Introduction

Developmental psychology is the scientific study of progressive psychological changes that occur in
human beings as they age.

Originally concerned with infants and children, and later other periods of great change such as
adolescence and aging, it now encompasses the entire life span.

This field examines change across a broad range of topics including motor skills and other psycho-
physiological processes, problem solving abilities, conceptual understanding, acquisition of language,
moral understanding, and identity formation.

Theories of Developmental Psychology

Developmental psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the growth and maturation of a
person over time. This includes things such as physical, cognitive and social changes, and how each of
these affects us during the different stages of our life.

Child psychology is a subset of developmental psychology, and focuses on the stages of life from birth
to the beginning of adolescence (around age 12-13). Adolescent psychology is also a subset of
developmental psychology, and is concerned with development during early adolescence to our late
teenage years of life (13-19).

The reason why theories of developmental psychology are an important area of study is because all
adults are products of their childhood and the things they experienced during that
childhood. Therefore, by studying infants, children, and teenagers, developmental psychology theories
can help us to gain a better understanding of the adult mind.

In addition to this, developmental psychology also studies the changes that occur during adulthood,
which subsequently, allows to us understand the various factors that affect our behavior from birth to
death.

I. Biological Development
Whilst much of our behavior comes as a result of the things we learn and experience in life,
what underlines the type of behavior that we display is our biology, or more specifically, our
genetics.
For example, if a fertilized egg contains two X chromosomes (XX ), then the resulting
individual will be born a female. Should however, that egg contain an X and a Y
chromosome (XY), then that individual will be born a male. So right from the very start of
life our biology plays a hugely significant role in the type of behavior that we will display
throughout our entire life.
For example, if you are born a female, then you may like the color the pink and enjoy
playing with dolls. If you are born a male, then you may like the color blue and enjoy playing
with toy cars or action men.
Of course, I am stereotyping the sexes here, but this is only done to demonstrate how a
small difference in our biology (our chromosomal patterns) can result in us behaving in one
way or another.
 Trisomy 21
Another example of how biology can affect our behavior at the chromosomal level can be
found with people who suffer from Down’s syndrome.
These individuals are born with a chromosomal abnormality called trisomy 21, which results
in three chromosomes instead of the usual pair. The effect of this is mental retardation,
poor health and a shortened lifespan.
Whether or not biology is our ultimate destiny is open to debate, because as is shown with
feral children, even though our genetics may give us the potential to achieve something, it is
the environment which ultimately determines whether or not we will realize that potential.
 Sperm, Ovum & Chromosomes
Life begins when a sperm (spermatozoon) provided by the father unites with an egg (ovum)
provided by the mother. Both the sperm and egg contain twenty-three single
chromosomes, and when the ovum is fertilized, these chromosomes combine to form
twenty-three pairs of chromosomes.
Through the process of mitosis, these chromosomal pairs in the fertilized egg are replicated
into daughter cells which each contain the same number of chromosomes as the original
egg. These daughter cells then continue to divide, eventually producing billions of cells.
Each chromosome contains a series of genes, which are ultimately responsible for the
various characteristics that we develop when we are born and then display throughout our
life. For example, one person may have a gene that gives them blonde hair, whilst another
person may have a gene that gives them brown hair.
These genes, and their resulting characteristics, are inherited from both the mother and
father. They are therefore, passed on from generation to generation through the process of
sexual reproduction.
 Conception & Birth
There are four stages associated with conception and birth:
1) Zygote
A zygote is a fertilized egg which is formed when the sperm and ovum unite. This stage
lasts for about one week, and is characterized by the division of one single cell into a
large group of cells.
2) Embryo
After the zygote has been formed, its cells continue to divide and replicate forming a
structure known as the embryo. This occurs from weeks one to seven. During this stage,
the cells begin to differentiate (become specialized) and form three distinct embryonic
layers.
 The ectoderm
Ectoderm means outside skin, and will eventually become the sense organs, skin and
nervous system.
 The mesoderm
Mesoderm means middle skin, and will eventually become the heart, bones, connective
tissue and muscles.
 The endoderm
Endoderm means inside skin, and will eventually become the inner lining of the
stomach, intestines and lungs.
3) Foetus
From weeks seven to birth the embryo becomes the foetus, during which time the cells
of the foetus continue to divide and become more specialized.
During this period, cells such as brain cells, skin cells and hair cells are formed, and later,
the body will start to form as the head and limbs begin to appear.
 The foetal stage typically lasts for around seven months, which makes the time from
conception to birth around nine months.
4) Neonate
Neo means “new” and nate means “birth”. A neonate is therefore a newborn,
something that most people simply refer to as a baby. Technically, a baby is an infant,
which is a neonate that has gained weight after birth and can neither walk nor talk.
II. Psychosexual Development Theory
Sigmund Freud’s theory of development attempts to explain how we form our sexual
identity, our attitudes towards sexual behavior and our emotional reactions to sex. He
called this theory “Psychosexual Development”, because Freud believed that sexual
