and economic conditions, all of
which influence and are influenced by the school.
  Different people have different latural affinities for a style or approach. The
more aspects of the various intelligences are incorporated in presentation of
material, the more that can be learned and remembered.
 Students will learn best through activity.
 Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with self and with
teacher.
 Using a higher level of language will help students to increase their language
levels.
 Assisted problem solving creates learning.
 A child's developmental progress depends on the stimuli which surrounds him
or her-it must be that which helps them gain new experience.
 The stimuli must be connected to a student's previous knowledge and
experience.
 The quest for learning must be instrinsically motivated out of a sense of need.

Bibliography

Books:

Cole, L., Ph.D.(1942). Psychology of Adolescence, Revised Edition. New York

U.S.A: Farrar and Rinehart, Inc.

Hurlock, E.B, Ph.D (1942). Adolescent Development. New York, U.S.A:

McGraw-Hill Company, Inc.

Josselyn, I.M, M.D (1967). The adolescent and his world. 44 East 23rd St., New
York, U.S.A: Family Service Association of America

Mitchell, J.J (1975). The Adolescent Predicament. Toronto, Canada:

Holt,Rhinehart ND Winston of Canada, Ltd.

Online Reference
http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/teens_stages/

http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/develop.pdf

http://www.psyking.net/id183.htm

http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/topics/adolescence/dev/en/

“Adolescent Development”

Submitted by:

Group VI
Recomo, Angelo C.
Rodelas, Daisy
Ruiz, Julie Ann
Santos, Roa
Torres, Czar Lorenzo

Submitted to:

Ms. Zhanina Custodio