development was more psychological in nature than it was biological.
So psychosexual development could be rephrased as “the psychology of sexual
development “, which studies the mental and emotional aspects of sexual development.
Stages of Psychosexual Development
According to Freud, our sex drive causes us to seek pleasure in different parts of our body
during the various stages of psychosexual development.
Freud called this sex drive our psychosexual energy or libido, which we use to experience
pleasure in our erogenous zones (i.e. areas of the body associated with sexual pleasure)
during the five different stages of psychosexual development. The main erogenous zones
are the mouth, anus and genitals.
1. Oral (birth to 18 months)
In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It
gets much satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and
thus its id demands.  Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as
sucking, biting, and breastfeeding. 
Freud said oral stimulation could lead to an oral fixation in later life.  We see oral
personalities all around us such as smokers, nail-biters, finger-chewers, and thumb suckers. 
Oral personalities engage in such oral behaviors, particularly when under stress.
2. Anal (18 months to three years)
The anal stage lasts for about one to two years, the libido now becomes focused on the
anus, and the child derives great pleasure from defecating.  The child is now fully aware that
they are a person in their own right and that their wishes can bring them into conflict with
the demands of the outside world (i.e., their ego has developed). 
Freud believed that this type of conflict tends to come to a head in potty training, in which
adults impose restrictions on when and where the child can defecate.  The nature of this
first conflict with authority can determine the child's future relationship with all forms of
authority.
Early or harsh potty training can lead to the child becoming an anal-retentive personality
who hates mess, is obsessively tidy, punctual and respectful of authority.  They can be
stubborn and tight-fisted with their cash and possessions.
This is all related to pleasure got from holding on to their faeces when toddlers, and their
mum's then insisting that they get rid of it by placing them on the potty until they perform!
Not as daft as it sounds.  The anal expulsive, on the other hand, underwent a liberal toilet-
training regime during the anal stage.
In adulthood, the anal expulsive is the person who wants to share things with you.  They like
giving things away.  In essence, they are 'sharing their s**t'!'  An anal-expulsive personality
is also messy, disorganized and rebellious.
3. Phallic (ages three to six)
Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes)
becomes a new source of pleasure.
The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in motion the conflict
between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud called the
Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls). 
This is resolved through the process of identification, which involves the child adopting the
characteristics of the same sex parent.
4. Latency (age six to puberty)
No further psychosexual development takes place during this stage (latent means
hidden). The libido is dormant.
 Freud thought that most sexual impulses are repressed during the latent stage, and sexual
energy can be sublimated (re: defense mechanisms) towards school work, hobbies, and
friendships. 
Much of the child's energy is channeled into developing new skills and acquiring new
knowledge, and play becomes largely confined to other children of the same gender.
5. Genital (puberty to adult)
This is the last stage of Freud's psychosexual theory of personality development and begins
in puberty.  It is a time of adolescent sexual experimentation, the successful resolution of
which is settling down in a loving one-to-one relationship with another person in our 20's.
Sexual instinct is directed to heterosexual pleasure, rather than self-pleasure like during the
phallic stage. 
For Freud, the proper outlet of the sexual instinct in adults was through heterosexual
intercourse.  Fixation and conflict may prevent this with the consequence that sexual
perversions may develop. 
For example, fixation at the oral stage may result in a person gaining sexual pleasure
primarily from kissing and oral sex, rather than sexual intercourse.
III. Erikson’s Psychosocial Development Theory
Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual development which places great emphasis on sex,
Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development focuses more on the choices that people
make and the conflicts they face during the different stages of their life.
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development has eight stages. Within each stage, there are
different types of conflicts that an individual must resolve, and if they are unable to do so,
they will struggle with those conflicts later in life.
For each of these stages, the first attribute is considered to be a positive or desirable
personality trait. For example, autonomy is a positive trait. The second attribute is
considered to be a negative or undesirable trait. For example, isolation is a negative trait.
So basically, Erikson’s theory is about the challenges we face in life, and whether or not we
are able to overcome those challenges to form certain desirable (positive) traits.
The eight stages of psychosocial development in more detail are:
I. Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 2 years old)
Trust vs. mistrust is a stage associated with infancy, and lasts until we are two years of
age. If an infant develops a sense of trust as a result of being looked after, attended to and
loved by its parents, then that infant will be happy and in good health.
However, if the infant develops a sense of mistrust as a result of being neglected or treated
poorly by its parents, they will display a lack of interest in their surroundings and have poor
health. These are characteristics associated with infantile depression, which may then result
in adult depression later in life.
So overall, this stage can be summarized by saying that if the infant is looked after well
(develops trust) it will be happy and healthy. But if the infant is looked after poorly
(develops mistrust) it will be depressed and unhealthy.
II. Autonomy vs Shame and doubt (2-3 years old)
The stage of autonomy vs. shame and doubt occurs during year’s two to three
(toddlerhood).
A toddler with a sense of autonomy will be interested in exploring their surroundings, and
will constantly be looking for new things to stimulate (mentally) themselves with. They will
tend to perform this exploration by themselves, and as a result, may appear to wander off
randomly or try to escape from their parents somehow to explore new surroundings.
A toddler with a sense of shame and doubt will tend to do the opposite. They will be more
withdrawn, appear to lack confidence and not venture too far into areas that they have not
been before.
So this stage can be summarized by saying that a child with autonomy likes to explore new
things, whereas a child with shame and doubt does not. One is confident, the other isn’t.
III. Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 years old)
The initiative vs. guilt stage occurs during years three to six (preschool children).
A preschooler with a sense of initiative will tend to complete tasks that they start. For
example, if they start to draw a picture they will keep drawing until they finish it. A
preschooler with a sense of guilt will tend not to seek challenges, and tends to hold back
expressing who they are and what they would like to do.
This stage can be summarized by saying that a preschooler with initiative expresses who
they are, whereas a preschooler with guilt does not.
IV. Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 years old)
Industry vs. inferiority is associated with children aged six to twelve years old. Children with
a sense of industry show an interest in school work, tasks they are given at home and
display a responsible attitude.
Children with a sense of inferiority will tend to display the opposite type of behavior, such
as being uninterested in school work or tasks they are given, because they feel that they are
not good enough to complete those tasks successfully. This sense of inferiority can become
further entrenched if that child is criticized by their parents or other people.
So we can summarize this stage by saying that a child with a sense of industry is one who is
interested in challenges and enjoys responsibility, being somewhat confident in their
abilities to complete the tasks that they are given.
Children with a sense of inferiority however, do not like responsibility or being given tasks
to complete. They feel that if they are given these tasks, or given responsibility, that they
won’t be able to complete them very well and so will be criticized as a result.
V. Identity vs Role confusion (12-18 years old)
The identity vs. role confusion stage is associated with adolescence, with includes years
twelve to eighteen.
An adolescent with a sense of identity will feel as though they know where they are going in
life, or at least what they would like to be when they are older. As a result, they go
throughout adolescence with that goal in mind, and tend to have a high level of self-esteem
because their life has direction and a sense of purpose.
Adolescents with a sense of role confusion feel as though they have no direction or purpose
in life, and feel unsure as to what the future holds for them. They are unlikely to have any
long-term goals, and their behavior could best be described as drifting aimlessly through
life. They are also likely to have low self-esteem.
So in summary, an adolescent with a sense of identity knows what they want to be when
they are older. Whereas an adolescent with a sense of role confusion, is uncertain as to
what they will be or do when they are older.
VI. Intimacy vs Isolation (18 onwards)
The intimacy vs. isolation stage is associated with early adulthood, and tends to begin at age
eighteen when adolescence ends. However, it is important to note that the stage of
adulthood may be delayed somewhat, until the adolescent is able to form a sense of
identity (i.e. they know what they want to do with their life).
As a result, an “adult” (someone aged over 18) may not technically enter adulthood even if
they are in their twenties, thirties or older. Unless they are able to form a sense of identity,
they will feel as though they are somewhat trapped in adolescence (like they have never
really matured fully from school).
An adult who is capable of intimacy will tend to form close bonds with people, such as by
forming friends and having romantic relationships with members of the opposite sex,
eventually, leading to marriage.
An adult with a sense of isolation finds it difficult to form relationships with people, and is
unable to understand what other people are thinking or feeling. As a result they spend most
of the time by themselves, with little or no friends.
This stage can be summarized by saying that an adult with intimacy can form close
relationships with people, whereas an adult with isolation cannot.
VII. Generativity vs Self-absorption (adult)
An adult with the trait of generativity is capable of productive work, which they usually
undertake for several years. This trait is also linked to helping others in some way, for
example, a mother who looks after her children. An adult with a trait of self-absorption is
more concerned with themselves rather than other people.
This stage can be summarized by saying that a person with generativity likes to give
something to others, whereas a person with the trait of self-absorption likes to take things
from others.
VIII. Integrity vs Despair (old age)
The stage of integrity vs. despair is associated with old age.
A person with a trait of integrity can face death with peace of mind, because they know that
their life has been lived to the fullest and that they have achieved the things they wanted to
do in life.
 A person with a trait of despair feels a sense of desperation as their life draws to a close,
because they feel that they have wasted it and not been able to do the things they hoped to
do.
In summary, a person with integrity can accept death, but a person with despair wishes for
a second chance and for more time before they die.

References
Fisher, S., & Greenberg, R. P. (1996). Freud scientifically reappraised: Testing the
theories and therapy. John Wiley & Sons.

Freud, S. (1905). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Se, 7.